Ladies' educational institutions of pre-revolutionary Russia. History of gymnasium education in Russia How many years did you study at the gymnasium before the revolution?

Semyon Kozhin, Denis Davydov’s mansion on Prechistenka Street (2005). Image from kozhinart.com

Legend house

The building itself had history. We mentioned him when we talked about Doctor Illarion Dubrovo, one of the prototypes of Chekhov’s Osip Dymov (the story “The Jumper”). Dubrovo lived in this house, and before that the legendary partisan poet Denis Davydov lived here. The old grunt bought it in 1835, guided by a one-time impulse (he simply liked the house, Davydov wrote: “What a house ours is, dear friend! Every time I drive past it, I admire it, it’s a Hotel or a palace, not a house”) , and then suddenly it turned out that maintaining this “Hotel” costs incredible money, we barely managed to sell it.

Before Davydov, the estate was the property of the leading military family of the Bibikovs (“General Gavrilo Ilyich Bibikov especially flaunted his music,” noted the everyday life writer and, again, military man Andrei Bolotov on one occasion).

Then the secretary of the Dutch embassy, ​​H. Soldein, lived here. His wife, Vera Yakovlevna, hosted Pushkin himself (the poet wrote: “My life is monotonous, I rarely go out. Zvan was everywhere, but only Soldan and Vyazemskaya visited”). Then - the mentioned Denis Davydov, the mentioned Illarion Dubrovo and, finally, the gymnasium of Sofia Alexandrovna Arsenyeva.

Homing pigeon Nikolai Andreevich

S.A.Arsenyeva and L.I.Polivanov; Arsenyevskaya and Polivanovskaya gymnasiums

This gymnasium was rightfully considered elite. Tatyana Aksakova-Sievers wrote: “In the eighties of the last century, two outstanding teachers of that time - Sofia Aleksandrovna Arsenyeva and Lev Ivanovich Polivanov - established two gymnasiums in Moscow in the Prechistenka area - Arsenyevskaya and Polivanovskaya. The connection between these schools was the closest; if the sons studied with Polivanov, the daughters were sent to Arsenyeva. In most cases, the teachers were common, almost all the students knew each other, and starting from the 6th grade, youthful romances arose between them.

There were cases of sending notes in the coat pockets of the mathematician Nikolai Andreevich Ignatov, who moved from lesson to lesson, not suspecting that he was playing the role of a carrier pigeon.

The Polivanovites did not have official uniforms; they wore civilian coats, soft hats and black jackets with a belt without a badge, which seemed very elegant to us.”

Obviously, the status of the school “for its own circle” played a certain role here. Of course, families living in the vicinity of Prechistenka tried, if possible, to locate children closer to home. But this circumstance did not play a special role - there were enough cab drivers in Moscow, and the parents of Prechistenka high school students had enough money not only for cab drivers, but also for their own crews - at least if you try to put their income in line with the prices for Prechistenka education. And they - in both cases - were very noticeable.

One of the later, already Soviet, inhabitants of this house, M. Drinevich, wrote in her memoirs: “Few people know that the elegant Moscow mansion on Prechistenka, known at the beginning of the 19th century as the house of the poet Denis Davydov, in the 70s of the last century belonged to a private women's house. gymnasium with boarding school. The founder of the gymnasium and its permanent director from 1873 until the revolution was my great-aunt Sofya Aleksandrovna Arsenyeva, née Vitberg, a relative of the architect A.L. Vitberg, the author of the first - unrealized - project for the Cathedral of Christ the Savior. The entire gymnasium was run by her sister, my great-grandmother Alexandra Lukinichna Drinevich. She had three sons and three daughters, two of them - Maria Nikolaevna and Alexandra Nikolaevna - after graduating from the Arsenyevskaya gymnasium, they served there as class ladies and even replaced foreign language teachers, as they read and spoke fluently in many European languages. My mother Olga Aleksandrovna Drinevich, the granddaughter of Alexandra Lukinichna, also graduated from this gymnasium.

“Memoirist M. Drinevich either deliberately or accidentally makes the biography of Sofia Alexandrovna more modest. In fact, she was not just a relative, but the own daughter of the architect Vitberg.” Pyotr Sokolov, portrait of Alexander Vitberg (1820s). Image from wikipedia.org

Arsenyeva's gymnasium was considered elite: they charged high tuition fees, but teaching was conducted at the highest level. I have preserved the program, from which it is clear that high school students in the 3rd grade studied algebra, geometry, anatomy, and grammar of the Slavic language. Particular attention was paid to foreign languages.”

The memoirs of, in fact, a high school student, T. Aksakova-Sivers, have also been preserved: “When I entered the 1st grade in 1902, Sofya Aleksandrovna Arsenyeva was already old and moved away from the direct management of the school, she lived in the left wing of a large mansion... occupied by the gymnasium , and appeared only when some trouble occurred and its influence was required. Being called to “the other half,” as we called the boss’s apartment, did not bode well. I remember how at the end of November 1905 a memorial service was held in the hall for the suddenly deceased rector of Moscow University, Sergei Nikolaevich Trubetskoy. Upset by this death, Sofya Alexandrovna came out to us to say a few words about the deceased. Those gathered in the 8th grade hall represented a large crowd, which did not immediately fall silent upon her appearance. Our boss had a fit of anger, and she left, slamming the door and without saying the prepared obituary.

The direct management of gymnasium affairs was in the hands of Sofia Alexandrovna’s nieces - Maria Nikolaevna and especially Alexandra Nikolaevna Drinevich. Evil tongues noted some nepotism in the management of the school, but this did not cause any harm. All the boss’s relatives: the Arsenyevs, the Drinevichs, the Vitbergs were people of high decency and erudition. My class mentor for 8 years was also a relative of Sofia Alexandrovna - Nadezhda Alexandrovna Saginova (née Merchanskaya), who was distinguished by her softness and femininity. The braid, which went down to her knees and was gathered into a knot at the back of her head, weighed down her head so much that she had to sometimes undo the knot and at such moments she became very youthful.

Nadezhda Nikolaevna treated me well, and only in high school, when my “spontaneity” began to be in full swing, and I, unable to hold back the onslaught of impressions that overwhelmed me, constantly gathered a “kind of evening” around me, she nicknamed me “godfather.”

Walking as a crocodile

“Moscow in winter. Prechistinka"; open letter, 1904.

Even though Sofya Alexandrovna retired, everything was under her control, and it was organized during the active period of teaching and organizational activities of the founder and first director. The fact that the business was carried out by close relatives gave further reason to believe that everything was arranged in accordance with tradition. Here are the lines from the notes of a high school student: “The gymnasium was located just opposite the fire station with a watchtower. Sometimes a fire brigade would ring out from the gates, and the Moscow fire-major Hartier, with a dashingly curled mustache on a smart, French-style face, would rush by in a sleigh, saluting me. In the low, spacious entrance hall I was met by the doorman Alexander, a small fat old man, marking time like a bear cub, and his wife, an efficient, fast old woman Natalya, who for more than 30 years was in charge of hangers, boiled water, and ringing bells. My class consisted of about 40 people, I studied well, but it was somewhat heterogeneous...

After three morning lessons and breakfast, we went for a walk in the streets in pairs (this was called “crocodile walking”). The route was always the same: along Prechistenka to Zubovsky Boulevard and back, past the Lyceum, along Ostozhenka. If you had a bar of chocolate in your pocket, bought for 5 kopecks in the small shop of the gymnasium supplier Kapustin, then the walk would not be so boring.

Leveling plan of Moscow in 1888, a fragment of the areas adjacent to Prechistinka from the Cathedral of Christ the Savior to Zubovskaya Square. Image from retromap.ru

In addition, over the years, I began to have the ability inherited from my mother to extract interest from all situations in life. At three o'clock, towards the end of classes, my mother sometimes came to pick me up. When she, in a short astrakhan jacket, so elegant and unlike other mothers, stood at the bottom of the stairs, waiting for me, down which we descended in a noisy avalanche after the bell rang, I saw that all the girls were looking at her with undisguised curiosity. Mom was even more interested when she had her hunting dog Alpha with her. Alpha, or, as I called her, Bubochka, appeared on Prechistensky Boulevard as a little puppy with me and lived for 12 years as a member of the family. Both mom and I loved her equally, and expressed the idea that Bubochka was too smart for a simple dog and that she was probably an enchanted princess.”

Bubochka the dog, the enchanted princess

Sisters-schoolgirls of the early 20th century. Moscow, Prechistinka street, S.A. Arsenyeva women's gymnasium. Photo from pavelbers.com

Memoirist M. Drinevich, either deliberately or accidentally, makes the biography of Sofia Alexandrovna more modest. In fact, she was not just a relative, but the native daughter of the architect Vitberg.

If for a young man, a future man of that time, the desired character traits were boldness, a desire for discovery, the ability to defend one’s opinion (and, for a second, have one), a certain shockingness, artistry and a penchant for liberalism, then for a girl everything was different. Walks like a crocodile, an unchanging route for those walks, hot water supplied on time, and, as a manifestation of extreme liberalism, a five-kopeck chocolate bar in the coat pocket.

Nihilists had already appeared, but they were known more from rumors and from the novels of Mr. Leskov. Women's courses and even university education are for the most daring. The ideal woman, the ideal wife to her intellectual husband, blossomed from just such pupils, right up to the wedding ceremony of those who believed in the origin of the dog Bubochka from some princesses, when innocent epistolary novels with young Polivanovites were the height of madness.

