Long Parliament in England. The main stages of the English Revolution. See what the “Long Parliament” is in other dictionaries

At the beginning of the 17th century. England entered a historical period of crisis of the previous state structure. The crisis was largely historically objective; as a result of significant changes in the economic life and agrarian system of the country over the previous century, a new socio-political situation, and English absolutism showed no desire to modernize either its system or its legal policy.

During the reign of the first kings of the dynasty Stuarts(1603-1649) the crisis took the open form of a political confrontation between the absolute monarchy (and the aristocracy, part of the nobility, especially the north-western regions, and the Anglican clergy who fully supported the old order) and the modernizing strata of society. This was facilitated by the unsuccessful internal policy of the monarchy, which, among other things, violated traditional ideas about the tasks of the state and the goals of its activities.

The archaic economic and legal policy of the monarchy retained its estate-corporate character. While a new layer of nobility was formed in the country, involved in commercial and industrial activities by the logic of economic development. As a result of the breakdown of the medieval agrarian system during the “enclosures” of the 16th century. a significant layer of large and medium-sized land tenants emerged, which formed the basis of the entrepreneurial class. By the system of crown monopolies and ubiquitous state tutelage, they were pushed away from the benefits of foreign and colonial trade, and from the opportunity to prospectively develop domestic production.

Conflict between Crown and Parliament

James I and Charles I consistently defended the prerogatives of the crown and the priority of the principles of absolutism to the detriment of the historical constitution of England. The practical influence of parliament on state affairs weakened: from 1611 to 1640, parliament did not meet for a total of two years. The crown preferred to do without parliament, because it encountered constant opposition in it. And it could not do without taxes and subsidies approved by Parliament, because the opposition population refused to pay taxes, and the courts took a dual position in this, following the principles of “common law” (in 1629, Parliament directly decided that “the enemy of English freedom is the one who will pay taxes not approved by parliament").

Since 1614, parliament has been 2/3 Puritan in composition. A constant motive for his activities was the adoption of various kinds of resolutions on his political priority. This led, as a rule, to the rapid dissolution of the representative office. Parliament's claim to supremacy was particularly stated in the resolutions of December 18, 1621: “All the liberties, privileges, powers, and judicial powers of Parliament are the hereditary property of every Englishman; Parliament has the right to interfere in all public affairs, no one except the House itself has power over any member of it.” The angry James I personally appeared in parliament and tore out a sheet of paper with this entry from the protocol, then dissolving parliament.

Charles I's first attempts to find political agreement with parliament also ended in failure. The parliament convened in Oxford in 1626 (there was a plague in London) refused subsidies to the crown due to disagreement over the war with Spain and the policies of the Duke of Buckingham's government. Parliament, which met again in 1628, proposed a special act to the king - Petition for right. The petition basically declared the foundations of the historical constitution of the kingdom, confirmed the rights of parliament, including the exclusive vote of taxes, and condemned the actions of the royal administration in violation of the established laws of the kingdom. The petition was initially accepted by the king. But then, relying on the opposition of the Anglican Church, Charles I practically nullified its significance and dissolved Parliament.

In the new parliament, a more decisive opposition was formed (around deputies O. Cromwell, G. Pym, Hampden, etc.), which led the political discussion without the usual reverence for the crown: the king is called upon to help the kingdom or the parliament will do without him. Explaining the reason for the dissolution of Parliament and the reservation regarding the Petition of Right before the House of Lords. Charles I directly named among them “the rebellious behavior of several vipers.”

After the dissolution of parliament in 1629, there followed 11 years of non-parliamentary rule, during which the crisis of power and opposition to the crown took forms that anticipated civil war. The government of the king's new minister, the Earl of Strafford, acted “at the drop of a hat,” regardless of either tradition or the agreements in the Petition of Right. Emigration from the country to the New World increased (about 20 thousand people went over these years, most of them supporters of new religious movements). In 1636, due to the crown's attempts to introduce episcopal government and new church rites in Scotland, an armed Scottish uprising began, which turned out to be impossible to suppress due to the weakness of the internal army and the lack of subsidies for it. In fact, during the uprising, which developed into an open Anglo-Scottish war, English absolutism was actually broken.

In April 1640, the king convened a new parliament (called the Short), from which he demanded 12 financial subsidies. Parliament put forward counter-demands and was dissolved. However, the knighthood of the counties, assembled by the crown for the Scottish war, put forward a petition about the poor state of the kingdom. The convening of a new parliament was the beginning of the revolution and the collapse of the monarchy in England.

Long Parliament and political reforms

Activities of the opened 3 November 1640 Long Parliament (1640-1653)* became the main political form of government reforms in the country. Behind this activity there was a broad social movement of opposition to the monarchy and, on the contrary, in its support, religious disputes and interethnic conflicts, which ultimately resulted in two successive civil wars in the country.

