1588 defeat of the invincible armada. Defeated invincible. The defeat of the Invincible Armada is a historical myth

In the 21st century, the media are often accused of creating fake news aimed at achieving certain propaganda goals.

In fact, this practice is as old as time. During the Crimean War, the English media were full of reports from correspondents talking about the atrocities of Russian sailors finishing off the unfortunate Turks after a naval battle. British citizens, horrified by the cruelty of “official St. Petersburg,” passionately advocated for a military expedition against the “bloody Russians.”

Protestants vs. Catholics: a little faith, a lot of business

But these are minor things. There have been fakes in history on a much larger scale. Many people remember from school that the expression “invincible armada” became a symbol of a crushing defeat, a military catastrophe. And this name came from the name of the grandiose Spanish fleet, defeated by the British. Moreover, it was so crushed that it allegedly led to Spain losing its status as a great maritime power.

In reality, things were somewhat different.

In 1585, war broke out between England and Spain. The reason for it was London's support for Protestant rebels in the Netherlands, which was the possession of the Spanish crown.

The problem was actually not only in the Netherlands. Pirates in English service attacked caravans of ships carrying gold and other valuables from the colonies in America to Spain, causing significant damage to Madrid. In addition, the British tried to extend their influence to Portugal, neighboring Spain, by supporting a candidate loyal to them in the struggle for the throne. Spain, in turn, provided assistance to the rebels in Ireland who opposed English rule.

Philip II's big dream

King Philip II of Spain decided to take extreme measures. Having assembled a fleet of 130 ships, divided into 6 squadrons, he planned to land an army of about 30,000 people in Britain, defeat the English forces and restore Catholicism in the country.

It cannot be said that the hopes of Philip II were groundless. The position of Catholics in England at that time was quite strong. Emphasizing the religious component of the campaign, the king of Spain assembled an entire “army” of priests—180 people—for the fleet, called the “Invincible Armada.”

The idea of ​​the expedition belonged to the Spanish Admiral Alvaro de Bazan, Marchioness of Santa Cruz. However, while preparations were underway, the admiral died and command was transferred to Alonso Perez de Guzman, Duke of Medina Sidonia.

The Duke was a good organizer, but was not endowed with the talents of a naval commander, which seriously affected the outcome of the entire campaign.

The Duke prophesies disaster

On May 29, 1588, about 130 ships left the harbor of Lisbon, carrying 30,500 people, including 18,973 soldiers, 8,050 sailors, 2,088 slave rowers, 1,389 officers, nobles, priests and doctors.

The Armada did not manage to go far - due to a powerful storm it had to make a stop at the port of La Coruña.

The Duke of Medina Sidonia, having assessed the situation, honestly reported to the king - the situation was unfavorable, food supplies were insufficient, and there were many sick people among the sailors. The commander warned that there was a high risk of failure of the whole venture. But Philip II was already set on the victory of Catholicism in England and was not going to change his plans.

There could be no talk of any surprise in such conditions. When the "Invincible Armada" finally approached the shores of England, it was met there by the assembled Queen Elizabeth I a force consisting not only of the regular British navy, but also of Dutch ships, as well as pirates led by Francis Drake.

Illustration from the book "Royal Navy".

"Decisive" battle

The Spanish ships were much heavier, and their armament was based on a large number of melee cannons. Light British ships had an advantage in maneuver, and with their long-range guns they could hit the enemy while remaining invulnerable to return fire.

In minor skirmishes in early August 1588, the pirates were most successful. Drake, for example, managed to capture one of the badly damaged Spanish ships. However, this did not bring a decisive advantage to the British.

The Armada anchored off Calais, awaiting the approach of the allied forces led by the Spanish Viceroy of the Netherlands Duke of Parma. However, the actions of the British, strong winds and currents prevented the Spaniards from receiving help.

On August 8, 1588, the Battle of Gravelines took place, which is considered the main one in the history of the defeat of the “Invincible Armada”. By this time, the British ships were able to obtain new supplies of gunpowder and cannonballs, but for the Spaniards the situation was close to critical.

The nine-hour firefight showed that the British artillery had a significant superiority over the Spanish. The British sank two enemy ships and damaged several more. Several ships ran aground due to damage and were captured by the British and their allies.

Spanish gun from the ship Duquesa Santa Ana. Ulster Museum. Photo: Commons.wikimedia.org / Bazonka

Storm and disease are worse than guns

However, there was no talk of any decisive victory. The British were cautious, fearing a boarding battle. The commander of the Armada, Duke of Medina Sidonia, in turn, came to the conclusion that under the current conditions he could not achieve his goals, and gave the order to leave.

The British did not conduct a long pursuit, fearing Spanish cunning and realizing that the Armada still had enough strength. But in fact, the Spaniards, having rounded Scotland, entered the Atlantic and headed home.

And this is where the real disaster occurred. This area was new to the Spanish captains. The ships of the Armada were scattered by storms, some of them crashed off the coast of Ireland, some simply sank. On those ships that survived, many sailors were washed overboard, while the rest suffered from hunger and disease.

By mid-October 1588, about half of the ships participating in the campaign returned to Spain.

The blow for Spain was serious, but far from fatal. The pride of Philip II suffered most of all - the idea of ​​​​restoring Catholicism in England suffered a complete collapse.

Return visit of the "English Armada"

The British began to extol their success, declaring that it became possible solely thanks to God's will.

The British were so convinced that Spain was broken to smithereens and would never rise again that in 1589 they sent their fleet, known as the English Armada, to the shores of Spain.

The trip cost a lot of money, so it had to be sponsored by a combination of Elizabeth I herself and the English and Dutch rich. Each of the “sponsors” had their own plans for this campaign and each tried to set their own goals for the fleet. As a result, the “English Armada” was given several difficult (and multidirectional) tasks at once: to burn the Spanish navy in the Atlantic, to capture ships coming from America with a load of silver, to organize an anti-Spanish uprising in Portugal and to create a base for the English fleet in the Azores. A significant part of the “sponsors” (including Drake himself) directly hoped to recoup their costs by plundering weakly defended Spanish cities.

The command was entrusted to the same Drake. The English Armada included six royal galleons, 60 English armed merchant ships, 60 Dutch punts and about 20 pinnaces.

At first, everything turned out well for the British - having attacked La Coruña, they destroyed 13 ships in the harbor, captured part of the city, killing several hundred Spaniards and gaining wine cellars at their disposal.

Francis Drake's failure

However, the British never completely took La Coruña - the defenders withstood the siege, causing serious damage to the enemy. The siege of Lisbon, which could not be taken without heavy guns, also ended in nothing. In any case, it was the absence of such weapons that Drake referred to.

To top it all off, the pirates made a mistake and captured French merchant ships. Despite the fact that France was not only a “neutral” country in this case, the English treasury during the last wars incurred huge debts, including to France. Elizabeth herself had to apologize.

Soon Drake realized that it was time to get out - the losses were growing, the “gentlemen of fortune” who had joined the campaign in the hope of easy prey deserted en masse, and epidemics began on the ships.

Like the Spaniards, the British suffered the main losses on the way back - if the Spaniards destroyed 14 ships of the English Armada, more than 20 died as a result of storms. The English Armada lost up to 15,000 people killed, wounded and died from disease.

Peace under the status quo

The Anglo-Spanish War lasted until 1604, ending with the Peace of London, which was concluded by the successors of the previous monarchs - James I And Philip III. In fact, the agreement was drawn up on the terms of the “status quo” - the parties did not acquire any territories, the Spaniards pledged to no longer support Catholicism in England, and the British refused further assistance to the rebellious Netherlands.

The Spaniards lost in one area - PR. It never occurred to them to glorify the defeat of Drake’s “Armada” as much as the British did with their victory over the “Invincible Armada”.

430 years ago, on August 8, 1588, during the Anglo-Spanish War, the English fleet dealt a strong blow to the Spanish “Invincible Armada.” The huge Spanish fleet, intended to land an amphibious army in England, was half destroyed by English ships and a storm. The era of British dominance begins.