As a matter of fact, Sofia Alexandrovna’s role in creating and maintaining just such a gymnasium is no less a mission, no less a service than the role of Polivanov. Bright personalities did not come out of this gymnasium - learned ladies, activists, revolutionaries, bombers. The graduates became wonderful wives, but history, naturally, is silent about their role in the structure of the family and society. But what could be more important than the tradition that a woman learns and carries - carries it steadfastly and non-publicly. And Arsenyeva’s secrecy and non-publicity is one of the most important conditions for the entire educational process.

Photograph (Danilov I.) Group photograph of high school students with a teacher in Moscow. 1900, 270 x 295 mm, mat. In the lower right corner is embossed: “I. Danilov.” The passe-partout is slightly trimmed. Age: 1900 Country: Russian Empire (Moscow) Condition: good http://www.artantique.ru/item.phtml?id=4580
Photo album "Volskaya Mariinskaya Women's Gymnasium" Tray album of high school student R. Zimnyukova. 1902 10 sheets of photographs with portraits of teachers, high school students and views of the city of Volsk, Saratov province. In publisher's binding with embossing. Age: 1902 Country: Russian Empire (Volsk) Condition: good http://www.artantique.ru/item.phtml?id=3893
Album of photographs "M.V. Priklonskaya Women's Gymnasium in Moscow. 1911-1912 academic year" Paris. 1913 13 pages of photographs of the interior, teaching staff, students, kindergarten, servants. In publisher's illustrated cover. Age: 1913 Country: France (Paris) Condition: good http://www.artantique.ru/item.phtml?id=4241
Group photo “Teachers and instructors” Gymnasium N. E. Spiess. 1913 Moscow. 1913. The edges of the photograph are unevenly cropped. Age: 1913 Country: Russian Empire Condition: good http://www.artantique.ru/item.phtml?id=19988
Group photographs depict priests, office workers, high school students, vacationers, workers, and pioneers. 1910-1930s. Photos were taken in Moscow, Rostov-on-Don, Ochakov, Kozlov. Only 15 units. The price indicated is for the entire set; retail sale is possible. Age: 1910 - 1940 Country: Russian Empire Condition: good http://www.artantique.ru/item.phtml?id=3801
I. Danilov. Moscow. Myasnitsky Gate. http://www.rusalbom.ru/photo/default/306 Photo studio of Ivan Danilovich Danilov (Myasnitskaya, Kabanova village). http://www.rusalbom.ru/photo/default/1972 Moscow, photograph by I. Danilov, 1905. http://www.rusalbom.ru/photo/default/3333 Moscow, photograph by I. Danilov, 1909-1910. http://www.rusalbom.ru/photo/default/306
Maria Fedorovna Kosmacheva (1898-1975), sister of A.F. Sinelnikova. Biologist by profession. She studied at the Khristina Danilovna Alchevskaya gymnasium, famous throughout Russia, in Kharkov, where an experiment was conducted on the joint education of boys and girls. In the photo she is standing in a gymnasium uniform, which was radically different from the usual uniform in women's gymnasiums. http://www.rusalbom.ru/photo/default/326
Harbin. Private gymnasium of M. A. Oksakovskaya. Founded in 1906. My grandmother Efrosinya with her sister Anna. 1915-1916 http://www.ostashkov.ru/foto/free/389B63E3/

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The socialist revolution's school system was as follows.

For the masses there was a system of elementary education, consisting of primary schools of various levels and types (one-class primary schools with a 3-4-year course of study, two-class primary schools with a 5-year course, higher primary schools according to the regulations of 1912 with four classes as a superstructure over the primary school ). On the basis of these elementary schools, lower craft, technical and trade education and secondary pedagogical - teacher's seminaries were built.

Primary School(network, types, content and methods of work). In 1914, there were 101,917 primary schools (about 1/3 were parochial), and the number of students in them was 7,030,257. This network did not meet existing needs. Non-Russian peoples were especially robbed of education.

Primary schools usually had a 3-4-year course of study (about 1/4 of the total number of schools had a 4-year course) and were called one-class primary schools.

If the number of students did not exceed 50, then the school had one teacher and such a school was called a single-enrollment school. If there were a larger number of students, a second teacher was invited, the school had two classrooms and was called a two-room school. In two-course schools the course was four years.

In addition to one-class primary schools, there were a small number of two-class schools, the course of which usually lasted 5 years (sometimes 6 years). In a two-year school, the first 3 (or 4) years were considered first class, and the last 2 years were considered second class.

In a one-class primary school, classes were conducted according to the 1897 programs in the following subjects: the law of God, the Russian language (reading, writing, grammar), arithmetic (number and four arithmetic operations with integers) and singing.

During Russian language lessons, elementary information on natural history, Russian history and physical geography was provided in the form of explanatory reading.

Teaching methods in primary schools were conversation, work with a textbook, teacher's story, written and graphic works. Demonstrations and illustrations (visual learning) took up less space. In some schools, the most advanced teachers practiced classes in school plots (vegetable gardening, horticulture).

Some schools organized excursions for students to historically interesting cities, to museums in nearby cities, etc. In many zemstvo, railway and factory schools, manual labor was introduced.

Literacy was taught using the sound method (usually analytical-synthetic). Storytelling from pictures was widely practiced. Most of the time allotted to the Russian language was devoted to mastering grammar and spelling. At final exams (especially in a 4-year course), children wrote a short dictation quite competently and were able to do an etymological analysis of a simple sentence.

However, the program was structured too formally, and overloading Russian language classes with grammar had a negative impact on reading, presentation, and the ability of students to express their thoughts in writing. Good grammatical knowledge and spelling skills turned out to be fragile, however. A test of knowledge among those who graduated from primary school, carried out in some counties, revealed a decrease in knowledge after 2-3 years (after leaving school) by almost 50%.

In arithmetic, oral arithmetic occupied a significant place, and attention was paid to the ability to use abacus. Children were also taught elementary concepts about the most common fractions (1/2, 1/3, 1/4), but without performing operations on them. Some information on geometry was given, namely: line, angle, the most common geometric figures (square, rectangle, triangle, etc.).

In two-year Russian language schools, syntax was studied and a short course in literary reading was given. I took a full course in arithmetic. Courses in natural history, physics, geometry, history and geography were allocated as special academic subjects.

The most widespread and progressive in content and methodologically perfect educational books in zemstvo, city, factory and railway schools were “Native Word” by K. D. Ushinsky, “ABC” and four “Russian books for reading” by L. N. Tolstoy, “World in stories for children" by V. P. Vakhterova, "Spring Shoots" by D. I. Tikhomirov.

Primary schools were divided into the following types: zemstvo, city, ministerial, factory, railway, and parochial. Russian-native schools were under the jurisdiction of local authorities of the tsarist administration. In terms of education, primary schools were under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Public Education, and parish schools were in charge of the synod. These schools provided religious education, basic literacy and little real knowledge.

The zemstvo schools were the best, but few students graduated from them each year. Most of them left school without completing the course, most often at the end of the second year of study, when students mastered the ability to read and count. Children were forced to take part in productive labor from an early age and drop out of school.

Zemstvos built special school buildings in which there was an apartment for the teacher; In a two-room school, there are respectively two apartments for teachers.

Some zemstvos began to introduce universal education, for which projects were drawn up to create a school network with the expectation of covering all children from 8 to 11 years of age. However, due to the lack of funds allocated by the state for public education and the absence of a law on the introduction of universal education, zemstvos rarely succeeded in introducing universal education for children before the October Revolution. In the provinces where zemstvos were not introduced (and this was most of the territory of Russia - the North, all of Asian Russia, the Astrakhan province, the Caucasus, Right Bank Ukraine, Belarus, the Baltic region and the Polish provinces), they did not even begin to introduce universal education.

Higher primary schools began to be established according to the law of 1912. They replaced the outdated city schools according to the regulations of 1872. Higher primary schools were also opened in rural areas. In 1915 there were 1,547 higher primary schools.

Higher primary schools had a 4-year duration of study after 3-4 years of primary school and were male, female or mixed. Pupils of the first and second grades of these schools could enter secondary educational institutions, respectively, but with passing an exam in a foreign language, which was not taught in these schools. In higher elementary schools, the law of God, the Russian language and literature (literature), arithmetic and the beginnings of algebra, geometry, geography, the history of Russia with some information from general history, natural science and physics, drawing and sketching, singing, physical education were studied; for girls, in addition, needlework. Graduates of these schools could enter secondary technical educational institutions and teacher training institutes.

On the outskirts of multinational Russia, there were other types of educational institutions. Thus, in the Caucasus, in the Volga region, in Central Asia, among the peoples who professed Islam, there were Muslim schools - primary - maktabs and secondary - madrassas, where they taught Arabic literacy and the basics of the Mohammedan religion. Cramming and memorization of ancient religious books and the strictest discipline, established mainly through physical punishment of students, prevailed. They existed mainly at mosques and were supported by the population and various donations. The teachers belonged to the Muslim clergy.

To train local residents for state administration employees, Russian-native schools operated (in Azerbaijan and the Volga region they were called Russian-Tatar), consisting of two classes.

In the first, Russian class, Russian teachers taught literacy, arithmetic, basic information on natural history, Russian history, and geography. In the second, Muslim class, local teachers taught Arabic literacy and Mohammedan doctrine.