* Parliament was called long already in the 17th century. due to the unusual duration of work - 13 years and in comparison with the previous one - Short (1640).

The Long Parliament consisted of 516 members of the House of Commons and 150 members of the House of Lords. The most significant part - more than 250 deputies - was the new knighthood, mainly representing cities and, secondarily, counties. There were many deputies who were members of the memorable parliament of 1628, including the opposition leaders Grimston, Pym, Beppou, who increased their political influence. The overwhelming majority of the House of Commons included Presbyterians and other opponents of the state church.

Position of the Church of England became the first target of parliament's political attack and forced concessions from the crown. At the suggestion of the leaders of the House of Commons, Parliament considered a list of obvious abuses and violations of freedoms and rights, including the cases of three previously convicted citizens for pamphlets against bishops (by decision of the Star Chamber, those ears were cut off for “slanderous and offensive speech”). The verdicts were overturned, the Star Chamber was condemned, declared “harmful”, and the authorities of parliament ordered it to pay significant compensation to the convicted. At the beginning of 1641, Parliament began discussing the petition (and then the bill) “On Roots and Branches,” which provided for the destruction of episcopal power. Although the bill was passed later, the episcopal structure of the Church of England ceased to exist. And more importantly, the bishops were expelled from the House of Lords. This significantly changed the political weight of the chambers in favor of the Commons.

Through a series of other decisions, parliament attempted to create an administration responsible to the representation. One of the main supporters of the crown, Archbishop V. Laud, several senior dignitaries, and then the head of the royal administration, Earl of Strafford, were convicted for political activities. Moreover, having failed to achieve conviction through the usual legal means, Parliament adopted a special “Act of Conviction” against Strafford on charges of high treason (in the tradition of the revived right of impeachment). The King was forced to approve the Act, and in May 1641 Strafford was executed. At the end of the struggle for the supremacy of Parliament in executive matters, decisions were made (July 7, 1641) to abolish the High Commission. Star Chamber, some other administrative committees.

The judicial powers of the crown were reduced. Parliament abolished the courts of royal prerogative (extraordinary chambers of justice). Councils for the North and Wales, limited the jurisdiction of the Privy Council. All courts of equity (except the Chancery) were abolished, and in their place the exclusive powers of the common law courts, which historically had been under the influence of the statutory law of Parliament, were confirmed. Thus, parliament secured primacy in the field of justice.

Parliament declared its independence from the crown. By a special bill (dated February 15, 1641), it was decided that the unparliamentary rule of the king could not last longer than three years and that if the crown did not take measures to convene parliament within the statutory time frame, the Lord Chancellor and the Lord Privy Seal were obliged to take measures themselves to convene deputies under threat of impeachment. At the same time, it was written that parliament could not be dissolved earlier than 50 days from its convocation. Thus, the parliament was transformed from a royal one into a national one. In the summer of 1641, important regulations were adopted on the exclusive rights of parliament in taxation.

In the autumn of 1641, in conditions of aggravation of the internal situation in the country, the decline in the prestige of parliament, and the outbreak of an uprising in Ireland, the House of Commons initiated constitutional consolidation of the reforms carried out. An extensive petition was presented to the king under the title Great Remonstrance (December 1, 1641). In it, Parliament insisted on the crown recognizing as unshakable the “fundamental laws and principles of government of the kingdom”, on the rejection of vicious legal policies (monopolies, taxation without the consent of parliament, independence in the disposal of crown property, etc.). The abolition of the episcopate and church courts was confirmed. The idea was put forward of a government and even higher officials responsible to parliament, without which the crown would be denied subsidies. The guarantee of “protection of the laws and freedoms of the kingdom” was supposed to be the indisputable advantage of the “common law” courts.

Parliament accepted the Remonstrance with a tiny majority (159 to 148 votes). The king returning from Scotland was forced to approve it. Remonstration meant the recognition of a certain political balance in the country. Therefore, the crown decided to take the initiative of politics into its own hands, and Charles I issued a declaration to protect the crown from parliament and to raise an army.

On January 4, 1642, the king arrived at parliament, accompanied by troops, to personally arrest the five most active oppositionists. This was seen as a violation of parliamentary privileges. The pursued took refuge under the protection of the Lord Mayor of London and the townspeople. After exchanging declarations of mutual violation of rights. Charles I was forced to leave the capital. Dual power came to the country. Part of the local knighthood gathered around the king, forming the so-called. cavalry army. A small part of the members of the House of Commons and Lords (about 100) also went to Oxford, forming a royalist parliament there. A war of orders began, sent to the localities by both the crown and parliament. An objective solution could be and was the first civil war in the country (1642-1646).