Background

In the 16th century, Europeans were able to make a leap beyond the Old World. The era of the so-called has begun. "Great Geographical Discoveries". Western predators reached America, circled Africa and “discovered” India, China and other countries in South and Southeast Asia. The division of the world began. Europeans “discovered” new lands (most often they were known, but previously the paws of European murderers and marauders could not reach them), captured, robbed and enslaved. Their victims were millions, tens of millions of people all over the planet. Entire civilizations and cultures perished, ancient states fell and were plundered, previously powerful nations and tribes were destroyed and turned into slaves.

The leading role in predatory colonization at this time belonged to Spain and Portugal, which even divided the world among themselves (with the blessing of the Pope). Relentless conquistadors destroyed entire states, Spanish ships dominated the oceans and brought gold, silver, precious stones, etc. to the metropolis. After the young Portuguese king Sebastian I died in North Africa in 1578 - the Battle of El Ksar- El Kebire, and along with him most of the Portuguese army died, Portugal found itself in a deep crisis. The king did not leave an heir, a dynastic crisis and a war for the throne began. The Spanish king Philip II in 1580, using military force, achieved recognition of his rights to the Portuguese throne (on his mother’s side, his grandfather was King Manuel I of Portugal, and his grandmother was Maria of Aragon, so he had the formal right to claim the throne). In 1581, Philip II arrived in Lisbon and was crowned King Philip I of Portugal. The period of the Iberian Union began - a personal union of the crowns of Spain and Portugal in the years 1580-1640. As King of Portugal, Philip also received its overseas possessions: Brazil and ports in Africa and Asia. Also during his reign, Spain established control over the Philippines and a number of other islands in the Pacific Ocean (The Philippines was named after King Philip II.) Having studied the winds and currents of the Pacific Ocean, the Spaniards established a regular trade route between Acapulco, Mexico, and Manila.

Map of the Spanish and Portuguese Empires during the Union

The Spanish Empire reached the peak of its power. Gold, silver, spices, and fabrics arrived in an endless stream to the Iberian Peninsula. Wealth led to cultural upsurge - the so-called. "Golden Age" of Spain. But, apparently, it was this flow of gold and silver that stopped the development of the country. The Spanish elite decayed and enriched themselves, forgetting about development. Huge revenues were spent on luxury and the restoration of the dominance of the Catholic Church in Europe (Counter-Reformation) and the dominance of the Habsburgs in European politics. At the same time, the most powerful power in the West remained mainly agrarian, the old feudal order continued to operate in the country, and intolerant Catholicism was the leading ideology. The Catholic Church and the Inquisition turned out to be closely connected with the state apparatus and carried out bloody repressions against the Moors, Moriscos (Moors who converted to Christianity) and Jews, who in many ways represented the most developed part of the country's trade and craft population. Spain was constantly at war (with Turkey and African Muslim pirates, England, enemies of Catholicism in France, Dutch rebels, opponents of the Habsburgs in Germany), which cost huge amounts of money necessary for the development of the country. Thus, Spanish policy led to the Dutch uprising and revolution in 1566 (the Netherlands were then under Spanish rule). To finance wars and the needs of the court and the Spanish nobility, taxes were introduced that were ruinous for the population, and external and internal loans were taken. Under King Philip II (reigned 1556 - 1598), the tax burden on Castilians almost quadrupled. Philip inherited about 20 million in public debt from his father and left his heir five times as much debt. During his reign, his treasury declared partial default on its short-term loans to Genoese, German and Dutch bankers three times (1557, 1575 and 1596), but many of them lent again to the Spanish crown, knowing that they would be repaid with American silver. All this worsened the situation of the bulk of the population and further suppressed the development of trade and crafts, causing degradation of the national economy, which in the future led to the military-strategic defeat of Spain from the Protestant countries of North-Western Europe.

It is clear that Spain's dominance in the New World did not suit other European predators. Her wealth and possessions caused burning envy. In particular, in the second half of the 16th century. England is also increasingly asserting its territorial claims. The British also wanted to participate in global plunder (“primitive capital accumulation”). At the same time, London claims to be the new “command post” of European (Western) civilization. The old "command post" was Rome. Representatives of the Italian aristocracy settled in London - Mediterranean trade no longer brought in the same income, the Ottoman Empire blocked the path to the East. In England, they are beginning to form a new form of slave-owning order - capitalism. Unlike Spain, England quickly moved along the path of technical, political and social progress. Through the most brutal and bloody “fencing”, the peasants are driven off the land and turned into completely powerless factory workers “free” from the land and the tools of labor. Beggars and vagabonds who did not go to workhouses were sent to the scaffold and gallows without discussion. Tens of thousands of people were executed during Elizabeth's reign. Through the cruelest exploitation of factory workers (people were literally driven into coffins), capital is formed. Merchants, owners of factories and ships increased their influence, and cities grew. The English Church did not submit to Rome; the English monarch himself became its head. Thus, London is gradually becoming the new “command post” of the West, and the preconditions are being created for the creation of a global colonial empire, the “workshop of the world” and the “mistress of the seas.” But for complete victory, England needed to crush Spain's naval hegemony.

A conflict begins between two Western predators - the old and the young model of the “new world order”. Spain represented the “old order” - based on Catholicism, traditional feudalism; England - the “new order”, Protestantism with its division of people into the “chosen” (rich) and losers (poor) and predatory capitalism with the cruelest exploitation of the common people. Thus, it was a struggle between England and Spain (and the papacy behind it) for leadership in the Western project and for dominance in the world.

Portrait of King Philip II of Spain by an unknown artist (16th century)

War

Formally, the interests of the two powers at this time collided in a number of places. Firstly, the Spanish king Philip II had claims to the English throne. While still heir to the throne, in 1554, Philip married Mary Tudor, Queen of England. When Mary died, he wanted to marry her successor Elizabeth, but the latter rejected this matchmaking. Secondly, the Spanish king wanted England to return to the fold of Catholicism. He was pushed to this by both Pope Gregory XIII (d. 1585) and his successor Sixtus V. And English Catholic emigrants repeatedly called on Philip to extend the Counter-Reformation to England. The Spanish king was irritated by the fact that Elizabeth I pursued a tough policy towards English Catholics and was the spiritual head of Protestants throughout Europe. The Spanish aristocracy wanted to punish the English "heretics".

Thirdly, England supported the Dutch rebels. Spain had been fighting rebels in the Netherlands since 1567. The British unofficially supported the rebels, but Queen Elizabeth I of England, wishing to avoid a head-on collision with powerful Spain, did not officially announce her intervention in the Dutch War. In 1584, Philip II concluded the Treaty of Joinville with the French Catholic League to prevent the Huguenot Henry of Navarre from ascending the throne of France. Fearing that Spain would act in alliance with France, in 1585 the English queen sent the Earl of Leicester with 6 thousand to the Netherlands as lord regent. squad. London also promised to pay annual subsidies to fight the Spaniards. This became the most important principle of British policy, and in the future of the United States - to financially support various rebels, rebels, revolutionaries, weakening and undermining the forces of their competitors. Philip II naturally took this as a declaration of war.

Fourthly, English pirates constantly harassed Spanish ships and caused damage to the colonial empire, its trade and sea communications. The former leaders of the robbery industry, the French, were mired in their civil war, but the British quickly mastered the profitable “business”. Plymouth became the main base of the pirates. With the permission and support of London, numerous pirate ships set out to sea to attack Spanish ships carrying colonial goods and silver that raided the Spanish coast in the New World. Constant attacks by English pirates on Spanish possessions in America and ships, which took place with the tacit support of Elizabeth I personally (she shared a share with the pirates), undermined the economy of the Habsburg Empire and royal finances, and dealt a blow to the prestige of Spain. The Spaniards had to introduce a ban on single voyages and equip the Silver or Gold Fleet (Spanish: Flota de Indias - “fleet of the Indies”), intended for the export of various valuables from the American colonies to Europe.

Another source of income for the English “gentlemen of fortune” was the slave trade. The Portuguese could not control the entire coast of Africa. Portugal exported slaves mainly from the Congo and Angola, and the British operated further north, in Nigeria, buying people from local leaders and taking them to America. Spanish landowners willingly bought people; labor was at a premium (the Indians were bad slaves - they quickly died in captivity).