Russian-Kazakh schools in Northern Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, where there was no Muslim population, did not have a second grade. However, contrary to the intentions of the government, Russian-native schools to some extent introduced the indigenous population of the outskirts to progressive Russian culture, as a result of which they won more and more sympathy.

It is noteworthy that in the last years of the existence of the pre-revolutionary school, the number of people wishing to enter these schools far exceeded the number of available places.

Network of secondary educational institutions of the ministry public education during the period under review grew much faster than before the revolution of 1905-1907.

There was no continuity between primary and secondary schools. For the propertied classes of the population there was a system of secondary and higher educational institutions, which in turn were divided into men's and women's schools.

Formally, the school was declared classless, that is, students were admitted to it without distinction of class or rank, but in fact, the children of nobles and officials predominated in the secondary and higher schools. In addition, there were also special class educational institutions: institutes for noble maidens, cadet corps, several “noble institutes”, the Corps of Pages, the School of Law, where only children of nobles were accepted; there was a special system of schools for children of the clergy (theological schools, diocesan schools, theological seminaries). National and religious restrictions and a very poorly developed network of schools in areas inhabited by various peoples of Russia continued to exist. Women's secondary school provided less knowledge than men's; higher education for women was in its infancy.

There were students in these institutions of the Ministry of Public Education in 1913: in men's - 219,906 (of which 2/3 were in gymnasiums and pro-gymnasiums and 1/3 in real schools); in women's - 303,690. The larger number of women's educational institutions and students in them compared to men's is explained by the fact that a significant number of boys studied in commercial schools, secondary technical schools and other educational institutions not under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Public Education.

The types of secondary schools for men and women were varied. In the conditions of developing capitalism and the social liberation movement, the general educational content of educational work was significantly expanded gymnasiums compared to the 1871 curriculum. Classicism, and with it formalism, were significantly weakened, and the study of natural science, history, and literature intensified.

Significant changes were made to the programs in Russian language and literature (literature): according to the previous programs on Russian literature, only the works of writers of the first half of the 19th century were studied (Griboedov, Pushkin, Gogol, Krylov, Koltsov and Lermontov), ​​and now the programs included writers of the second half of the 19th century (Turgenev, Goncharov, Saltykov-Shchedrin, Nekrasov, L.N. Tolstoy, Dostoevsky and others).

In mathematics, the course was expanded to include some elements of higher mathematics.

A significant shift occurred in the teaching of history: it began to be increasingly carried out on the basis of the so-called cultural-historical direction. Students were now introduced not only to the history of kings, wars, etc., but also to the history of the economic and cultural development of peoples; they were given not only historical facts, but also some analysis of these facts. The teaching of geography was expanded: previously, the geography course ended in fourth grade, but now it was continued in high school and supplemented with economic geography.

A significant achievement was the inclusion of a natural science course in the gymnasium curriculum (although this course was available only in the three junior grades, was limited to only elementary information and was of a purely descriptive nature). The course in logic was taken much more seriously than in the 80s and 90s at the beginning of the 20th century. Two new languages ​​began to be studied compulsorily, and more teaching hours were allocated for each of them. In the interests of training future officials, a law course was introduced.

In gymnasiums, visual learning began to be used more, classrooms were created (in physics, geography, natural science), and excursions began to be practiced - historical, geographical, natural history.

Real schools actually had seven classes. Real schools were maintained not with funds from the treasury, but with local appropriations (city governments, merchant societies, etc.). They provided the right to enter certain faculties of the university (physics, mathematics, medicine) with an additional exam in Latin.

In 1906, a new curriculum for real schools was introduced, which significantly increased the amount of general education knowledge of students and thereby strengthened the importance of real schools as a secondary school. The number of real schools increased from 190 in 1908 to 276 in 1913.

In terms of educational equipment and teaching methods, real schools were significantly superior to gymnasiums: classrooms (especially physics, natural science, geography) here were richer in visual aids, excursions were more often practiced. In many real schools, teachers no longer limited themselves to demonstrating visual aids, but conducted laboratory classes. Graphic works in mathematics, geography and natural science were also performed better here than in gymnasiums.

According to the 1906 curriculum, the number of hours in the humanities cycle - Russian language, literature and history - was almost the same in gymnasiums and secondary schools, and the volume of knowledge was the same. The methods of teaching these subjects in real schools were better, more practical, than in gymnasiums.

At the beginning of the 20th century they continued to develop commercial schools. As mentioned above, they were under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Finance, and since 1912 they were subordinate to the Ministry of Trade and Industry. Commercial schools built educational work on the basis of advanced pedagogical principles. True, part of the time in high school was devoted to special subjects (commodity science, accounting, bookkeeping, commercial geography). Thanks to the good organization of academic work, they provided better educational preparation than other high schools. The network of commercial schools grew rapidly: by the 1913/14 academic year there were 231 of them in Russia with 54,791 students, including 10,411 girls. A significant number of these schools provided joint education.

Cadet Corps was a secondary school with a 7-year course, intended for the sons of officers and nobles. In terms of the volume and nature of general educational knowledge, the cadet corps was quite close to a real school. Some prominent Russian teachers (Semyonov, Gerd, Ostrogorsky and others) worked in the cadet corps, especially when they were reorganized into military gymnasiums, and applied advanced teaching methods. Cadet corps were closed educational institutions, distinguished by a clear regime, good gymnastics, and military discipline. They cultivated the concept of noble honor, the officer's caste spirit, contempt for the “lower” classes, and devotion to the monarch and the class system.

Women's gymnasiums(Ministry of Public Education and Department of Institutions of Empress Maria) had seven classes and an eighth, pedagogical class. Since the 70s of the 19th century, they have hardly changed in their curricula and programs.

The need for female secondary education was very significant during this period, and the network of female gymnasiums grew quite quickly, especially after the revolution of 1905-1907. In the women's gymnasiums of the Ministry of Public Education over 5 years (1908-1913) the number of students increased by 100,000.

A more limited general education than girls' gymnasiums was given to girls diocesan schools. Even in comparison with women's gymnasiums, the mathematics course here was shortened (there was no algebra), and there was no natural science course.

Diocesan schools had six main classes and a seventh, pedagogical class. These were semi-closed educational institutions, which were mainly intended for the daughters of the Orthodox clergy. By 1917 there were 50 diocesan schools.

All of the listed secondary educational institutions accepted children aged 9-10 years into the first grade based on an entrance exam (God's law, Russian language, arithmetic). The amount of knowledge in these subjects upon entering the first grade was equal to approximately three years of study in primary school.

Most secondary educational institutions of all types had a preparatory class with one or two years of study. At the beginning of the 20th century, there was a fairly large number of private secondary educational institutions (male and female gymnasiums, real and commercial schools). The total number of them reached 400 by 1914. Tuition fees in them were 3-4 times higher than in state-owned or public educational institutions, so only children of the wealthiest parents got there. Private educational institutions had good buildings, equipment, and teaching staff. They were distinguished by the best organization of educational work.

By 1914, there were 123,745 primary educational institutions in the Russian Empire, of which:

80801 MNE departments,

40530 Department of Orthodox Confession

2414 other departments.

Primary school coverage of children aged 8 to 11 years by 1914 was 30.1% in the Russian Empire as a whole (in cities - 46.6%, in rural areas - 28.3%).

However, in the European part of Russia the situation was much better: IIET RAS researcher D.L. Saprykin came to the conclusion that, I quote: “data from the full school census of January 1911 and the partial census of January 1915 indicate that at that time in In the central Great Russian and Little Russian provinces, virtually complete education for boys was provided. The situation was different with the education of girls (even in European Russia, no more than 50% of girls studied in primary schools).”

In 1913, secondary educational institutions of the MNP were represented by male and female educational institutions. Men's: gymnasiums - 441, pro-gymnasiums - 29, real schools - 284, 32 and 27 technical schools. Women's: gymnasiums 873, pro-gymnasiums 92.

Higher education in 1913/1914 was represented by 63 state, public, private and departmental educational institutions of higher education. According to A.E. Ivanov, in 1913/1914, 123,532 students studied in state, public and private higher schools (of which 71,379 were in state universities). In 1917, 135,065 students studied at Russian higher schools (Ivanov A.E. Higher school of Russia in the late 19th - early 20th centuries. M., 1991. Table No. 28, p. 254)

The following students studied in state higher educational institutions:

Universities −10 (35,695 students);

Legal - 4 (1036 students);

Oriental studies - 3 (270 students);

Medical - 2 (2592 students);

Pedagogical - 4 (894 students);

Military and naval - 8 (1182 students);

Theological - 6 (1085 students);

Industrial engineering - 15 (23,329 students);

Agricultural - 6 (3307 students);

Veterinary - 4 (1729 students);

Art - 1 (260 students).

The educational process in the Russian gymnasium occupied a very important place, probably even more important than the learning process. At least, this is the conclusion that many researchers of gymnasium education come to. For example, the well-known domestic researcher of the content of gymnasium education, G.N. Kozlova, is of the opinion that even education in the gymnasium was educational in nature; the term “educational education” is constantly used in her works. The idea of ​​the primacy of education permeated the entire way of life of the old school. This conclusion is quite consistent with the memories of contemporaries of gymnasium education. Returning to R. Charbet’s “Thoughts on Education in the Gymnasium”, it is appropriate to cite his explanation of the special attitude towards education in the gymnasium: “I think every teacher will agree with me that children need not so much to be taught as to be educated, and, having already been educated, to take up reality. For a gymnasium, it is enough to convey to students as much information as is necessary for the development of spiritual abilities, and to allow future special studies or practical life to supplement what they have not learned and generally prepare them for the perception of knowledge. The mind has an undeniable importance in life, but one can only expect true benefit from its education when, along with it, a moral and religious feeling is formed, character is ennobled and strengthened... Why do we need smart people if they use their knowledge to harm others, to satiate insatiable passions? You can know a lot and be uneducated if this knowledge has not strengthened your thinking ability and left your heart cold. Strictly speaking, a gymnasium is not an educational institution, but an educational one. Any mixing of other goals with it deviates it from its purpose and makes it forget about it. You cannot serve two masters!”