During the civil war, parliament took measures to organize a new state administration. It began with the Executive Committee of Parliament organized back in September 1641 (consisting of 7 lords and 48 members of the House of Commons). He was entrusted with monitoring the progress of affairs in the government apparatus, finances, governance of Ireland and Scotland, and supervision of the courts. Thus, parliament stood at the head of the executive branch. The supremacy of Parliament in matters of government was declared in a special resolution of the House of Commons, supported by part of the Lords, on the subordination of the Privy Council (June 2, 1642). According to the decree, the Privy Council was to be appointed with the consent of parliament; deputies were to control the upbringing of the royal family and give consent to dynastic marriages. It was supposed to make parliament dominant in justice, while the court was considered completely independent. The powers of the executive branch in general, including the crown, were to be significantly reduced.

In development of these principles, during the civil war, under the leadership of Parliament, a network of executive committees was created: the Committee of Security (1642), which was tasked with uncovering royalist conspiracies; Committee of Appropriations (1642), Committee of both Kingdoms, i.e. England and Scotland (1644), which was granted military and foreign policy spheres; Committee on sequestration of royalist property (1644), Committee on fines from relatives of “passive royalists” (1643). In 1643, Parliament resumed the state seal, and justice began to be administered in the name of Parliament.

Finally, parliament adopted a resolution on its own legislative supremacy and recognizing disobedience to parliament as treason.

In fact, since 1642, a republic has been established in England, based on (1) the legislative and judicial supremacy of parliament and (2) subordination of the executive branch to parliament. In reality, there was also an undoubted predominance of the lower house - the Communities, based on elected representation.

This dominance of parliamentary representative government raised doubts about the usefulness of preserving the monarchy: “Aristocracy and monarchy are derivative forms of government,” noted one of the ideologists of the new government, T. Parker. “Democracy is fundamental and natural.”

This became the objective slogan of the final stage of the revolution.

Collapse of the monarchy and establishment of the Republic

The First Civil War (1642-1646) ended in the defeat of the king and his political group. After several military failures of the royal army, Charles I fled to the allied Scots, who, relying on an agreement with the new government, handed the king over to parliament for a significant ransom.

The turning point during the civil war was the creation of a new parliamentary army - the so-called. New Model armies. According to the parliamentary bill of 1645, instead of the traditional militia (county militia), a standing army of 21.5 thousand soldiers was created (including 1/3 of the cavalry, which was the main military force) on a solid financial budget with a single command. Uniform uniforms and strict disciplinary regulations were introduced into the army. It was recruited on the basis of forced recruitment, but the majority joined the army deliberately; it was distinguished by a single spirit and, most importantly, by radical Presbyterian sentiments.

A galaxy of talented generals emerged in the parliamentary army. One of the most prominent was Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658), commander of the cavalry and leader of the moderate republican Protestant wing in the army and parliament.

Another important act was the abolition of the Guardianship Chamber, and with it the feudal basis of land ownership (February 24, 1646). All feudal duties and obligations of landowners in favor of the king were abolished. However, the duties and subordinate status of small freeholders and tenants were retained. To a certain extent, abolition contributed to the advancement of the agrarian system towards the principles of private property.

The victory in the first civil war and the defeat of the monarchy stimulated the isolation of different ideological and political trends in the circles of parliamentary supporters. The Presbyterian majority of parliament (reflecting the positions of the nobility and the financial and commercial patriciate of the cities) sought to reach an agreement with the king on the basis of the historical constitution and confirmation of the Great Remonstrance. Independents, who constituted a minority in parliament (and reflected the positions of the wealthy majority of the country's population), sought to consolidate the supremacy of parliament, including even the possibility of establishing a republic. According to Independent ideology, freedom of conscience was considered a natural human right, the same as freedom of thought in general; Parliament was only supposed to head a system of independent and free communities that would decide matters in a representative manner. During the years of the rise of the revolution in the army and among the urban lower classes, a new movement emerged - the Levellers, whose leader was the publicist D. Lillburn. The Levellers were guided by the recognition of popular supremacy and free government of the people on the basis of universal suffrage. A special place was occupied by the ideas of the army revolutionary element, which demanded a complete reorganization of power on the basis of reasonable laws, even denying the inviolability of the historical constitutional order.

The Independents, led by O. Cromwell, dominated the army, especially after the suppression of the “equalizing” rebellion of part of the regiments in 1647. In May 1647, at the assembly of the army, a special body was formed - Army Council, which dealt not only with military affairs, but also gradually became an institution of public administration. The predominance of the Army Council became significant after in July 1647, under its leadership, the army occupied London and returned to parliament the Prosbyterian and Independent minority expelled from there by the Prosbyterians.