The most successful pirates became rich and national heroes. John Hawkins became rich in the slave trade, became a piracy, and became a member of parliament and treasurer of the royal navy. His son Richard plundered the city of Valparaiso. The young pirate Walter Raleigh made two raids in the West Indies, for which he received a knighthood and became the queen's favorite. Elizabeth showered him with favors and rewards. Raleigh became one of the richest men in England.

One of the famous pirates favored by the English crown was Francis Drake. His trip around the world in 1577 - 1580. (second in line after Magellan) pursued reconnaissance and predatory purposes. The predatory campaign was extremely successful - Drake passed through the Strait of Magellan, along the Pacific coast of South America to the north, attacking Spanish ports, including Valparaiso, and then explored the coast well north of the Spanish colonies, approximately to modern Vancouver. On June 17, 1579, Drake allegedly landed in the San Francisco area (according to another hypothesis, in modern Oregon) and declared this coast an English possession (“New Albion”). Drake then crossed the Pacific Ocean and reached the Moluccas. Having bypassed Africa from the south, Drake returned to England, bringing looted treasures worth 600 thousand pounds sterling, an amount twice the annual income of the English kingdom. Drake was hailed as a national hero and awarded a knighthood. During his next expedition to the West Indies, Drake ravaged the Spanish harbors of Vigo, Santo Domingo (on the island of Haiti), Cartagena (in New Granada) and San Augustin (in Florida). In 1587 he became famous for his daring attack on the Spanish port of Cadiz. It is not surprising that the Spaniards frightened their children with his pirate name; in their literature he was allegorically depicted as a dragon.

At the same time, Drake used new naval combat tactics. Previously, the ship with the most guns was considered the winner. Drake contrasted the large and clumsy Spanish ships with speed and maneuverability. On his galleon "Golden Hind" Drake proved this more than once. With the help of special projectiles - knipples (consisted of two massive cast iron parts - cores, connected by an iron rod, later by a chain), the pirates destroyed the rigging of the enemy ship, immobilizing it. After which the ship could be calmly shot, persuaded to surrender, or boarded.

Thus, Madrid had every reason to carry out a large-scale operation to eliminate the hostile and arrogant Elizabethan regime. The direct reason for the launch of the offensive was the pirate raids on Spanish ships and settlements in the Caribbean Sea, carried out by Drake in 1585–1586. Finally, in February 1587, Mary Stuart, the Scottish queen who also claimed the English throne, was executed for participating in a conspiracy against Elizabeth, and Philip wanted to avenge her death. Preparations began for a grandiose military expedition to England.

Spanish commander of the Armada Don Alonso Perez de Guzman y de Zúñiga Sotomayor, 7th Duke of Medina Sidonia

Invincible armada

When financing the expedition, the Spanish king relied on loans from Italian and German bankers, regular revenues from the royal treasury, and wealth collected in the colonies. He collected from all fleets (Mediterranean and Atlantic, Portuguese, as well as the allies) more than 130 large and medium-sized ships (with a total displacement of more than 59,000 tons with 2,630 guns on board) and 30 auxiliaries. The squadron was called the "Invincible Armada" by the Spaniards. The fleet was prepared in Cadiz and Lisbon. The ships accommodated 8 thousand sailors and 19 thousand soldiers. They were to be joined for the landing in England by 30 thousand. an army stationed in the Netherlands under the command of Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma.

Small flat-bottomed ships were built in Flanders. They planned to transfer troops to the Armada ships. It is worth noting that landing an airborne army in England was a sound idea, since England actually did not have an army. The Queen had a small guard and the defense of the country was entrusted to local militias - poorly trained and armed, which Spanish soldiers and European mercenaries could easily disperse. That is, if the Spaniards were able to land an army, then Elizabeth’s regime would fall.

The organization of the squadron was initially carried out by one of the heroes of Lepanto, the experienced admiral Don Alvaro de Basan, Marquis of Santa Cruz, but he did not live to see its departure. Alonso Perez de Guzman, Duke of Medina Sidonia, an intelligent man, but little familiar with maritime affairs and indecisive, was appointed to replace Santa Cruz. Realizing his incompetence, he even tried to recuse himself, but to no avail.

The Spanish flagship, the galleon "San Martin" in battle with English ships. By Cornelis Hendricks Vrom. The ship was built in 1580. The galleon had a total length of approximately 55 meters, a width of approximately 12 meters. It carried more than 40 heavy cannons on two decks, and a mass of smaller calibers. The ship had a displacement of approximately 1000 tons. The ship escaped destruction and returned to Spain.

Drake's Raid

The English and Dutch knew about these plans of Philip since 1586. In order to prevent the connection of the land army of the Duke of Parma with the Spanish fleet, the commander-in-chief of the English fleet, Lord Howard, Baron of Effingham, sent small squadrons under the command of Winter and Seymour to patrol the coast along with the Dutch. And Francis Drake suggested that Elizabeth I launch a preemptive strike and attack Spanish ships right in the ports. On April 12, 1587, the English fleet sailed from Plymouth and headed for the shores of Spain. Elizabeth placed under Drake's command four galleons (Bonaventure, Golden Lion, Fear Nothing and Rainbow) and about 20 armed ships. On April 29, Drake and his ships entered the Bay of Cadiz. Their appearance came as a complete surprise to the Spaniards. The sailors of many ships were on the shore, and the ships were not ready for battle. Meanwhile, Drake's squadron entered into battle with the galleys guarding the port. Two of them were disabled, and the rest retreated under the protection of coastal artillery. The British began to capture Spanish ships one after another: the most valuable cargoes were captured, after which the ships themselves were set on fire.

The next day, Drake led a flotilla of pinnaces (a small sailing and rowing vessel), which broke through to the inner roadstead. There, the British burned a galleon that belonged to the Spanish commander Alvaro de Basan himself. On the night of April 30 to May 1, the Spaniards tried to use fire ships against the English pirates, but were unsuccessful, and only increased the confusion and fire in the port. At dawn on May 1, the English squadron left the harbor of Cadiz. Of the 60 carracks (large sailing ship) and a large number of other ships moored there, the British burned or sent to the bottom from 24 (according to the Spaniards) to 38 ships (according to Drake himself). The British then headed north along the Iberian coast. At Sagres, the British landed troops and captured the city fortress, as well as the forts of Belishe and Baleira. Drake ordered the heavy guns from Sagres to be transported to his ships, and the fortress itself to be destroyed. The fleet then stopped at Cascais, near Lisbon. All the way along the coast, Drake's squadron destroyed merchant and fishing ships, the cargo of which (water, wine, corned beef, ship timber, etc.) was intended primarily for the Spanish fleet.

De Basan, who was in Lisbon with his ships, did not dare to go out to sea and give battle to the enemy: his galleons and galleys were not fully equipped, their crews were not complete. The British could not attack the port because of its strong fortifications. Drake sent de Basan an offer to accept the battle, but was refused. Realizing that it would not be possible to lure the Spaniards out of Lisbon, Drake took his ships back to Sagres. On June 1, after ten days of rest, the squadron left Sagres. Along the way, Drake captured a rich prize - a karakka coming from Goa with a large cargo of gold, spices and silk (worth 108 thousand pounds sterling). During the entire campaign off the coast of Portugal and Spain, Drake's squadron destroyed more than 100 ships with various supplies. This delayed the launch of the “Invincible Armada” for more than a year, but could not force the Spaniards to completely abandon the idea of ​​landing in England.

English pirate and admiral Francis Drake

March of the Armada

In the same year, in order to prepare a base on the Dutch coast, Farnese's troops besieged and on August 5 captured the port of Sluys, defended by an English garrison. A canal was also dug from Sas van Ghent to Bruges and the Yperle fairway from Bruges to Nieuport was deepened so that ships approaching the shore would not come under fire from the Dutch fleet or the cannons of the Vlissingen fortress. Troops were transferred from Spain, Italy, Germany and Burgundy and volunteers flocked in to take part in the expedition against England. Farnese saw that the harbors of Dunkirk, Newport and Sluys at the disposal of the Spaniards were too shallow for the heavy ships of the Spanish fleet to enter. He proposed to capture the deeper-water port of Vlissingen before sending the Armada to the coast of England. However, Philip hurried to begin the operation as soon as possible.