As I. V. Smotrova notes, the main goal of the gymnasium was to develop the civic position of the individual, achieving his moral and mental maturity. Approved by D. A. Tolstoy, “Rules for students”, “Rule on penalties” (1874) and “Instructions for class teachers” (1877) contained a list of qualities that needed to be cultivated in students - these are feelings of truth, honor, respect for the law and its executors; attachment to the sovereign and the Fatherland, and especially religious feelings."

The fact that special attention was paid to the education of religious feelings is evidenced by many facts. The teaching staff closely monitored the regularity of schoolchildren’s visits to church. The students had to gather in the gymnasium by half past nine in the morning and from here, after roll call, in pairs, under the supervision of the assistant class teachers, go to the church, where the students were required to stand in order in the place assigned to them. It was mandatory to read a prayer at the beginning of the first and at the end of the last lesson. As V.V. Makarov notes, “in pre-revolutionary Yelets there was a tradition of introducing representatives of urban discipleship to church singing culture through visiting churches during services.” Nikolai Afanasyev, a high school student at the Yelets Men's Gymnasium, also testifies to the high level of development of church and musical culture in Yelets and its high pedagogical potential. On the pages of his diary, he talks about constant visits to liturgies and all-night vigils, some of which he spends in the choir, next to his friend named Luka, who, apparently, participated in one of the church choirs of Yelets. Every school day began with prayer in women's gymnasiums as well.

On Sundays, holidays and in the evenings before these days, students were required to attend public worship, and attend confession and Holy Communion every year during Holy Week; those who are allowed to perform these Christian duties outside the direct supervision and supervision of educational authorities must present evidence from their confessor that they have been to confession and received communion. During school hours, it was absolutely necessary to attend all lessons without being late for prayer before the start of the teaching.

As G.N. Kozlova notes, the entire educational system, its “spirit” and style, “the tone of relationships in the gymnasium contributed to the creation of a cult of personal development and self-improvement. The gymnasium not only oriented students towards self-education, but also took care of creating conditions for them to work on themselves. According to the authorities, the gymnasiums were supposed to make students into faithful servants of the state - confirmed in self-discipline, ready not to shy away from difficulties, to advance in their careers, to work conscientiously - again, “for the sake of the prosperity of the Imperial Family and the Fatherland.” There were many people of this type in pre-revolutionary Russia, and among people from different classes. And the education of such people could not be left to chance. The way of life at the gymnasium was determined by a complex of educational and educational tasks. The main goals of education were approved by statutes regulating educational activities in gymnasiums. From time to time, the Ministry of Public Education issued recommendations, instructions and rules that complement and specify the general educational goals formulated in the statutes and reflect the main content of education. The implementation of the “instructions” was strictly controlled by the Ministry of Public Education.

The fact that the educational component was given a leading role is fully confirmed by the diary of M. M. Prishvin, who recalled years later about the order in the Yelets gymnasium: “Of all the subjects in my conduit notebook, the most important subject - behavior - was recognized stronger than even the subject “The Law of God.” “Five” according to the Law and “five” for behavior were simply a necessity - a condition of staying in the gymnasium.” Behavioral assessment was a very powerful means of influencing students. The behavior of gymnasium students was assessed with points “5”, “4”, “3”. “F”s were not given at all, because with a grade of “4” the student was placed under secret supervision, and with a grade of “3” he was subject to expulsion without the right to enter another secondary educational institution.

The decrease in the grade for behavior was a tragedy for eighth-graders who were planning to enter the university, since graduates of the gymnasium who had a grade of “4” for behavior were not accepted there. According to I. M. Krichevsky, who graduated from the Yelets gymnasium in 1906, his classmate, who received a “4” grade in behavior, was forced to stay in the eighth grade for the second year in order to earn a “5” grade.

A three for behavior was assessed for “the manifestation of more or less harmful inclinations, mainly in relation to comrades, as well as offenses that cause extraordinary penalties, such as, for example, willful absences outside the city, a certain kind of negligence in the performance of student duties and in general the rules of decency and good manners.” ". From this explanation, nothing frightening for students is visible; the validity of the requirements to comply with the “rules of decency and good manners” is beyond doubt.

Gymnasium and pro-gymnasium students were required to wear uniforms of the established type. Half-kaftan of dark blue cloth, single-breasted, not reaching the knees, fastened with nine silver-plated smooth convex buttons, with four of the same buttons at the back at the ends of the pocket flaps, collar (beveled) and straight cuffs of the same cloth as the uniform, narrow silver sewn on the top of the collar galun, and the cuffs, where the cut is, have two small buttons. Bloomers - dark blue cloth. Coat - gray cloth, double-breasted, officer style; the buttons are the same as on the uniform; buttonholes on the collar of the same cloth as the half-caftan, with white piping and a button. The cap is the same cloth as the half-caftan, with white piping around the crown and the upper edge of the band. On the band, under the visor, is a silver-plated tin sign consisting of two laurel leaves with intersecting stems, between which are placed the capital letters of the name of the city and the gymnasium or pro-gymnasium. And these procedures were the same for all gymnasiums, which is confirmed by the memories of contemporaries.

A graduate of the Yeletsk classical gymnasium, N. M. Dyakonov recalled in 1971: “Each student was obliged to comply with the established uniform for everyone: a suit made of gray cloth, a dark blue cap with the “EG” (Eletsk gymnasium) badge, a waist belt with a buckle with the same letters on it, a gray overcoat. It was forbidden to wear hats and felt boots in winter. In cold weather, it was allowed to put a hood over the cap. The hair had to be cut with a clipper. The hairstyle was only allowed in the 7th and 8th grades. Neatness was required in everything. Addressing each other was only allowed using “you”. Greeting acquaintances upon meeting was accompanied by removing the cap and bowing the head. You had to be polite, not talk loudly, blow your nose into a handkerchief and follow all other rules of ethics.”

In the rules for gymnasium students of the Oryol men's gymnasium (1864), along with the requirements to study all educational subjects and manuals, maintain order in the classroom and outside the gymnasium, it was categorically forbidden to have and read “forbidden books and manuscripts”, in free time from lessons “to walk around in crowds” streets and in the city garden,” and the student could visit theaters and circuses only with the permission of the gymnasium inspector. The usual punishments “for laziness, for pranks, for inattention” were a severe reprimand, deprivation of lunch or a walk, kneeling during a lesson, and arrest for several hours.

After the summer, Christmas and Easter “vacations”, one had to report to the gymnasium at the appointed time, returning the tickets issued to the class teacher with the inscription of the parents or guardians about the time of departure from home. A high school student who did not appear on time and did not provide information about the reason for his non-appearance was considered to have dropped out, and it depended on the discretion of the pedagogical council whether to admit him again, based on the results of the test in all subjects.

Students who are absent from any lesson due to illness or other legitimate reason are required to learn everything covered in their absence; written work assigned for a more or less long period must be delivered by the deadline, unless illness requires an unconditional cessation of all kinds of mental activities for that time, as certified by a doctor affiliated with the educational institution.

In order to monitor the progress of the educational process, an inspector was elected from among the senior teachers of the gymnasium. For close supervision of the gymnasium students, there were supervisors (the position was introduced in 1838), the number of which was determined by the capabilities of the institution, as well as class teachers and their assistants - one per class (the position was introduced in 1871) - their goal was the organization and control of educational process in a specific class - like modern class teachers. The assistant class teachers were entrusted with supervising the students in the afternoon in places of celebration, at train stations, theaters, places of entertainment, etc. In addition, at the boarding houses of the gymnasium, if there were any, since 1864 there was a position of a gymnasium teacher. According to the state, there was one teacher for every 20 boarders. The director directly supervised the team of educators.

Control over students was not limited only to its walls: the gymnasium guards and assistant class teachers monitored the behavior of gymnasium students on the city streets and in public places. In addition, assistant class teachers were required to visit the apartments of high school students who did not show up for lessons to find out the reasons for their absence. Therefore, it is not surprising that absenteeism without a good reason was considered very rare in gymnasiums.

Gymnasium students in Yelets were allowed to be on the street alone, without their parents, only until six o’clock in the evening, and to visit the theater or cinema each time it was necessary to obtain written permission from the inspector, and only on a Sunday or holiday. For this purpose, there were specially printed blank forms in the students’ diaries. Each gymnasium student who showed himself to the gymnasium warden on duty outside without such permission had his grade for behavior reduced by one point.

Along with the general educational goals established by the Ministry of Public Education, methods and methods of education were specified locally, taking into account the specifics of a particular gymnasium. For example, the Vologda governor demanded that the pedagogical councils of educational institutions “prohibit students from appearing on the streets after 7 pm without a special ticket from the authorities.” Even if the student went with his parents, he was still detained by the police. We know that similar assistance from the police in facilitating the upbringing of children was turned to in 1908 in Oryol.