Differences grew between the various currents of parliamentary opposition when the Second Civil War broke out in 1648. Mainly Scottish Presbyterian aristocrats rose to defend the monarchy, they were supported by the fleet, and royalist revolts took place throughout Central England. Cromwell's army suppressed the protests and, once again entering London, supported the dispersal of monarchist-minded members of parliament organized by the Council of Officers (there were about 140 of them). After this, the parliament, reduced in number and poorly represented, became, in essence, an instrument of the independent dictatorship.

The culmination of the revolution was organized by decision of parliament trial of King Charles I(January 1649). The court - the first trial of a nation over the crown in world history - included up to 150 lawyers and members of parliament, but in reality a significant part of them, including the commander-in-chief of the army, General Fairfax, avoided the trial. The trial lasted 5 days. As a result, Charles I was recognized as “a tyrant, a traitor, a murderer and an enemy of the state.” Under pressure from the army and based on the parallel process of political changes in the country, the court imposed a death sentence. On January 30, 1649, in front of a huge crowd of people on the London market square, Charles I's head was cut off. In his farewell speech, the king warned the nation against the “wrong path”: “Brute force now reigns in England. Return to the old ways, render unto Caesar the things that are Caesar's, and unto God the things that are God's... I stand for the people's freedom. But what is it? It is to have government and laws to secure person and property."

The execution of the king was the final, formally legal completion of the establishment of a republic in England. Following the trial, the House of Commons abolished the institution of a one-man monarchy in the country as "unnecessary, burdensome, and dangerous to liberty, the general safety, and the public interest" (March 17, 1649). The fate of the monarchy was divided by the House of Lords, whose members had previously not supported the idea of ​​​​a trial of the king (March 19, 1649). On May 19, 1649, England was proclaimed a republic, which should be governed by “the highest authority of the nation, representatives of the people, and there should be neither a king nor lords in parliament.” The ideas of “common welfare” (Cominonwealth) and “free state” (free State) became the main constitutional principles of the organization of the new government.

The supreme body of power in the English Republic was the Parliament, composed of one House of Commons. His powers were redefined even before the official declaration of the republic. In the Resolution declaring itself the supreme power in the state (January 4, 1649), the House of Commons proclaimed (1) recognition of popular sovereignty as the basis of all power, (2) a representative and electoral organization of the highest power from the communities, (3) unlimited legislative powers of representatives of the communities .

Parliament concentrated almost all state power, including the organization of government power, administration, leadership of the army and supreme judicial control. The principle of parliamentary absolutism (in development and in violation of the beginning of popular sovereignty) was realized to the greatest extent during the English revolution.

The highest executive power was transferred to the State Council (formed on November 7, 1649) of 41 members. Advisors were elected by parliament for 1 year from among competent people - military, lawyers, scientists. The first composition of the Council included Cromwell, Fairfax, Pym, D. Milton. The permanent chairman was Bradshaw, head of the king's court. Formally, the Council had only the powers to implement parliamentary decisions. In fact, government power was concentrated in it and in the committees subordinate to it (formed in 1642–1644). This redistribution of powers from parliament to government institutions was also a distinctive feature of the new republic.

Politically, the system of power was unstable. After 1649, about 80 members remained in the Long Parliament (the so-called “rump”). Even fewer took part in the meetings and decisions of cases. Most of them were simultaneously members of the State Council and the Army Council. O. Cromwell's authority and personal military power increased enormously. In the context of aggravated relations with Ireland and Scotland, and the ongoing confiscation of royalist estates, the organization of power revealed an obvious inclination towards a military dictatorial regime and individual power.

Military dictatorship regime. Protectorate

The development of the revolutionary element and the tilt of a significant part of the army towards the Levellers-levellers was dangerous not only in political terms. The movement of the peasant masses in the direction of agrarian reform and complete redistribution of property grew stronger. Although the last draft of the "Convention of the People" (the political program of the army democrats) in May 1649 included a clause prohibiting Parliament from abolishing private property in the country, the very existence of such a provision spoke more than anything about the level of tension. In the spring and summer of 1649, a movement of “diggers” (diggers) appeared in the country and began to practically seize “God’s lands.” This desire to “make the holder as free as the lord is” was later assessed by Cromwell as very dangerous to the “natural state of the nation.” Objectively, in those conditions, the growth of the equalization movement would only entail an increase in revolutionary chaos. There was also growing grumbling in the army, which was dissatisfied with the long-term failure to re-elect parliament and demanded a general renewal of the principles of suffrage.