The Armada left Lisbon on May 9, 1588. The main forces of the fleet were divided into 6 squadrons: Portugal, Castile, Vizcaya, Guipuzkoa, Andalusia and Levant. In addition to soldiers, sailors and oarsmen, there were 300 priests on board the ships, ready to revive Catholicism in the British Isles. The storm drove the Armada to La Coruña, from where, after repairs, the ships went to sea again only on July 22.

After much debate, the English commander, Charles Howard, agreed to Drake's plan to remove 54 of the best English ships from Plymouth harbor and try to destroy the Spanish fleet before it went to sea. However, a change in the wind prevented this operation, and on July 29, 1588, the Armada appeared near the Isles of Scilly off the western tip of the Cornwall peninsula. The first collision occurred in sight of Plymouth on July 31st. The Spaniards lost three ships here, and the British suffered almost no damage.

The English ships were superior to the Spanish in maneuverability; they were commanded by experienced admirals Drake, Howard, Hawkins, and Frobisher. Dutch ships manned by experienced sailors also came to the aid of the British. The English ships did not carry troops with various supplies, which gave them an advantage in speed and maneuver. In battles, the British also used the advantage of their artillery, not allowing the enemy closer than a cannon shot and thereby preventing them from boarding, using the numerical advantage of the crews. The Spaniards had mostly heavy, clumsy high-sided ships, with many short-range guns. With massive towers at the bow and stern, they resembled floating fortresses, well suited for close combat. The British ships were lower, but more maneuverable. In addition, they were equipped with a large number of long-range cannons. For every shot from the Armada ship, the British responded with three.

The Armada continued sailing northeast, deep into the English Channel. The Spanish fleet was located in a crescent: at the edges were the strongest warships, under their cover in the center slow merchant and cargo ships were grouped. In addition, a vanguard (actually a rearguard) of the best ships under the command of Recalde was deployed closer to the enemy. No matter from which side the enemy approached, this detachment had to turn around and repel the attack. The rest of the fleet was required to maintain formation and not lose mutual support. Taking advantage of their advantage in maneuverability, the British went into the wind of the Spaniards from the very beginning. From this vantage point they could attack or avoid combat at will. The British pursued the Armada as it moved across the English Channel, harassing it with attacks. However, it was not possible for a long time to break the Spanish defensive order.

Throughout the English Channel, the two fleets exchanged fire and fought several small battles. Plymouth was followed by skirmishes at Start Point (1 August), Portland Bill (2 August) and the Isle of Wight (3–4 August). The defensive tactics adopted by the Spaniards paid off: the British did not manage to sink a single Spanish ship with the help of long-range guns. However, the Spaniards lost two badly damaged ships. The Duke of Medina Sidonia sent a fleet to meet the Duke of Parma and his troops. While awaiting a response from the Duke of Parma, Medina Sidonia ordered the fleet to anchor off Calais.

The English fleet again approached the Spanish in the dead of night from 7 to 8 August, when the Armada anchored opposite Calais in the Strait of Dover. Lord Howard sent eight burning fireships straight into the center of the Spanish fleet. The signal was raised from the flagship ship to “immediately set sail.” Many of the Spanish ships had only time to cut off the anchor ropes, after which they rushed away in panic and confusion. One large Spanish galleas ran aground and many ships suffered significant damage.

Without giving the enemy the opportunity to regroup, the British again attacked the Spaniards the next morning (Battle of Gravelines). During the eight-hour battle, the Spanish ships were carried away on the banks northeast of Calais, opposite Gravelines. It seemed that the Spanish fleet was about to inevitably run aground, delivering an easy victory to the British. However, the northwest wind changed to the southwest and carried the Spanish ships into the waters of the North Sea. The British managed to sink one or two Spanish ships and damage several more. Having lost control, one Spanish ship ran aground near Calais; three ships, carried by the wind to the east, where they also ran aground, were soon captured by the Dutch. The British did not lose a single ship; the loss of personnel over several days of continuous battles amounted to about 100 people. The Spaniards lost 600 people killed and about 800 wounded in this battle.

The defeat of the Invincible Armada on August 8, 1588. Painting by the Anglo-French artist Philippe-Jacques (Philip-James) de Loutherbourg

As a result, the battle did not bring complete victory to the British, and they also ran out of ammunition, which they could not quickly replenish. The Spaniards did not know about this and did not dare to attack the enemy, especially since his own supply of gunpowder and cannonballs was coming to an end. The Spanish admiral decided that with his existing forces it was impossible to establish control over the strait, and moving to the mouth of the Thames was out of the question, so on August 9, without warning Parma, he headed north, intending to go around Scotland and go down to south along the west coast of Ireland (the final decision was made on August 13). Medina-Sidonia also did not dare to return, fearing new attacks by the English fleet. The British pursued the enemy to the Firth of Forth on the east coast of Scotland, where on August 12 a storm separated the opponents.

The British, having received the news that the army of the Duke of Parma was ready to be loaded onto ships - the Duke still hoped that the Armada would approach Dunkirk and cover his transports - turned back to repel a possible landing. The British did not know about the plans of the Spaniards; they assumed that the Armada could replenish supplies off the coast of Denmark or Norway and return back, so the English fleet was on combat readiness for a long time.

The Spaniards had to abandon the idea of ​​​​joining the forces of the Duke of Parma, and they undertook a voyage around the British Isles - they rounded the Shetland Islands from the north, walked along the west coast of Ireland, and then returned to Spain. The Spanish sailors did not know this area well, they did not have navigation charts for it, and autumn storms began. On the way back, a strong storm near the Orkney Islands scattered the already pretty battered fleet in all directions. Many ships sank, crashed against rocks, and thousands of corpses were thrown ashore. Some of the Spaniards who landed were killed or captured. About 60 ships and less than half of the sailors and soldiers returned to the Spanish port of Santander on the Bay of Biscay between September 22 and October 14. Thus ended the campaign of the “Invincible Armada” ingloriously. Thus, the natural disaster dealt the most significant blow to the Armada when the Spanish fleet was already returning home. During the expedition, more than 60 ships were lost (and only 7 of them were combat losses).

Results

Spain suffered heavy losses. Only about 60 (out of 130) ships returned home; losses in people were estimated from 1/3 to 3/4 of the crew size. Thousands of people were killed, drowned, and many succumbed to wounds and disease on the way home. However, this did not lead to the immediate collapse of Spain's maritime and colonial power. The Habsburg Empire successfully defended itself and counterattacked. The British attempt to organize a “symmetrical response”, to finish off the “Armada” in the ports of Portugal and Spain, to take Lisbon with the subsequent restoration of Portugal as an independent power, led to the failure and defeat of the English fleet in 1589 (the defeat of the “English Armada”). Then the Spanish fleet inflicted several defeats on the English in the Atlantic Ocean. In 1595, Elizabeth sent Drake to the Spanish West Indies to plunder it and capture Spain's "silver fleet". However, the expedition failed with considerable losses, the Spanish colonial troops and navy managed to establish an effective defense of Cuba, the Isthmus of Panama and all their fortifications on the Caribbean coast, and the lack of water and food and the unusual climate caused an outbreak of disease among the British (Drake himself died). The Spanish learned from the failure of the Armada by abandoning heavy ships in favor of lighter ships equipped with long-range guns.

As a result, after the death of Queen Elizabeth, England's finances were in a state of collapse. The Scottish king James I, who ascended the English throne, met the demands of the Spaniards, and in 1604 the parties concluded the Peace of London. According to it, Spain recognized the legitimacy of the Protestant monarchy in England and refused to assert the dominance of Catholicism in this country; in exchange, England curtailed aid to the Netherlands and opened the English Channel to Spanish ships.

But strategically, the defeat of the Spanish Armada was a victory for England. Madrid had to abandon the idea of ​​restoring Catholicism in England and bring it into the sphere of influence of the Habsburg Empire. And England took an important step towards the future position of “mistress of the seas” and leadership in Europe and the world. The position of the Spaniards in the Netherlands worsened, which ultimately led to the defeat and the emergence of another maritime and trading power - Holland (Republic of the United Provinces), another competitor to the Spanish Empire. Spain will begin to decline. Having lost supremacy at sea, the colonies will now be captured not by the Spaniards, but by the British, Dutch and French.