As I. V. Smotrova notes, assistant class teachers in Moscow took turns visiting all the hot spots in the city in order to find high school students in them. Any observed violators of discipline were immediately reported to the authorities of educational institutions. The warden of the 1st men's gymnasium in Moscow submitted a report to the director of the gymnasium about the behavior of one gymnasium student who was seen in the city not in the uniform established for gymnasium students; he “allowed himself to dress up in an Austrian jacket, sported a large mustache and, as if nothing had happened, walked with the young ladies on the Kuznetsky Bridge." This student’s behavior was considered “outrageous,” and the violating student was severely punished.

The rules for students of gymnasiums and pre-gymnasiums noted that students were annually given weekend annual tickets with the obligation to always have them with them outside the home and present them at the first request of both police officials and all persons authorized by the educational authorities with tickets to supervise students. Compliance with the rules set out in these tickets is mandatory.

In the funds of the Oryol Museum of Local Lore there is a student’s card from the first men’s gymnasium with rules that must be followed both in the gymnasium itself and “outside its walls.” There, in particular, it is noted: “Valuing their honor, students cannot but value the honor of their institution, and therefore are obliged to refrain themselves and their comrades from all kinds of actions incompatible with the honor of well-bred children and young men striving for higher scientific education, and must in every possible way prevent such actions that may cast a shadow on the educational institution.”

It seems at times that the gymnasium system sought to expand its control over students to the greatest possible extent. For example, in the second half of the 1872/73 school year, by order of the Minister of Public Education, special “books for daily recording of assigned lessons” were introduced for students - peculiar predecessors of today’s school diaries. But those “books” differed from diaries, where grades are given for a lesson and occasional notes are made by the teacher, in that they had separate columns for assigning points for student success, diligence, attention, behavior and even neatness of schoolchildren “so that parents and the persons replacing them could monitor the school life of their children on a daily basis, thus helping the educational institution in achieving its educational goals.”

Thus, parents were given the opportunity to daily monitor the school life of their children, delving into the smallest details, noting the subtle nuances of their participation in it, that is, those moments that, as a rule, generally pass by the attention of parents whose children study in a modern school . Speaking about “books for daily recording of assigned lessons,” it is necessary to clarify that this was not a Yelets invention - they were introduced by order of the Minister of Public Education. This once again confirms that the Yeletsk classical gymnasium did not establish its own rules - it built its work in strict accordance with the instructions of the highest authorities. It follows from this that the structure of life in all Russian gymnasiums was subordinated to the same aspirations, coming from the formulated in the 19th century. Minister of Education Count S. S. Uvarov of the triad “Orthodoxy. Autocracy. Nationality,” which marked the boundaries of Russia’s ideological space for many years.

Gymnasium students were forbidden to drink intoxicating drinks, and smoking was strictly forbidden. Among the methods of education, I. V. Smotrova highlights personal example, teaching, conversation, encouragement, punishment, and censure. The teacher, as a role model, was supposed to educate even with his appearance. Demand from teachers was also high. In the Yeletsk classical gymnasium, there was a case when a German language teacher, respected by the school students, was fired simply because she smoked in the presence of students.

There is nothing more convincing than eyewitness testimony. And undoubtedly, the staff of secondary school No. 1 did a great job, collecting in 1971 - the year of the centenary of the Yeletsk gymnasium - the memories of its graduates who were still alive then, who studied at the beginning of the 20th century. The rules in the gymnasium by that time in comparison with the rules of the 19th century. have undergone virtually no changes. From the above story one can get a fairly complete picture of the external side of the gymnasium “rigor”. They are in many ways similar to the procedures of military-type educational institutions, but without the barracks life. Of course, the situation in today's schools is completely different and the requirements for students and teachers are different. There is no need to talk about the almost universal smoking of students. What, in this case, is considered more preferable: the strictest discipline, which sometimes seems cruel, or education, which sometimes leads to permissiveness? The report of the Oryol men's gymnasium for 1895, stored in the State Educational Institution, contains a statement of the number of the most important penalties in the gymnasium and indicates the number of gymnasium students subjected to punishment.

From the memoirs of graduates of the Yelets gymnasium it is known that the generally accepted punishment was a punishment cell. The punished person served two, three or four hours in a locked, empty classroom, and this was necessarily done on Sundays from 11 o’clock. Another punishment was the inclusion of the offender in a special journal “Conduit”. This punishment often resulted in a lower final behavior score. The most common punishment (it was experienced by 27 students of the Oryol men's gymnasium in 1900) was “being left in the gymnasium for one hour after classes with notification of parents” for “a rude explanation with the teacher or educator.” In the reports of the leadership of the Oryol gymnasium at the beginning of the 20th century. not a single penalty was recorded for “smoking tobacco”, for “using indecent expressions in conversation with friends”, for “evading classes under the pretext of illness”.

In the territory of the former USSR, the first schools arose in Armenia and Georgia in the 4th century, and in Azerbaijan in the 5th century. In the Central Asian region and in Azerbaijan, where the population predominantly professed the Muslim religion, starting from the 7th century. The main types of schools became mektabs and madrassas, which retained their priority position until the October Revolution of 1917.

The origins of the Russian national school originate in Kievan Rus, where at the turn of the 8th-9th centuries. one of the largest early feudal states in Europe arose. The introduction of an improved alphabet (Cyrillic alphabet) played a significant role in the development of ancient Russian culture and education.

According to individual chronicles about schools in Kievan Rus, there in the X-XIII centuries. they opened at church parishes, monasteries and palaces of princes. The Tale of Bygone Years (988) notes that in order to spread written culture, Prince Vladimir already attempted to organize a Christian school. Essentially, this is one of the first official evidence of the beginning of systematic education in the capital of the Ancient Russian state of Kyiv. Birch bark documents of the 11th-15th centuries. indicate that literacy in ancient Rus' became quite widespread not only among the feudal nobility and clergy, but also among townspeople, townspeople, artisans and traders. To a certain extent, this was facilitated by the “Masters of Literacy” - sextons and “secular” people who were engaged in teaching children “part-time” with the main craft. With their activities, to a certain extent, they satisfied the growing needs for training literate people from the masses.

The first higher educational institution in Russia was the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, created in Moscow in 1687. After the opening of Moscow University in 1755, the Academy gradually turned into a religious educational institution.

The era from the beginning of the 18th century and actually until the end of the 19th century. can rightfully be called the era of education reform in Russia. It opened with the educational reforms of Peter I (the introduction of the civil alphabet and the emergence of the periodical press, the establishment of the Academy of Sciences, the opening of the first Soviet state schools - mathematical and navigational sciences, real schools at factories and shipyards, numerical schools - the first state secondary schools, the creation of the Maritime Academy in 1715 on the basis of maritime classes of the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences). Peter's reforms reflected the desire of the state authorities in Russia to put science and school at the service of the practical needs of the army, navy, industry, trade, and management activities.

Among the progressive achievements of the educational reforms of the 18th century. include: the creation of large centers of culture, science and education (Academy of Sciences, Moscow University), new types of real schools, the organization of state comprehensive schools, and, in general, the expansion of the system of general education institutions. At the same time, educational reforms of the 18th century. strengthened the tendency to give the education system a class character: aristocratic educational institutions arose; The reform of theological education gave birth to primary bishops' schools, theological seminaries, commercial schools, public schools and colleges were opened for the children of the urban lower classes, townspeople, soldiers and sailors.

Subsequently, a system of educational institutions was formed. The primary education network consisted of parochial schools, zemstvo schools, and peasant literacy schools. Secondary education was represented by two types of educational institutions: classical gymnasiums (children of nobles studied; admission of children of low-income parents was limited by the circular “On cooks’ children”) and real schools (trained specialists in various professions). Higher education could be obtained at institutes and universities. The number of literate people grew: in the 60s. XIX century they made up 6% of the population; at the end of the 19th century - 28%. This was progress compared to the past, but compared to other countries, Russia remained a backward country.

Since 1882, primary education came completely under the control of the church.

At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. In building a primary education system, the following principles can be distinguished:

2. Unity of command. In 1898, all types of primary schools, with the exception of denominational ones, were subordinated to the Ministry of Public Education, to which they were responsible for the implementation of the state program of compulsory educational subjects. These included: the Law of God, reading books of civil and church press, writing, Russian language, arithmetic, Russian history and geography, natural science, drawing and drawing.

3. Multi-type. The primary school was not the only type of educational institution in which all children were required to attend. The type of educational institution depended on the place of residence of the students, their nationality, religion, class, and family wealth.

4. Tolerance. Although the Law of God was not just compulsory, but also the main academic discipline, this did not mean that the Orthodox Church completely dominated in elementary school. The teaching of this subject depended on the religion of the students, while the children of Old Believers and sectarians received the right to home education in this subject. In addition, there were special confessional schools in which children who professed the main religions of the Russian Empire, various directions of Christianity, Islam and Judaism, received primary religious education.

5. Supranationality. Despite the fact that the primary school remained predominantly Russian-language, its task was to educate as many peoples of the empire as possible.

6. Alternative. Primary school was seen as an alternative to secondary education. For this reason, its graduates were denied access to higher educational institutions and administrative and bureaucratic positions. However, since the main contingent of students were children of representatives of the tax-paying classes - peasants, petty bourgeois and workers - they were given the broadest opportunities to continue their education in vocational and technical schools, thanks to which the state, while maintaining the existing class hierarchy, received qualified workers, engineers, technical employees, lower category teachers. In addition, since primary school education began at the age of 7, a student who graduated from a one-class school; had the right and opportunity to take entrance tests to a gymnasium or a real school.