The idea of ​​a written constitution was new to England. She came out of the army environment. Back in June 1647, the Army Council proposed a special Declaration to Parliament with proposals to fix in written law the rights and powers of Parliament, as well as a new organization of the executive branch. The proposals recorded in the minutes of the council were revived and served as the basis for the design of a new state order.

"Control Tool"(December 13, 1653) established an outwardly republican, but essentially dictatorial system of power. The legislative power of the "free state of England, Scotland and Ireland" was concentrated in a dual institution - parliament and the newly established Lord Protector. Parliament had exclusive powers to change, suspend, introduce new laws, and establish taxes or taxes. Parliament had to convene regularly (once every 3 years) and independently; it could not be dissolved before 5 months of work. Suffrage was established on a new basis, where the main ones were only the property qualification (200 pounds sterling) and the age limit (21 years). Parliament was to be composed of at least 60 members "known for their integrity, fear of God and good behavior."

The power of the Lord Protector was established next to Parliament. The choice for this post was made by the State Council (whose 15 members were, in turn, elected by parliament). The Lord Protector had the power to approve or defer laws of Parliament. He enjoyed virtually unlimited power in governance matters (“he was assisted” in this only by the Council, numbering from 13 to 21 members). The Protector was considered the commander-in-chief of the army, he had full rights in the field of foreign policy (including the right to wage war and make peace, with the consent of the Council). All appointments of officials were henceforth made in his name. He also had the right to pardon. Only the appointment of senior government officials required the consent of parliament or the Council - this is how the principle of responsible government, defended at the first stage of the revolution, was revived.

A special article of the constitution assigned the powers of Lord Protector to O. Cromwell for life.

Crisis of the Republican Dictatorship

The publication of the constitution and the reorganization of the top levels of the political system did not eliminate the contradictions between society and the independent leadership. The protectorate regime still meant army control over the entire administration and only the change of the general's uniform to a velvet camisole (which is what Cromwell did, thus marking his assumption of the rank of protector).

The contradictions were all the more significant because the political, administrative and moral terror established by the independents under the slogans of the revolution was much more difficult for the general public than the regime of the previous monarchy, which, despite all its sins, was still a secular state. The Independents, in their Protestant zeal, began to strive to build a state-church. And although the “Instrument of Government” noted that there could be no coercion to profess a state religion, it meant only violent methods, and not at all the absence of “efforts to attract citizens with proper instruction and example of good behavior.” Back in 1644, parliament banned the trade in food supplies, the transportation of heavy goods and any other work in the country on Sundays, as well as the opening of games, drinking establishments, taverns, etc. All this was prohibited under the threat of fines, and even for the “sins” of children parents had to pay. Under the Independents, strictness intensified. In 1650, theaters were banned and actors were exiled. Catholics and the British were completely prohibited from worshiping according to their rites. For everyone entering a government position, even the most insignificant, an oath was introduced to condemn Catholicism.

The elections to the new parliament turned out to be politically unsuccessful (460 deputies were elected under the new laws, including 30 representatives each from Scotland and Ireland - this was done for the first time). The parliament convened in 1654 raised the issue of agrarian reorganization, and Cromwell, relying on the support of the generals, dissolved it. This was his obvious political mistake: he was now forced to share power with the army generals. The idea of ​​military despotism increasingly gained strength under the slogan that “it is more important for the people to have real rather than purely formally secured freedom.”

Under pressure from the generals, the principles of military organization were transferred to the administrative-territorial structure. In the summer of 1655, the country was divided into 17 military districts led by major generals (i.e. senior generals). The governors were like protectors in miniature and were endowed with significant powers, including the right to arrest suspicious persons and impose punitive taxes. Under their general supervision were county church committees - made up of Presbyterians and Independents - who were charged with monitoring the private lives of citizens. All entertainment was stopped, any meetings under the pretext of “gatherings” were dispersed.

Elections to the new parliament in 1656 were held under significant pressure from the government: over 100 deputies were canceled (cancelled) by the State Council. Nevertheless, parliament came up with a petition to abolish the military districts and the regime of general rule. In return, in July 1657, Cromwell was asked to assume the royal title. The proposal was strategic: its goal was to restore the historical constitution. However, the Army Council and the generals intervened and regarded the proposal “as scandalous.” Changes, however, followed on May 22, 1657, but in the spirit of a compromise between the traditional way of life and the military dictatorship. Cromwell received the right to appoint his own successor. At the same time, the House of Lords was restored (including 63 lords, most of whom were newly appointed), the exclusive rights of parliament to vote taxes were confirmed, and freedom of conscience (but not worship!) was guaranteed.