Moreover, for the peoples and tribes of America, Africa and Asia, this will be worse than the rule of the Spaniards. For all their cruelty, the Spaniards still considered the conquered peoples, especially when they adopted Christianity, as people, subjects of the king, protected by law. Therefore, the Spaniards easily took Aboriginal women as legal wives, their children were full-fledged subjects. The Protestants, on the other hand, were complete racists - they did not consider the local residents to be people, and they would exterminate and destroy by all means (weapons, hunger, disease, alcohol, etc.), clearing “living space” for themselves. It was not for nothing that Hitler and his assistants later admired the British colonial empire; they considered themselves students of British racists.

Ctrl Enter

Noticed osh Y bku Select text and click Ctrl+Enter

The confrontation between Spain and England in the 16th century is one of the most impressive stories in European history. A great empire, “on which the sun never sets,” and a small island, armed only with an advantageous strategic position and the spirit of national exclusivity. And now King Philip II sends the largest military fleet of his time to the English shores. However, the fate of the vanquished awaited the Spanish Invincible Armada.

At the end of August 1588, in all the Catholic cities of Europe, bells were ringing incessantly - this was how the great victory over the heretics was celebrated. At cathedrals and in city squares, “witnesses” of the events vividly described how the pirate Francis Drake was captured, and the Spanish army, with unfurled banners and cannon salvoes, solemnly entered London.

On the other side of the English Channel, on the contrary, extreme despondency reigned, and this despite the fact that here they knew the truth: the ships of the formidable enemy were scattered, the immediate danger had passed. But while the English sailors who took part in the battle with the Armada were dying of typhus (an epidemic broke out shortly after the battle), their compatriots were waiting for the Spaniards to return soon. The British were sure that a little time would pass, and the “persecutor of Albion” Philip II, having healed his wounds, would attack the unfortunate island with renewed vigor, and then nothing would save him.

And neither one nor the other - neither the good papists nor the ardent Protestants - could imagine that several centuries would pass, and in all textbooks they would begin to write about July-August 1588 as the “black months” of Spain, as the beginning of the end Catholic Empire.

Politics versus faith

England and Spain are real symbols of the religious and political confrontation that gripped Europe in the 16th century.

As you know, back in the 1530s, Henry VIII Tudor was the first to break with Rome and declared himself the head of the English church. At that time, this was an absolutely unprecedented step, and the reason for it was the desire to divorce the Spanish princess Catherine of Aragon. Today, a unilateral withdrawal of a major power from the UN would cause less of a shock.

And of course, Spain - “beloved daughter of the church” - could not remain indifferent to such an event. The Holy See, in turn, hoped to regain control over the rebellious island with the help of Spanish weapons.

The paradox, however, is that, despite religious contradictions, direct diplomatic relations between Spain and England remained friendly for quite a long time. In 1543, these countries even united against France. And 10 years later they concluded an inter-dynastic union: Philip II married Elizabeth’s older sister, Mary (his cousin, daughter of Catherine of Aragon).

And even under Elizabeth, both powers were more concerned about the growing power of France than about each other's ambitions. Their efforts were limited to fueling the smoldering conflict there (the days of the Valois dynasty were coming to an end). True, some supported the Huguenots of Henry of Navarre, while others supported the Catholics of the Duke of Guise, but formally everyone observed diplomatic neutrality.

The real stumbling block was the New World. Or rather, the wealth that came from there.

State and business

In 1562, Englishman John Hawkins dropped anchor in one of the Caribbean ports. His ship brought the most valuable cargo of the era - black slaves from West Africa. Returning to his homeland, the captain was disgraced for human trafficking. But when Elizabeth received exact data about the fantastic income from this enterprise, her philanthropy receded. The daughter of the wasteful Henry VIII received only an empty treasury and debts to businessmen from the City. As a result, the queen not only forgave Hawkins, but also knighted him, and also ordered a new expedition to be equipped under his command with a secret mission - on occasion, to rob a potential enemy of England.

Sir John Hawkins (1520-1595) was one of the heroes who resisted the Armada. Photo: INTER FOTO/VOSTOCK PHOTO

Voyages of this kind soon began to be organized in large numbers according to the usual principle of joint-stock companies. Here, too, Hawkins at first turned out to be the most successful of all - after all, Elizabeth herself participated in his company as a shareholder, and therefore he received the right to fly the royal flag.

Many senior officials followed the example of the head of state. What would now be called a public-private partnership emerged, involving smuggling, robbery and the slave trade.

Of course, such activities immediately caused strong protest in Spain. Instead of visiting its ports on the way to America and paying duties for it, the British now not only went there directly, but also attacked Philip’s ships.

It didn’t take long to wait for a response: when in 1568 Hawkins’s squadron was battered by a storm and went to the island of San Juande Uloa off the coast of the Viceroyalty of New Spain (now Mexico) for repairs, his warships opened fire and sank almost all of the corsair’s ships .

Elizabeth, feigning innocence, expected an apology for this punitive action from her “beloved brother” Philip. He, in turn, rightfully accused the English queen of hypocrisy and hidden hostility.

Relations between the two countries were hopelessly damaged. And, unfortunately for the Spanish crown, the only ship that survived the collision was commanded by a poor sailor named Francis Drake.

El Draque

The Spaniards nicknamed Drake the Dragon (El Draque), of course, because of his surname. But in the confrontation between the two powers, he had to play a truly “dragon” - a key role.

Among his fellow craftsmen, Drake was distinguished by two important qualities: he was as cruel as he was lucky. It was this “domineering and irritable man with a furious character” who was the first to capture an entire caravan of silver heading to Seville from the colonies. The Englishman got about 30 tons of precious metal, and even the death of two siblings in this operation did not overshadow his triumph.

Drake, of course, was noticed. In 1577, it was he who was entrusted by Elizabeth with the command of an expedition to the west coast of America, officially with the goal of finding new lands in the open ocean. The Spaniards were hinted that in fact the English fleet would turn to the Mediterranean Sea to attack Ottoman Alexandria... In general, the attacks by English ships on Peruvian ports came as a complete surprise to them.

The British booty amounted to about 500,000 pounds, despite the fact that the annual income of the crown was then estimated at only 300,000. A few months later, Elizabeth knighted Drake right on deck. And the Spaniards subsequently called him “the cause of all wars with England.”

Naturally, against this background, the Anglo-Spanish contradictions only worsened - in all directions. In 1566, when the Dutch subjects of Philip II rebelled, Elizabeth was the first to extend a hand of material assistance to her fellow Protestants. Another two years after the outbreak of this revolution, a ship from Cadiz entered Plymouth with pay for the government troops in Flanders. Formally, the state of war had not yet been declared, but, unfortunately for the Spaniards, it was precisely during these days that news of the events at San Juan de Uloa reached England. Local authorities, on “compensatory” grounds, immediately confiscated the cargo, and the ship itself was sent home.

The court at El Escorial was in extreme turmoil. They claimed that Elizabeth was using petty overseas grievances as a pretext to support the Dutch rebels. In fact, until 1570, although the Queen of England sanctioned financial support for her co-religionists, she was cool about the idea of ​​overthrowing the legitimate power of the monarch in one of the territories under his control. Next to her, her own opposition was raising its head, and there were plenty of contenders for the Tudor throne, who also had grounds for their claims.

So the conflict flared up slowly, and perhaps the outcome would have been delayed for a very long time if the Pope had not suddenly rendered Spain a disservice. After Elizabeth suppressed one of the Catholic uprisings and executed several of the instigators, Pius V declared her subjects free from the oath. The queen could no longer remain indifferent to this: now English pounds flowed like a river into the Netherlands, and English officers went to raise the rebels’ fallen morale.

Action of intimidation

In January 1588, having learned of the discovery of another conspiracy, Elizabeth finally, “with a heavy heart,” authorized the execution of her captive, the former French and Scottish queen Mary Stuart. The taking of the life of the “righteous Catholic woman” caused loud protests throughout continental Europe. All eyes turned questioningly towards Madrid. There was a reason for decisive action. In Spain, nationwide preparations for war began.