7. Professional orientation. It seems that the main specialization in primary schools is pedagogy. Graduates, remaining at schools as teacher assistants, received primary pedagogical education in practice for 3 years and, having a recommendation from the pedagogical council, entered the corresponding secondary and higher educational institutions without competition. Crafts training was conducted less thoroughly, which was considered as a main subject only in vocational and technical primary schools.

8. Openness. This principle must be considered in two aspects. First, the boarding system of education was not typical for primary schools. It was fully implemented only in orphanages and in a small number of private primary schools. Second, the primary school was officially proclaimed an all-class type of educational institution. Any class had the right to receive primary education, and this mainly concerned representatives of the tax-paying classes at any age. However, the class-based nature of education was also preserved because primary schools, located in rural and urban areas and in areas where Cossacks settled, firstly, belonged to different types of educational institutions, and, secondly, were designed for a certain contingent of students.

9. Payment. Primary education, like secondary education, was paid. However, tuition fees varied depending on who founded the school. In particular, charitable organizations, especially in rural areas, managed to reduce tuition fees to a truly symbolic amount - 20 kopecks per month.

The primary school in pre-revolutionary Russia played a major role in the dissemination of elementary general and religious and moral education to all segments of the population. (See Appendix 1).

On the eve of the First World War, the primary school of the Russian Empire consisted of the following types of educational institutions:

1. Class educational institutions.

Various primary schools belong to this type. Nominally proclaimed universal, they nevertheless remained class-based in terms of enrollment of students depending on the locality. First of all, let's name rural primary schools - one-class with a training period of 3 years and two-class with a five-year training period. City primary schools belong to the same type (until 1878 - district primary schools). They were one-, two-, three-, and four-grade. The duration of their studies was set at 6 years.

As a special type of class-based primary schools, it is necessary to distinguish Cossack (military) schools with a 6-year period of study. When recruiting compulsory subjects, special attention was paid to initial military training for boys, which was associated with the traditions of the Cossacks.

Primary schools and Cossack (military) schools were under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Public Education. The circle of founders of these educational institutions was not limited.

As a fundamentally new type of primary schools, in 1912, higher primary schools (VNU) were formed, separated from city primary schools, two-class public schools in the Kyiv, Podolsk, Volyn provinces and four-class women's schools in the Don Army region. Their goal was to provide students with a completed primary education. VNU accepted children from 10 to 13 years old who had completed a one-class primary school course at the Ministry of Public Education.

Additional classes or courses were opened at the VNU - pedagogical, postal and telegraphic, accounting, construction, electrical engineering, agricultural and handicraft. Training there was conducted according to an in-depth program.

VNU graduates could continue their education in the following special educational institutions according to their specialization profile (their list was specifically specified in the Regulations on VNU): teacher institutes and seminaries, secondary agricultural schools, Nikitsky School of Horticulture, Suvodskaya Lower Forestry School, forest schools, land surveying schools, Petrograd polytechnic courses, art colleges and schools, Stroganov Central School, secondary technical schools, technical school of the Artillery Department, Secondary Construction Technical School, Okhta Mechanical and Technical School, Petrograd Agricultural Courses, Saratov Technical Railway School, river schools, paramedic schools, spinning and weaving School, Moscow City University named after. Shanyavsky.

2. Confessional educational institutions

Confessional educational institutions were clearly divided according to religious principles.

Educational institutions for children of the Orthodox confession received final registration according to the Highest Decree of April 13, 1884, which approved the Rules on parochial schools. The Law of God became the core of the curriculum.

Church-parochial schools were divided into one-class (3-year duration of study) and two-class with a five-year duration of study.

In addition to parochial schools, basic education was provided by literacy schools, the duration of which was not specified. These educational institutions were administered by the diocesan clergy.

The activities of educational institutions for children of heterodox faiths and non-Orthodox religions were regulated by the Highest Regulations of July 23, 1844 on private educational institutions and home teachers, in fact equating them to a private school.

Church schools for children of non-Orthodox religions with a period of study from 3 to 6 years provided elementary primary education and taught the basics of the national religion to children of Catholics, Protestants and followers of the Armenian-Gregorian Church.

These schools existed until 1898, when they were transformed into schools that united students not on a narrow confessional basis, but on a national-confessional basis.

Among the Jews, the foundations of elementary education and the foundations of the Jewish religion were spread by special spiritual primary schools, chederahs, established by the local Jewish clergy as a private school. The duration of study in cheder ranged from 7 to 10 years.

Muslims also had their own type of primary theological school. It was called mektebe. For three years, students here studied the Arabic language and writing, the main provisions of Sharia, Muslim prayers and rituals, and read the Koran. This was the most closed type of primary theological educational institution, since the need for elementary European education was categorically denied here, and all attempts by the imperial administration to introduce general education subjects into the course of study in the mekteb were met with mute misunderstanding and rejection among the Muslim clergy, who were in charge of these schools.

3. National primary educational institutions

Primary schools in pre-revolutionary Russia essentially remained Russian-language. However, during the era of the Great Reforms, during the restructuring of the education system for the Empire, it became clear that in areas with an indigenous non-Russian population, the introduction of a purely Russian school was doomed to failure. We needed a different system of education, which, without violence against nationality, would allow foreigners to be involved in the full life of subjects of the Empire, would allow them to receive not only an elementary education, but also to continue their studies in secondary schools, and, God willing, in higher educational institutions .

On March 26, 1370, the Ministry of Public Education issued Rules on measures for the education of foreigners, confirmed in 1872 by the Regulations on Primary Schools, which established a new system of primary education in Russia. According to the Rules, two types of state-owned primary schools were introduced for foreigners: the first - for those professing the Christian faith, the second - for Muslim Tatars. The duration of study in them was determined from 3 to 6 years.

4. Private primary schools

The existence of schools of this type was established in 1844. All private educational institutions were subordinated to the Ministry of Public Education, which strictly monitored the implementation of the State Standard.

Private primary educational institutions were called public schools and were divided, depending on the duration of study, into categories. Children studied in schools of the first or highest category for 6 years; The duration of study in second-class schools was 3 years, third-class 1-2 years.

This type also includes private home schools that provided the basics of education, i.e. taught to read, write and count.

5. Lower technical and vocational schools

The children who studied here received not only a basic education, but also mastered a certain profession. The duration of training was 6 years. It is typical that graduates of technical and vocational schools did not have the right to enter higher educational institutions, which prevented the outflow of qualified workers from industry.

A special type of schools of this type were railway schools, initially subordinate to the Ministry of Communications, and since 1898 - to the Ministry of Public Education, as technical and vocational schools.

6. Primary educational institutions at shelters and charitable societies

Among primary educational institutions, it is necessary to highlight both general education and vocational boarding schools for orphans at state and private orphanages, secondary schools at monasteries, etc.

All institutions of this type, with the exception of monastic schools, were subordinate to the Ministry of Public Education. Classes were conducted according to the program of urban and rural schools.

7. Primary educational institutions for persons who do not have the opportunity to use teaching on a daily basis

In Sunday schools, opened at the initiative of the government, urban and rural societies, clergy, private individuals, but subordinate to the Ministry of Public Education, for 6 years workers and artisans were taught the law of God, writing, reading books of civil and church press, arithmetic, and then, where there was an opportunity - and church singing.

The noted features of the education system in the period under review, along with the difficult socio-economic situation of the poor, led to the fact that on the eve of the October events of 1917, Russia was significantly behind the developed Western European countries in terms of literacy levels. As of 1913, four-fifths of school-age children did not have the opportunity to receive an education. Large masses of people in the country were illiterate. Compared to 1926, the percentage of literate people aged 9-49 was only 57%.

Education system in Russia in the 1917-1920s.

The February Revolution of 1917 contributed to the development of the social and pedagogical movement in Russia.

Educational institutions in Russia before 1917

In April 1917, the All-Russian Teachers' Congress took place, during which the All-Russian Teachers' Union (VUS) was created. The lack of unified approaches did not allow the Higher Educational Institution to outline a unified program of education reforms.

After the October Revolution of 1917

the problem of restructuring the entire education system was put forward as a priority. The Bolsheviks viewed school as an important means of promoting communist ideology.

The first measures of the Soviet government to change the education system caused resistance from many teachers.

The teachers' strike was declared illegal by the Council of People's Commissars, and the activities of the Higher Educational Institution were prohibited. At the same time, the Soviet state issued documents in which new goals, objectives and a program of school education were legally approved.

A humane attitude towards the child and the need to create conditions for his comprehensive development were formally proclaimed as the most important tasks of the new government policy in the field of education.

Educational ideals and values ​​were affirmed in all documents of the People’s Commissariat of Education (Narkompros), created in 1918 (“Address of the People’s Commissar for Education” (1917), “Basic principles of the Unified Labor School”, “Declaration of the Unified Labor School” labor school" (1918), "Regulations on the Unified Labor School of the RSFSR" (1918)).

The joint education of children of both sexes should have been implemented in the practice of the Soviet school.

The documents of the People's Commissariat for Education stated that only a teacher who accepted the socialist idea could raise a humanist. Therefore, they began to pay great attention to the training of new teachers.

Heads of People's Commissariat for Education - A.V.

Lunacharsky, N.K. Krups-kaya, M.N. Pokrovsky - they said that educating a person in the spirit of humanism is associated with the formation of communist conviction.