With all this, the protectorate regime was closely connected with the personality and authority of Cromwell. As soon as he died (September 3, 1658), the regime fell into a severe crisis of anarchy. Richard Cromwell, appointed as his father's successor, failed to retain power and became a political toy in the hands of the generals. In 1659 he was forced to renounce his title and restore a conditional republic. Public discontent with both the independent regime and the powerless republic simultaneously became so significant that the issue of restoring the monarchy and the historical constitution in the country became a matter of practical politics. The revolution has exhausted itself.

Omelchenko O.A. General History of State and Law. 1999

Famous in England (1642-1660) is known in our country by this name thanks to Soviet textbooks, which focused on the class struggle in English society of the 17th century. At the same time, these events in Europe are simply known as the “civil war.” It became one of the key phenomena of its era and determined the vector of development of England over the following centuries.

Dispute between King and Parliament

The main cause of the war was the conflict between the executive and, on the one hand, King Charles I of the Stuart dynasty, who ruled England as an absolute monarch, depriving citizens of their rights. It was opposed by parliament, which had existed in the country since the 12th century, when the Magna Carta was granted. The House of Representatives of different classes did not want to put up with the fact that the king was taking away its powers and pursuing dubious policies.

The bourgeois revolution in England had other important prerequisites. During the war, representatives of different Christian movements (Catholics, Anglicans, Puritans) tried to sort things out. This conflict became an echo of another important European event. In 1618-1648. The Thirty Years' War raged on the territory of the Holy Roman Empire. It began as a struggle of Protestants for their rights, which was opposed by Catholics. Over time, all the strongest European powers, except England, were drawn into the war. However, even on an isolated island, a religious dispute had to be resolved with the help of weapons.

Another feature that distinguished the bourgeois revolution in England was the national confrontation between the British, as well as the Scots, Welsh and Irish. These three peoples were subjugated by the monarchy and wanted to achieve independence by taking advantage of the war within the kingdom.

The beginning of the revolution

The main causes of the bourgeois revolution in England, described above, must sooner or later lead to the use of weapons. However, a compelling reason was needed for this. He was found in 1642. A few months earlier, a national uprising began in Ireland, the local population of which did everything to expel the English invaders from their island.

In London, they immediately began to prepare to send an army to the west in order to pacify the dissatisfied. But the start of the campaign was prevented by a dispute between parliament and the king. The parties could not agree on who would lead the army. According to recently adopted laws, the army was subordinate to parliament. However, Charles I wanted to take the initiative into his own hands. To intimidate the deputies, he decided to suddenly arrest his most violent opponents in parliament. Among them were such politicians as John Pym and Denzil Hollis. But they all escaped from the guard loyal to the king at the last moment.

Then Charles, afraid that because of his mistake he himself would become a victim of the backlash, fled to York. The king remotely began testing the waters and convincing moderate members of parliament to come over to his side. Some of them actually went to Stuart. The same applied to part of the army. Representatives of the conservative nobility, who wanted to preserve the old order of the absolute monarchy, turned out to be the layer of society that supported the king. Then Charles, believing in his own strength, headed to London with his army to deal with the rebellious parliament. His campaign started on August 22, 1642, and with it the bourgeois revolution began in England.

"Roundheads" vs. "Cavaliers"

Supporters of parliament were called roundheads, and defenders of royal power were called cavaliers. The first serious battle between the two warring forces took place on October 23, 1642 near the town of Edgehill. Thanks to their first victory, the cavaliers managed to defend Oxford, which became the residence of Charles I.

The king made his nephew Rupert his chief military leader. He was the son of the Elector of the Palatinate, Frederick, because of whom the Thirty Years' War began in Germany. Eventually, the emperor expelled Rupert's family from the country, and the young man became a mercenary. Before appearing in England, he had gained rich military experience thanks to his service in the Netherlands, and now the king's nephew led the royalist troops forward, wanting to capture London, which remained in the hands of supporters of parliament. Thus, England was split into two halves during the bourgeois revolution.

The Roundheads were supported by the emerging bourgeoisie and merchants. These social classes were the most proactive in their country. The economy rested on them, and innovations developed thanks to them. Due to the king's indiscriminate domestic policies, it became increasingly difficult to remain an entrepreneur in England. That is why the bourgeoisie sided with parliament, hoping that in case of victory they would receive the promised freedom to conduct their affairs.

Cromwell's personality

He became a political leader in London. He came from a poor landowner family. He earned his influence and fortune through cunning deals with church real estate. At the outbreak of war he became an officer in the parliamentary army. His talent as a commander was revealed during the Battle of Marston Moor, which took place on July 2, 1644.

In it, not only the Roundheads, but also the Scots opposed the king. This nation has been fighting for its independence from its southern neighbors for several centuries. Parliament in England entered into an alliance with the Scots against Charles. Thus the king found himself between two fronts. When the Allied armies united, they set off towards York.