However, a study of the sources shows: Escorial’s plans were not nearly as large-scale as historical rumors inflated them. Contrary to the widespread opinion among ordinary Englishmen - “they say, if it weren’t for Drake, we would all now speak Castilian” - Philip did not plan any colonization of the island, although he declared his personal rights to the English throne as the husband of the late Mary.

All that the “ruler of half the world” was counting on, as is clear from his numerous letters and orders, was to deliver a crushing pre-emptive strike and thereby deprive the British of most of the fleet, and therefore eliminate, at least temporarily, the notorious corsair threat. In addition, restoring the enemy’s naval potential would require a lot of money.

Contemporaries and historians generally believed that the main state talent of Philip II was economic - he knew and loved nothing so well as counting his own and other people's funds, for which he received the nickname Don Felipe el Contable, Don Felipe the Accountant. This means, the king reasoned, that the Dutch rebels would lose their main sponsor and would soon run out of steam. Of course, the Spanish king did not forget about noble motives - he must lend a helping hand to English Catholics, whose patron he always considered himself. Spain demanded the abolition of the provision regarding the Anglican Church as a state one... That, in general terms, is all.

But on the opposite bank of the English Channel, several enemy armies under the overall command of the Duke of Parma were seriously preparing for landing. To this day, some historians argue that the Armada was conceived as a cover for the landing force, which was to link up with the Catholics who rebelled at the right moment. Moreover, they refer to some maneuvers of the commander of the Grand Fleet, the Duke of Medina, which indirectly indicate this. But this is still unlikely, or the invasion was extremely poorly prepared. It is also possible that the Spaniards spread rumors about him for the purpose of intimidation.

And the enemy really became afraid, especially since the atmosphere was favorable to him. The 1580s already passed in England under the sign of apocalyptic expectations. Here and there events occurred that were interpreted as signs of the prophecies of John the Theologian.

And so rumors about the end of the world “successfully” coincided with rumors about the terrible Spanish invasion. (By the way, similar hysteria would grip the British 220 years later, when the landing of Napoleon’s Grand Army was expected on the island.) They said that the Armada consisted of either 200 ships and 36,000 people, or 300 ships, half of which were gigantic, unprecedented in history ; that even the abbeys in the Netherlands were turned into bakeries to provide for the needs of the sailors.

There was no shortage of stories about the horrors that awaited England in the event of defeat. Here, too, Dutch immigrants added fuel to the fire, founding entire settlements after fleeing their homeland, for example in Essex. They vividly depicted the torment for faith at the fires of the Inquisition.

Their compatriots in liberated Amsterdam, meanwhile, printed pamphlets with lists of scourges, whips and other torture instruments that were waiting in the wings of the Spanish ships. Rumor insisted that the fanatic Philip was determined to put the entire adult population of England to a terrible death. The remaining orphans will be given to the care of thousands of specially selected wet nurses who will accompany them to the Spanish shores. The further fate of the babies of Albion is a new “Babylonian captivity.”

In general, it was in the heads of the British, inflamed with fear and religious ecstasy, that the Invincible Armada was born. And in June 1588, a fleet left the ports of the Iberian Peninsula, not very ready for a major battle.

Shackled by fear

Don Alonso Perez de Guzman, Duke of Medina, Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece, was not in a cheerful mood at all when, at the end of May 1588, he observed the final preparations for the departure of the Great Armada. He had never been a sailor, had no idea about battles on the waters, but nevertheless found himself at the head of the fleet - “by seniority,” nobility and the decision of the king.

The background for the performance was clearly unfavorable. A year earlier, Drake raided Cadiz and plundered this main supply warehouse of the Armada. The personnel of the expedition also did not inspire confidence in the commander: 30,000 people had to be collected wherever possible - in ports, prisons (an old Pyrenean tradition - to be released from prison on an obligation to enlist in the fleet), in villages among peasants who owed landowners - under debt forgiveness, among volunteer adventurers who had never seen the ocean. Ambitious aristocrats - captains of individual ships, as usual, were constantly at odds with each other and intriguing against the admiral. Court astrologers suddenly, completely inappropriately, predicted a great catastrophe for 1588. And most importantly, a few months before departure, epidemics began that claimed the lives of most of the sailors. There was a shortage of people even before the first shots were fired.

Nevertheless, on May 28, a huge fleet weighed anchor in Lisbon: 134 ships, including 20 galleons, 4 galleys and the same number of galleasses.

At the same time, the bells of all the city churches rang, and according to tradition, all sailors and officers were first absolved of their sins in the cathedral. But somehow, imperceptibly in small things, everything immediately went wrong. At first, the headwind did not allow the ships to move away from the shore for a very long time. And when, it seemed, they managed to control him, the fleet began to drift south. Then, with great difficulty, they managed to correct the course, but immediately the Armada was overtaken by a new misfortune: worms appeared in the food barrels made from raw wood (Drake burned the dry ones in Cadiz, but they did not have time to make new ones), and mass poisoning began. The commander was ready to stop further advance, but a strong storm did it for him, forcing him to go to A Coruña for repairs.

The Duke of Medina, like his overlord, was known as a zealous defender of the faith. At one time he was even a member of the tribunal of the Holy Inquisition and believed, of course, that his fleet was going to a holy cause. Even the flagship ships (formally the Armada included six flotillas: Andalusia, Castile, Portugal, Vizcaya, Levant and Guipuzco) were pointedly named after saints: San Martin, San Francisco, San Lorenzo", "San Luis". The banner of the general flagship “San Martin” depicted the face of Christ, and at the stern a banner with the Blessed Virgin fluttered. Everything pointed to the fact that God himself was bringing England a well-deserved punishment... But real circumstances cast doubt on the capabilities of the Armada. While the ships were being patched up at the docks, the admiral wrote to the king that “going on the offensive, even with forces at your disposal that are by no means superior to the enemy, is a risky business, and when there are fewer of these forces, especially since people lack experience, this risk increases many times over.” . According to him, “few of my people (if any) are capable of rising to the occasion of the task assigned to them.” Having methodically listed all the difficulties, the Duke of Medina concluded the letter with the words: “The risk could be avoided by concluding an honorable peace with the enemy.”

Philip, although famous for no less caution than his grandee, was still dissatisfied with the news he received. The fact is that this outstanding monarch was characterized by another remarkable quality - mysticism of nature on the verge of visionaryism. Many of his contemporaries wrote about this - from Lope de Vega to Margaret of Navarre. The king came to the conclusion that God himself, who protects Spain as the most faithful of his countries, is testing the strength of her faith. Philip was so convinced of this that he decided to play completely openly: relying on God, he even divulged the size of his forces - official lists of Armada ships circulated throughout the cities of Europe. On July 12, an order came from Escorial to continue the campaign at all costs.

And with England, which was in despondency, upon receiving accurate information about the start of the campaign, an unexpected metamorphosis suddenly occurred. Militia were formed everywhere, and by June thousands of new and trained foot soldiers had gathered at Tilbury. “It was nice to watch the soldiers on the march,” testifies a contemporary. “Their faces were flushed, warlike cries were heard from everywhere, people almost danced with joy.” The persecution of Catholics, “accomplices of the aggressor,” spontaneously intensified. Suspicious people were immediately detained, despite the presumption of innocence enshrined in the Magna Carta (in fact, England revived this legal norm, forgotten since Roman times). The ship carpenters worked day and night - the sounds of axes did not stop in the shipyards. The result was an unprecedented increase in the combat power of the fleet in such a short time. 140 new ships were ready to meet the Armada. And in the spring of 1588, the royal fleet consisted of only 34 ships.

Strange victory

On July 19, from St. Michael's Hill near Glastonbury in Somerset (where King Arthur and Queen Guinevere are said to be buried), someone noticed a growing black dot on the horizon. The “bickford cord” of the signal fires ran - within a few hours, all of England knew that the Spanish fleet had reached its shores.