Public schools, gymnasiums, real schools, and lyceums were to be replaced by the Unified Labor School, which, according to the plans of the Soviet government, was intended to become a powerful factor in the formation of a free, democratically oriented personality of a new person.

In documents about the school of that time, much attention was paid to the development of self-government in it as a means of democratizing the entire educational process.

The main direction of the Unified Labor School was the development of a healthy child, for which sports activities were introduced into schools.

Based on the ideas and documents of the People's Commissariat for Education in the fall of 1918.

an attempt was made to implement the concept of the Unified Labor School, which was divided into two stages: stage I for children from 8 to 13 years old (five-year course of study) and stage II for teenagers and young men aged 14-17 years (four-year course of study).

Schooling should be preceded by a kindergarten for children from 6 to 8 years old.

The ideas of humanization and democratization of education required new forms and methods of educational activities. The unified labor school was supposed to become the center for organizing children's life; the process of training and education was planned as a year-round one. In winter, children had to study in schools, visit plants and factories, and in the summer participate in productive work in the city and countryside, putting into practice the knowledge, skills and abilities acquired at school.

Schools encouraged independent study and the completion of creative tasks: essays, abstracts, competitions for the best work, independent experiments in laboratories, work in reading rooms, preparing evenings, matinees, etc.

In September 1919, the People's Commissariat for Education approved the following system of schools: Unified Labor School of the 1st stage (training period - 5 years), which was the basis for both the secondary school of the 2nd stage (training period - 4 years), and for vocational schools (duration of study – 4 years).

After graduating from level II school, it was expected to study for 4-5 years at institutes, and after graduating from a vocational school, three years of study at technical schools (see diagram 15.1. - Education system in the USSR in 1922-1926).

Scheme 15.1.

At the end of 1919 - beginning of 1920

A meeting was held on education issues, at which, instead of a nine-year school, a seven-year school with 2 concentrations was recognized as the basis for all types of education: I - 4 years, II - 3 years.

On this basis, it was planned to create vocational schools - technical schools with a 3-4-year period of study, and then study in higher education.

At the same time, it was possible to create vocational schools on the basis of primary general education training.

In 1922, the People's Commissariat of Education published a decree according to which the main type of secondary school again became a nine-year school, consisting of 2 levels: a first-level school (duration of study - 5 years) and a second-level school (duration of study - 4 years).

Beginning in 1927, compulsory curricula and programs were adopted for second-level schools.

The curriculum distinguished two cycles: social and natural science disciplines.

Particular attention in second-level schools was paid to polytechnic training and labor education. They were supposed to be assisted by FZU (factory apprenticeship) schools, vocational schools, technical schools, universities, agricultural experimental stations, factories, factories, collective farms, sending their specialists to train schoolchildren in professions, etc. In 1926-1934. There were two types of schools of the first level: in cities and workers, factory seven-year school settlements (FZS) and in rural areas peasant schools (since 1939).

– collective farm youth (SHKM). Those who graduated from these schools could enter the 8th grade, i.e. to secondary vocational schools or secondary vocational schools. In the FZS students were given some skills in industrial work, and in the ShKM - in agricultural work.

All work to replace the traditional school with a new Unified Labor School was organized and led by the People's Commissariat for Education.

The first People's Commissar of Education was appointed Anatoly Vasilievich Lunacharsky(1875-1933).

All his publications on educational issues were devoted to the promotion of communist ideas in the field of education. Thus, in the article “Education of a “new” person” (1928), he wrote that a child should be raised for a socialist society.

This installation determined the entire direction of the construction of the Soviet school.

The main figure of the People's Commissariat for Education was Nadezhda Konstantinovna Krupskaya(1869-1939). She published a number of articles and brochures on issues of labor training and polytechnic education, content and methods of teaching at school, about the teacher, about adult education, preschool education, about the activities of pioneer organizations, etc.

In general, the entire process of building the Unified Labor School had an ideological and political orientation.

The creation of the Soviet school required a radical revision of approaches to the content and methods of general education, which was reflected in new curricula and programs, educational literature for students, and teaching aids for teachers.

The People's Commissariat of Education of the RSFSR published “Programs for the Seven-Year Unified Labor School.” They made an attempt to establish a connection between learning and modernity, to create conditions for the development of initiative in both students and teachers. At the same time, they lacked a unified approach to the selection of educational material: in the subjects of the natural and mathematical cycle, due attention was not paid to theoretical aspects, and in the study of disciplines of the humanitarian cycle, abstract sociological schematism, ideologization and politicization of the content of individual subjects, regardless of age of students.

Fundamental changes in the content of education and its organization were made in 1923, when so-called comprehensive programs prepared by the scientific and pedagogical section of the State Academic Council (GUS) began to be introduced into school practice. Strict politicization and ideologization, consideration of the human personality as a means for building a communist society were the basis of the entire educational process.

In accordance with these principles, the content of educational material in GUS programs was concentrated around three topics: nature, work, society.

Attention was focused on human labor activity, which was to be studied in connection with nature as the object of this activity and social life as a consequence of labor activity.

With the complex construction of educational programs, the subject-based education system was practically eliminated.

When distributing the content of educational material by year of study, the principle “from close to far” was taken as a basis. Thus, in the first year of study, all educational material was grouped around the child’s life in the family and school and work that was close to children was studied, which was considered in connection with changes in nature at different times of the year, etc.

In schools of the second level, the subject system was preserved, and the programs of academic subjects were built taking into account their interrelationships. However, here too they tried to concentrate the educational material around complex topics.

The experience of implementing new programs showed that although they helped to establish a connection between school and life, to attract students to active socially useful activities, they did not ensure that students acquired systematic knowledge.

All this led to the fact that in the 1927-1928 academic year, GUS programs were introduced in a new edition - the first state programs mandatory for all schools of the RSFSR.

They assumed a combination of comprehensive and subject-based training.

The main attention of the People's Commissariat of Education and educational authorities was paid to the implementation of the Bolshevik idea of ​​polytechnic education.

The principle of polytechnicism, polytechnic education was manifested in the desire for the maximum combination of learning with productive work, which was supposed to be of a socially significant nature.

In 1927, labor was introduced into school as a special subject of study.

Students got acquainted with the main industries, with various materials and tools. The task was to develop their labor skills and abilities. At the first level school, children were taught the basic skills of working with wood, paper, fabric, metal, and clay; specially equipped workrooms had to be created for this.

Pupils of the senior groups of seven-year schools worked in school workshops, learning more complex work techniques.

Attention to polytechnic education and labor training for schoolchildren was also reflected in the programs introduced in 1930.

They were built, like the previous ones, on the basis of a combination of complexity and the project method and were intended for factory seven-year years (FZS), the main purpose of which was seen in preparing graduates for work in factories or factories.

The lesson gradually became the main organizational form of teaching at school.

A differentiated assessment of students' knowledge was considered appropriate, which was reflected in the introduction of a marking system - excellent, good, mediocre, bad, very bad. Serious attention began to be paid to the preparation of stable textbooks in all subjects.

Teachers and prominent scientists were involved in this.

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GYMNASIUM (from the ancient Greek γυμν?σιον - educational institution), secondary general educational institutions characteristic of the classical education system. The term "gymnasium" was also used to mean "place for exercise." In this sense, gymnasiums functioned in the ancient cities of Greece, Egypt, Syria, and Asia Minor. Since the end of the 5th century, gymnasiums have become educational institutions, where philosophers, rhetoricians, and scientists held their conversations.

The most famous Greek gymnasiums are: Dromos in Sparta, three gymnasiums in Athens, Craneion in Corinth, etc.

The formation of the European gymnasium of the New Age is associated with the emergence in the 15th and 16th centuries of Latin schools (also called lyceums, learned schools, pedagogiums, etc.), which prepared students for entering the university.

The first such school arose in London in 1510; in Germany, the first attempt to build a system of gymnasium education belonged to F. Melanchthon, who founded the “higher school” in Nuremberg (1526). The school prepared students for public service and further scientific studies. From the end of the 17th to the beginning of the 18th century, elements of scientific natural science gradually penetrated into the gymnasium programs, and the proportion of new languages ​​increased. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, there were gymnasiums in Russia, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Germany, Holland, Greece, Denmark, Serbia and the German cantons of Switzerland.

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In the 2nd half of the 19th - 1st half of the 20th century, gymnasium education was differentiated.

Varieties of gymnasiums appeared: real, new languages, natural and mathematical (sometimes they existed as corresponding departments of the gymnasium). In the 1950-1970s, economic, technical, music, sports and other gymnasiums emerged, providing training for industry universities. In parallel with differentiation, alternative trends towards the unification of gymnasium education took shape: along with the introduction of new subjects (psychology, economics, computer technology, etc.), a range of compulsory subjects was determined - artistic and linguistic, political, natural and mathematical, religious, etc.

At the beginning of the 21st century, grammar schools operate in most European countries; in France they correspond to lyceums and colleges, in Great Britain - grammar and higher schools, in the USA - high schools, in Spain - institutes and colleges, in Italy - lyceums.

In many countries, gymnasiums retain the role of the only level of secondary education required for admission to university (often without exams - through a competition of gymnasium certificates).

Gymnasiums in Russia. In 1804-72, gymnasiums were the main, and in 1872-1918, one of the main (along with real schools) types of secondary educational institutions.

The first gymnasiums for men were created - the Academic Gymnasium, the gymnasium at Moscow University (1755-1812) and in Kazan (founded in 1758). The charter of educational institutions subordinate to universities (1804) prescribed the creation of a gymnasium in every provincial city (implemented in the 1820s).