A total of about 40 thousand people on both sides took part in the Battle of Marston Moor. The king's supporters, led by Prince Rupert, suffered a crushing defeat, after which the entire north of England was cleared of royalists. Oliver Cromwell and his cavalry received the nickname "Ironsides" for their steadfastness and endurance at a critical moment.

Reforms in the army of parliament

Thanks to the victory at Marston Moor, Oliver Cromwell became one of the leaders within Parliament. In the fall of 1644, representatives of the counties, which were subject to the largest taxes (to ensure the normal functioning of the army), spoke in the chamber. They reported that they could no longer contribute money to the treasury. This event became the impetus for reforms within the Roundhead army.

For the first two years, the results of the war were unsatisfactory for parliament. Success at Marston Moor was the first victory of the Roundheads, but no one could say with certainty that luck would continue to favor the king’s opponents. The parliament's army was characterized by a low level of discipline, since it was replenished mainly by incompetent recruits who, among other things, also fought reluctantly. Some recruits were suspected of connections with cavaliers and treason.

New model army

Parliament in England wanted to get rid of this painful situation in their army. Therefore, in the fall of 1644, a vote took place, as a result of which control of the army passed solely to Cromwell. He was entrusted with carrying out reforms, which was successfully done in a short time.

The new army was called the “new model army.” It was created on the model of the Ironsides regiment, which Cromwell himself led from the very beginning. Now the army of parliament was subject to strict discipline (drinking alcohol, playing cards, etc. was prohibited). In addition, the Puritans became its main backbone. It was a reformist movement, completely opposite to the monarchical Catholicism of the Stuarts.

The Puritans were distinguished by their harsh lifestyle and sacred attitude towards the Bible. In the New Model Army, reading the Gospel before battle and other Protestant rituals became the norm.

Final defeat of Charles I

After the reform, Cromwell and his army faced a decisive test in battle against the cavaliers. On June 14, 1645, the Battle of Nesby took place in Northamptonshire. The royalists suffered a crushing defeat. After this, the first bourgeois revolution in England moved to a new stage. The king was not just defeated. The Roundheads captured his convoy and gained access to secret correspondence in which Charles Stuart called for help from the French. From the correspondence it became clear that the monarch was ready to literally sell his country to foreigners just to stay on the throne.

These documents soon received wide publicity, and the public finally turned away from Karl. The king himself first ended up in the hands of the Scots, who sold him to the English for a large sum of money. At first the monarch was kept in prison, but was not yet formally overthrown. They tried to come to an agreement with Charles (parliament, Cromwell, foreigners), offering different conditions for returning to power. After he escaped from his cell and was then captured again, his fate was sealed. Carl Stewart was put on trial and sentenced to death. On January 30, 1649, he was beheaded.

Pride's purge of parliament

If we consider the revolution in England as a conflict between Charles and Parliament, then it ended back in 1646. However, a broader interpretation of this term is common in historiography, which covers the entire period of the unstable state of power in the country in the middle of the 17th century. After the king was defeated, conflicts began within parliament. Different groups fought for power, wanting to get rid of competitors.

The main criterion by which politicians were divided was religious affiliation. In Parliament, Presbyterians and Independents fought among themselves. These were representatives of different On December 6, 1648, Pride's purge of parliament took place. The army supported the Independents and expelled the Presbyterians. A new parliament, called the Rump, briefly established a republic in 1649.

War with the Scots

Large-scale historical events lead to unexpected consequences. The overthrow of the monarchy only intensified national discord. The Irish and Scots tried to achieve independence with the help of weapons. Parliament sent an army against them, led again by Oliver Cromwell. The reasons for the bourgeois revolution in England also lay in the unequal position of different peoples, therefore, until this conflict was exhausted, it could not end peacefully. In 1651, Cromwell's army defeated the Scots at the Battle of Worcester, ending their struggle for independence.

Cromwell's dictatorship

Thanks to his successes, Cromwell became not only popular, but also an influential politician. In 1653 he dissolved parliament and established a protectorate. In other words, Cromwell became the sole dictator. He assumed the title of Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland.

Cromwell managed to calm the country for a short time thanks to his harsh measures towards his opponents. In essence, the republic found itself in a state of war, which was led to by the bourgeois revolution in England. The table shows how power in the country changed over the long years of the civil war.

End of the protectorate

In 1658, Cromwell died suddenly of typhus. His son Richard came to power, but his character was the complete opposite of his strong-willed father. Under him, anarchy began, and the country was filled with various adventurers who wanted to seize power.

Historical events happened one after another. In May 1659, Richard Cromwell voluntarily resigned, yielding to the demands of the army. In the current circumstances of chaos, Parliament began to negotiate with the son of the executed Charles I (also Charles) about the restoration of the monarchy.