Staff officers advised the Duke of Medina to break through to the enemy’s ports as soon as possible in order to destroy his ships when they were laid up - here powerful artillery would have all the advantages. However, for some reason the admiral rejected the offer - and perhaps this played a fatal role in the history of the Grand Fleet. Be that as it may, a couple of days later, the English flotilla under the command of Francis Drake and Lord Charles Howard suddenly attacked the clumsy Armada and immediately captured two galleons - the Rosario and the San Salvador. The Spaniards tried to take cover behind the Isle of Wight to regroup, but the enemy did not allow them to come to their senses, repeating the attack from three sides at once in the narrow strait. The admiral hesitated, fired back, and in the end still ordered to leave for the open sea, and then, for lack of a more convenient harbor nearby, to French Calais.

As for the Duke of Parma with his land corps (the number of which, due to epidemics, had decreased from 30,000 to 16,000), at the same time in Dunkirk he was cut off from the Armada by a squadron of Dutch rebels that arrived in time. The commander counted on the help of Spanish ships, but the Duke of Medina, depressed by previous events in English waters, decided to refrain from fighting for now. However, he did not succeed.

On the night of July 29, 1588, this fascinating historical drama reached its climax. A terrifying sight suddenly appeared before the Spanish sailors: eight large ships, filled with sulfur, tar, tar and gunpowder, set on fire, were moving straight towards the ships of the Armada, which were anchored in the Strait of Dover, opposite Calais. In confusion, the Spaniards began to raise anchors and break through in all directions. No one was following the course of the flagship San Martin, and he had to go to the open sea... to meet the British.

The largest naval battle of the 16th century took place near Gravelines, a fortified fort on the border of the Spanish Netherlands and France. It was here that the great victory over the Spanish fleet is believed to have been won. However, if you take a closer look at what happened off the Flemish coast, you will notice several facts that contradict this opinion. No great and final victory emerges from them.

“We spent so much gunpowder, spent so much time in battle, and it was all in vain,” said an English artillery officer immediately after the Battle of Gravelin. And indeed: they usually remember that the British did not lose a single ship at that time, but the Spanish losses were by no means crushing: only ten ships were destroyed, five were captured, and even then they were damaged. If it had not been for Drake's ingenious attack at Calais, they would never have left the port.

At Gravelin, however, it became clear that the British were superior to the Spaniards in naval art. During the Armada's maneuvers in the English Channel, English sailors studied its tactics well. At the very beginning of the battle, they came close to the Spanish ships, knowing that immediately after the first shot the Spaniards, almost in full force, would run to equip themselves and prepare for boarding. So, from a minimum distance, the British artillerymen managed to fire several targeted shots at the enemy at a time when there was no one on the decks, and the enemy ships stopped maneuvering for a while. As a result, the destruction caused did not allow the soldiers of the Duke of Medina to rush into the attack at all.

And yet it is unlikely that this superiority of the British and the very result of the Battle of Gravelines played a major role in the decision of the Duke of Medina to return to Spain. The actively maneuvering English fleet in the English Channel would still not have been destroyed; the supply of the gigantic Armada was poor, the sailors were sick, and the mortality rate increased. The clash was forced on the admiral, like Borodino on Kutuzov, and as soon as it became clear that it was unlikely to emerge victorious, right in the middle of the battle he ordered a retreat north, towards Scotland.

The departure of the Spanish ships did not resemble a stampede in any way; it took place in a completely organized and calm manner. But the British just did not feel the strength to pursue the enemy. Moreover, for several days after the battle they were not left with anxious feelings. They expected the return of the enemy fleet the very next day, with a change in the wind. Without waiting, they began to fear an imminent invasion by the Duke of Parma: English troops remained at the mouth of the Thames in order to protect London from landings for a long time.

And when it finally became clear that the danger had passed, it was there that the queen and the court went on August 8 - on a whole flotilla of small river ships with heralds and guard officers. When landing on shore, the crowd greeted Her Majesty with thousands of enthusiastic exclamations - this continued, according to an eyewitness, for several hours, despite the fact that Elizabeth had previously asked everyone to refrain from expressing loyal feelings. Even the soldiers guarding the glorious tent chanted: “God save the Queen!”

On the morning of August 9, Elizabeth made an inspired speech to the people - it was included in the textbook annals of English-speaking peoples, right down to school textbooks, and was reproduced in dozens of historical films: “My beloved people! — The Queen, in a military-mythological manner, put on a silver cuirass and took a silver club in her hands. — We were convinced by those who care about our safety to beware of speaking before an armed crowd for fear of betrayal; but I assure you that I do not want to live without trusting my loyal and beloved people. Let the tyrants be afraid, but I have always behaved in such a way that, God knows, I trusted my power and safety to the faithful hearts and good will of my subjects; and therefore I am now among you, as you see, at this time, not for rest and pleasure, but fully determined, in the midst of battle, to live and die among you; lay down for my God, and my kingdom, and my people, my honor and my blood, turning to dust.” — The sharp (according to Drake) voice of the 55-year-old woman was clearly heard only nearby, but her appearance made a great impression: “I know I have a body, and this is the body of a weak and helpless woman, but I have the heart and stomach of a king, and I am full of contempt that Padua, or Spain, or any other monarch of Europe should dare to invade the borders of my kingdom; and before any dishonor befalls me, I myself will take up arms, I myself will become your general, judge and one who rewards each of you according to your merits on the battlefield... We will soon achieve a glorious victory over the enemies of my God, my kingdom and my people."

In conclusion, Elizabeth promised to forgive the soldiers all debts - personal and official. This statement naturally caused a storm of enthusiasm.

Meanwhile, the Invincible Armada met on its way that true disaster that dealt it a decisive blow. It was not English ships, but a storm off the coast of Scotland in September 1588 that finished her off. Some of the ships strayed from the main group and landed on the Irish shores. Many sailors remained there. Other ships tried to catch up with the Armada, while others chose to break through to their home ports on their own. 67 ships and about 10,000 people reached the fatherland.

But new reasons for sadness appeared for the British as well. Epidemics of typhus and dysentery broke out in the fleet - they claimed 7,000 lives in a few months. The treasury calculated the losses from the terrible strain of forces before the war with the Armada. The money ran out just when it was time to reward the soldiers. The debt forgiveness promised by the monarch also did not happen.

Symmetrical answer

Nevertheless, mass celebrations on the occasion of salvation from the mortal threat continued. “I came, I saw, I ran” - people walked around with such posters, celebrating a wonderful victory. Everyone believed that only the grace of God (“God is an Englishman,” said Francis Bacon) helped them cope with the fleet, which, according to the poet, “was hard for the wind to carry and the ocean groaned under its weight.” Perhaps this was one of the main consequences of the defeats of the Armada: from now on, a moment appeared in Protestant history that showed the location of higher powers.

And at the court during the days of public festivities, intense work was going on - they were preparing to send their own Armada to the Iberian Peninsula! "Reply symmetrically" was entrusted to Drake and Sir John Norris. But instead of destroying the remains of the Armada, which were being repaired in the northern ports of Spain, the admirals went to the south of the peninsula in search of a larger sum of money for themselves. The historical injustice lies in the fact that the defeat of the English Armada in this campaign turned out to be no less crushing than the defeat of the Spanish Armada, but little is known about it outside Spain. First, the British were crippled by illness; the attack on Lisbon encountered a well-organized defense and failed. In the end, having struggled north through the storms, the fleet returned home with significant losses.

In general, the 90s of the 16th century were marked by Spain’s successful defense of seemingly shaky positions. Attempts by English commanders to build on their success were met with skillful resistance. Moreover, they beat the British with their own weapons. Both literally and figuratively: the fleet of Philip II was able to very quickly adapt to new tactics of naval combat - the one that their enemy used in the Battle of Gravelines. The Spaniards abandoned massive cannons and heavy, clumsy ships. They began to build lighter ships equipped with long-range guns, which made it possible to fire several dozen shots in one battle. After the defeat of the Armada, paradoxically, the Spanish squadrons became much stronger than ever before. This was evidenced by the failures of English expeditions to America in the next decade. In 1595, Drake was defeated and died off the coast of Panama.

The decline of Spain, which really began in the next, 17th century, was only indirectly related to the defeat of the Armada. Internal reasons played a much larger role. First of all, the policy of the successors of Philip II, who, as if in mockery of him, were distinguished by their extravagance and declared the government bankrupt several times. In addition, the huge amount of precious metals coming from America caused hyperinflation in the economy.