Had 4 classes. They studied Latin, German and French, history, geography, statistics, natural history, mathematics, physics (until 1819 also a number of other subjects), and from 1819 - the Law of God and the Russian language. In 1804-28, upon admission to gymnasiums, knowledge of the course of district schools was required. In accordance with the Charter of gymnasiums, district and parish schools of 1828 (fully introduced in the mid-1830s), the course of the gymnasium was increased to 7 years, gymnasiums actually began to perform the functions of an elementary school.

The teaching of the Greek language was introduced (by 1851 it was taught in 45 of 74 gymnasiums). Since 1849, only high school students who intended to enter universities studied ancient languages. In 1851, the teaching of Greek in most gymnasiums was discontinued.

The Charter of gymnasiums and pro-gymnasiums of 1864 introduced the division of gymnasiums into real (in 1871 they were renamed into real schools, their charter was approved in 1872) and classical, and provided for the possibility of creating pro-gymnasiums - incomplete secondary educational institutions (had 4-6 classes). All students at the classical gymnasium studied Latin; Whenever possible, they introduced the teaching of the Greek language. According to the Charter of gymnasiums and pro-gymnasiums of 1871 (valid until 1918), the duration of study in the 7th grade was 2 years (in 1875 it was divided into 7th and 8th grades), ancient language courses were expanded (until 1890 - about 40% of the teaching time ), preparatory classes were created at the gymnasium, which performed the functions of an elementary school.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the study of Greek became optional in most grammar schools. In 1913, there were 441 men's gymnasiums (in 1855 - 79, in 1886 - 175), 14 six-grade (in 1886 - 20) and 15 four-grade (in 1886 - 50) pro-gymnasiums, over 152 thousand studied in them (in 1855 - 18 thousand , in 1886 - over 70 thousand) high school students. Persons who had certificates of completion of men's gymnasiums had privileges when entering the civil service and promotion to the 1st rank, were admitted to universities without entrance examinations (in 1835-63 they took exams, but had advantages over other applicants, in 1863-1884 sometimes subjected to tests at the discretion of the university).

Women's gymnasiums and pro-gymnasiums had 7 classes (most also had an additional 8th pedagogical class), their courses were close to those of men's gymnasiums, however (with a few exceptions) they lacked ancient languages.

They differed by departmental affiliation. Gymnasiums of the Department of Institutions of Empress Maria (VUIM) existed since 1858 (until 1862 they were called schools for incoming girls), they operated on the basis of the 1862 charter. The first women's gymnasiums and pro-gymnasiums of the Ministry of Public Education (MPE) were created in accordance with the Regulations on women's gymnasiums and pro-gymnasiums of 1870 on the basis of the 1st and 2nd category women's schools that existed since 1858. Graduates received the titles of primary teachers and teachers of public schools, and those who graduated from the pedagogical class received the titles of home tutors and teachers.

In 1909, the MNP had jurisdiction over 590 women’s gymnasiums and 117 women’s pro-gymnasiums (over 237 thousand gymnasium students studied in them), and 33 gymnasiums (over 15 thousand gymnasium students) belonged to VUIM.

Since 1868, some private schools of the 1st category received the name private gymnasiums; among the most famous is the men's gymnasium of L.

Literacy and education in Tsarist Russia

I. Polivanova (later I. L. Polivanova) and the S. N. Fisher women's gymnasium in Moscow. Children of all classes and religions studied in male and female gymnasiums. In 1827, they stopped admitting children of serfs and serfs, and in 1887, admission to men's gymnasiums for persons of the Jewish faith, “children of shopkeepers and the like” was limited. In 1828-64, corporal punishment was allowed against high school students.

Education at the gymnasium was free in 1804-19, then paid for most students. After the February Revolution of 1917, gymnasiums and pro-gymnasiums with joint education of boys and girls began to open. In 1918, in accordance with the Regulations of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee “On the Unified Labor School,” gymnasiums in the RSFSR were transformed into schools of the 1st and 2nd levels.

In 1863-82 there were military gymnasiums (most of them were created on the basis of general classes of cadet corps).

They were boarding-type institutions, and since 1873 they also accepted incoming students. Graduates mainly entered special military educational institutions. In 1879 there were 18 military gymnasiums. Reorganized into cadet corps.

Gymnasiums began to be created again in the late 1980s.

According to the “Model Regulations on a General Educational Institution” (2001), the gymnasium implements general education programs of basic general and secondary (complete) education, providing additional (in-depth) training for students in humanities subjects, and can also implement a program of primary general education. In the 2004/2005 academic year, there were over 1.2 thousand gymnasiums in the Russian Federation.

Lit.: Aleshintsev I. History of gymnasium education in Russia (XVIII and XIX centuries).

St. Petersburg, 1912; Kandaurova T. N. Gymnasiums // Essays on Russian culture of the 19th century M., 2001. T. 3.

I. V. Zubkov (gymnasiums in the Russian Empire).

Real school(from German Realschule) in Germany, pre-revolutionary Russia and a number of other countries - a secondary or incomplete secondary educational institution in which a significant role is given to natural and mathematical subjects.

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The prototypes of real schools or colleges were practical educational institutions that arose in Europe back in the Middle Ages.

One of the first founders of real schools is considered to be a pastor from Halle, Christoph Zemler, who organized the “Mathematical-Mechanical Real School” (Mathematische und Mechanische Realschule) in 1707, introducing a course on economics in 1738, calling it “Mathematical, Mechanical and economic real school."

In 1747, in Berlin, the German theologian Johann Hecker opened the “Economic and Mathematical Real School”; Since 1753, this school began to be called royal. Its director, Spilleke, transformed it in 1822 into a “general educational institution for practical purposes”; His program included the Law of God, natural sciences, mathematics, languages: German, French and English, history, geography and drawing.

A feature of this class of educational institution was the lack of teaching of ancient languages ​​and ancient history. In 1859, a charter was adopted that distinguished between three types of schools: real schools of the first category (with a 9-year course and Latin language), real schools of the second category (with an 8-year course, without Latin) and higher city schools (the same Second category schools, but with a 6-year course).

Until 1859, there were 56 real schools in Germany, and after 14 years their number rapidly increased to 179.

In Austria, the statute of 1850 defined the task of real schools as “an average degree of preliminary education necessary for industrial occupations, as well as preparation for technical institutions.”

Real education in Russia

In Russia, the initiative to establish real schools came from private individuals and arose by the early 1830s.

Initially, the goal of such schools was only to disseminate “technical knowledge directly useful for industrial activity,” but then it was expanded towards general educational knowledge.

In 1839, already at the government level, the task of organizing real classes for “temporary teaching of technical sciences” was set. Later, the purpose of their establishment was the intention “to distract children of the lower classes from taking a gymnasium course.” The subjects taught were practical chemistry, practical mechanics, drawing and drafting.

Not only students, but also “other persons of industrial rank” were allowed to listen to them, free of charge. In 1839, at the third Moscow gymnasium, a real department was opened, consisting of 6 classes; it was intended mainly for the children of merchants and townspeople. The children of merchants of the 1st and 2nd guilds who completed the course there enjoyed the benefits of commercial schools and the Moscow Practical Academy, and the children of merchants of the 3rd guild and townspeople were exempted from corporal punishment and conscription.

During the period 1841-1866, there were only 593 students in this department, while in the classical department for the same time there were 2997. Due to the small number of students, real classes were gradually closed.

In 1840, a real gymnasium was founded in Warsaw, which differed from the real branch of the 3rd Moscow gymnasium mainly in that it had a 7th, additional class. At the same time, the obvod (or 4-grade district) schools of the Kingdom of Poland were divided into preparatory (actually 4-grade gymnasiums) and real ones, “those with a technical, commercial or agronomic direction,” depending on local needs.

After 9 years there were 7 such real schools.

The Charter of November 19, 1864 “On real gymnasiums and pro-gymnasiums” determined the creation of seven-grade real gymnasiums, the purpose of which, along with classical gymnasiums, was “general education and preparation for entry into higher specialized educational institutions.”

They were accessible to children of all backgrounds and religions and had a program largely similar to classical gymnasiums and exactly the same administration.

Education system in pre-revolutionary Russia

But certificates of completion of a course from real gymnasiums were only “taken into consideration” when entering higher specialized institutions.

In 1871, real gymnasiums were renamed real schools, and the following year a new charter, approved on May 15, 1872, declared their goal to be “general education adapted to practical needs and to the acquisition of technical knowledge,” referring primarily to the needs of trade and industry . The course of study lasted six to seven years.

In the senior classes, applied disciplines were taught (mechanics, chemistry, as well as technological and commercial subjects). Graduates of such schools could enter technical, industrial and commercial higher education institutions, but not universities.

In 1888, real schools were reformed into general education institutions, the graduates of which could already enter the university at the faculties of physics, mathematics and medicine.

In 1913, in the Russian Empire there were 276 secondary schools, in which about 17 thousand people studied.

After the October Revolution of 1917, this type of educational institutions was abolished in Russia. Instead, in Soviet Russia, factory apprenticeship schools with similar tasks arose (the prototype of the GPTU system of the 1960s) and, since 1923, technical schools (as full-fledged secondary specialized technical educational institutions, SSUZ).

Currently, significantly transformed real schools exist in the education systems of a number of countries - as institutions for training highly qualified[ source not specified 414 days] workers.