And for England, the victory over the Great Armada was only a step towards the status of mistress of the seas. She was unable to take another step - to end Spanish domination in the Atlantic in a short time. This opportunity was partly deprived of it by Francis Drake, who “failed” the war with Spain in the 1590s. It took the next 150 years to correct his mistake.

In the summer of 1588, Spain built a huge fleet, called it the Invincible Armada, and sent it to the shores of England. The British let the armada sink, Spanish hegemony in the world came to an end, and Britain began to be called the “mistress of the seas”...
This is how this event is presented in historical literature. In fact, the defeat of the Invincible Armada is a historical myth.

16th century: England versus Spain

The defeat of the Invincible Armada is a historical myth

Spain at that time, led by King Philip II, was a huge power that included southern Italy, the Netherlands, parts of France, Portugal and vast territories in Africa, India, the Philippines, South and Central America. They said that “the sun never sets in the domain of the Spanish king.” The population of Spain was more than eight million people. Its army was considered the best in the world, its fleet invincible. Ships loaded with gold came from Peru and Mexico, and caravans with spices came from India. And so England decided to take a piece of this “pie”.

In 1498, Columbus already regarded England as a maritime power and proposed to King Henry VII to organize a western expedition in search of India. The king refused, and soon he had to regret his decision. Following Columbus, the British sent their expedition, which discovered Newfoundland, but the furs and timber of North America did not inspire the British. Everyone was hungry for gold.

Robbery as a means of replenishing the treasury

Queen Elizabeth of Britain

Elizabeth I, who ascended the English throne in 1558, was left with an empty treasury and debts. And then she gave tacit permission to plunder Spanish ships and settlements in the West Indies. Joint-stock companies were organized throughout England. The shareholders equipped the ship, hired a team of thugs, and the ship set off. And all this time, Elizabeth I was engaged, in modern slang, in protecting herself, answering all the letters of her “beloved brother Philip”: “The culprits will be found and punished!” - but didn’t find anyone and didn’t punish them.

In 1577, the queen decided to put the robbery of Spain on a state basis, equipping an expedition and sending it to “discover new lands.” The expedition was led by Francis Drake, who had the reputation of a highwayman. Drake visited the Spanish ports in Peru and brought back 500,000 pounds worth of booty, which was one and a half times the country's annual income. Philip II demanded the pirate's extradition - and Elizabeth I knighted Drake.

Philip's income fell, and Elizabeth's grew. In 1582 alone, Spain was robbed by English privateers for 1,900,000 ducats!

In addition, Elizabeth I supported the Dutch rebellion against Spanish rule, sending a military contingent of 5,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry there in 1585.

Philip perceived Britain's intervention in his affairs as a rebellion of vassals: after a four-year marriage with Queen Mary I of England (Elizabeth's elder sister), Philip could formally lay claim to the throne of Foggy Albion. Advisors whispered to the king that the Catholics oppressed in Protestant England would be happy to see a faithful servant of the Catholic Church on the throne.

At the head of the armada

The idea of ​​organizing a military expedition to conquer England was proposed to Philip in 1583 by the military admiral Marquis of Santa Cruz. The monarch liked the idea, and he appointed the marquis responsible for preparing the operation.

All this time, the British interfered with the preparations of the expedition: they intercepted and sank ships with cargo, and organized acts of sabotage.

In 1587, Drake raided the port of Cadiz, where he plundered and burned provisions for the navy under construction. For five years Santa Cruz worked to fulfill the king's will. In February 1588, the marquis died and the armada was left without a commander.

The king appointed in the place of the deceased Marquis the Duke of Medina Sidonia, his cousin, a man who was not at all a military man.

The Duke begged the King to cancel the appointments, but he was unshakable. The battle fleet was led by a man whose military “successes” Cervantes practiced his wit over.

Casus belli

The official reason for sending the squadron was the news received by the Spaniards about the execution of the Scottish Queen Mary Stuart in England. To be fair, Mary was not an innocent victim. She repeatedly found herself at the center of conspiracies to overthrow and assassinate Elizabeth I. In January 1587, another conspiracy was uncovered. Mary appeared in court, letters incriminating her were presented, and Elizabeth “with tears in her eyes” signed the death warrant.

The execution of the “righteous Catholic woman” caused a storm of indignation in Spain. Philip decided that it was time to take decisive action. We urgently remembered the Catholics oppressed in England who needed to be saved. On May 29, 1588, the sailors and officers of the squadron were absolved of their sins, and the Invincible Armada left Lisbon to the sound of bells.

It was truly an armada: more than 130 ships, half of them military, 2,430 guns, about 19,000 soldiers, almost 1,400 officers, sailors, priests, doctors - a total of 30,500 people. In addition, the Spaniards expected to reunite with the army of the Duke of Parma that fought in Flanders - another 30,000 people. The sailors were going to land in Essex and, relying on the support of local Catholics, move on London. The threat of invasion was more than real.

In England, having learned about the departure of the armada, they urgently began to form a militia and build new ships. A fleet of 100 ships was ready by summer. On July 29, the British saw the armada from the coast of Cornwall.

Naval battles

Mary Stuart goes to the scaffold. Her execution served as the formal pretext for the invasion

On July 31, near Plymouth, the Spaniards suffered their first losses: the Rosario collided with the Santa Catalina and was left without a mast; a fire broke out on the San Salvador. Medina Sidonia ordered the abandoned ships, which had become a burden, to be abandoned. On August 1, the British captured them and celebrated their first victory. The next four days were spent in skirmishes, during which neither side lost a single ship. On August 8, the two fleets met near Gravelines.

The British started the battle. Having deployed into battle formation, they opened artillery fire. The Spaniards responded sluggishly. Medina Sidonia had clear instructions from the king to avoid battle: the goal of the campaign was a landing, and not the destruction of the English fleet. The battle lasted more than nine hours. The British sunk two ships, four damaged Spanish ships ran aground, were abandoned by their crews and subsequently captured by the British and Dutch. And although the British did not lose a single ship, the general opinion about the battle was expressed by one of the officers of the Royal Navy: “They spent so much gunpowder, and it was all in vain.”

And then a strong wind rose and began to drive the armada away from the shore. Since there was no news from the Duke of Parma, Medina Sidonia decided to retreat and move north, intending to go around Scotland. When the armada left, the army of the Duke of Parma came ashore. She was literally a few days late.

The way home

"The battle of the Invincible Armada with the English fleet." Unknown British artist (16th century)

The return of the Spanish fleet was terrible. The ships required repairs, there was not enough water and food, and the sailors did not have maps of these areas. Off the northwestern coast of Ireland, the armada was caught in a severe two-week storm. This is where its defeat took place. 60 of the 130 ships and about 10,000 people returned to Spain. It was truly a defeat, only the British had nothing to do with it.

In 1588, the British honestly admitted: “The Lord saved England” - and did not attribute too much to themselves. Having caught their breath and appreciating the gift, they began to urgently prepare a return visit and by 1589 they equipped their armada of 150 ships. The end of the English armada was the same as that of the Spanish one, only this time there was no divine intervention. The Spaniards, having learned the lesson of an unsuccessful campaign, began to build small maneuverable ships instead of huge, clumsy ships and equipped them with long-range artillery. The renewed Spanish fleet repelled the British attack. And two years later, the Spaniards inflicted several serious defeats on the British. Indeed, Britain became the “mistress of the seas” only 150 years later.

Are historical myths necessary?

Every nation has its own historical myths. The French celebrate Bastille Day every year, although its storming is the same fairy tale as the storming of the Winter Palace by the Bolsheviks in 1917. The British equate the Battle of El Alamein with the Battle of Stalingrad, although in scale it is like equating an elephant with a rabbit. Suitable examples are simply needed to instill citizenship and patriotism. If there are none, they are invented.

But the Spanish landing in England did take place! In 1595, 400 former participants in the tragic campaign landed in Cornwall. The local militia fled. The foreigners were met by 12 soldiers led by a commander, they entered into battle and all died. The Spaniards celebrated a Catholic mass on the battlefield and promised that next time a temple would be founded on this site.