Restoration of the monarchy

The new king returned to his homeland from exile. In 1660, he became the next monarch from the Stuart dynasty. Thus ended the revolution. However, the restoration led to the end of absolutism. The old feudalism was completely destroyed. The bourgeois revolution in England, in short, led to the birth of capitalism. It enabled England (and later Great Britain) to become the world's leading economic power in the 19th century. These were the results of the bourgeois revolution in England. The industrial and scientific revolution began, which became a key event for the progress of all mankind.

How do we know about the events of the mid-17th century? The events of the English Revolution, including the largest battles of this period, were covered in essays written by participants and contemporaries of the events, representing the interests of both sides. Among them, the most famous are the History of the Great Rebellion by Edward Hyde, Lord Claredon, one of the king's intimates, and the Historical Collection by John Rushworth, secretary to the commander of the army of Parliament, Thomas Fairfax. The time was such that different people wrote about what was happening: supporters of the king and his opponents, members of parliament and generals, merchants and scientists, wives of politicians and ordinary townswomen. In these diaries, letters, and memoirs, the pulse of time beats, one can feel delight and hatred, the expectation of a happy renewal and the horror of the changes taking place. In addition, pamphlet literature, the prototype of modern periodicals, which covered the military-political events of the time, was very popular.

Reasons for the confrontation between the king and parliament. For the country, the revolution meant a turn that ensured the transition from an unlimited (absolute) monarchy to a constitutional monarchy, in which the power of the king is limited by law and parliament (a representative body). Such a change in the political system would create conditions for the rapid development of a new bourgeois way of managing, based on free property and private enterprise.

The impetus for the confrontation between the old government and new forces in society, which ultimately resulted in revolution, was the fact that on the English throne at the beginning of the 17th century. The Stuart dynasty, who arrived in England from Scotland, established itself. James Stuart was the nephew of Elizabeth I Tudor, and she, having no children of her own, appointed him as heir. King James I, and then his son, Charles I, sought unlimited power, and English society no longer needed it. The peculiarity of English absolutism was that throughout the entire period of its existence, the parliament, which arose in the middle of the 13th century, continued to be convened periodically. and had the right to approve the introduction of new taxes. As long as society needed strong power, parliaments were obedient and accommodating. But by the beginning of the 17th century. the situation has changed: society no longer needs unlimited power. At the same time, the holders of the crown did not want to give up their powers; moreover, they sought to acquire new ones.

Therefore, conflict was inevitable. It has been growing for forty years. Parliament, or rather the parliamentary opposition, represented by people from among the “new nobility” (“new gentry”), became the spokesman for public discontent. So in England in the second half of the 16th-17th centuries. called large and medium-sized landowners who organized their farming in a bourgeois manner. The name “bourgeoisized nobility” still stuck to them. The parliamentary opposition represented primarily the interests of a certain group of society, but almost the entire population of the country was dissatisfied with the Stuarts.

The nobles wanted to freely dispose of their land, and the peasants sought to use their plots of land. Dissatisfaction was caused by the economic policy of the Stuarts, which interfered with the development of private initiative and manifested itself in the introduction of taxes that were not approved by Parliament; I didn’t like their foreign policy, which was oriented towards an alliance with absolutist Spain; finally, there were many complaints against the Crown (as the monarch is usually called in England) in connection with religious policy.

Religious question. The religious question caused especially great bitterness at that time. Among the English there were many who supported the idea that the English Church should abandon luxurious decoration, magnificent services, bishops - everything that was characteristic of the Catholic cult. Adherents of the consistent reorganization of the church in the spirit of the Reformation received the name “Puritans” (from the Latin “purus” - “pure”).

Among the Puritans were people from nobles, peasants, artisans, and merchants. They belonged to different sects, but common to all was the demand that the king renounce the right to appoint bishops, which would weaken the Crown's interference in matters of faith. Priests, according to the Puritans, should have been elected by the believers themselves.

Ultimately, it was religious differences that caused open conflict between the king and his Scottish subjects, who did not want to allow the Scottish Church to be subordinated to London. Unlike his father, who was extremely indecisive, Charles I often acted rashly and thoughtlessly. As a person he was extremely contradictory. A man of great charm, very smart and educated, the first collector and philanthropist on the English throne, he became famous for his insincerity and hypocrisy in the political field. The conflict with the Scots escalated into a small and unsuccessful war for the king. He had to turn to parliament for help in order to obtain funds for military operations.

Long Parliament. On November 3, 1640, a parliament met in London, which in history received the name of the Long Parliament (its activities lasted more than thirteen years). Among the members of parliament there were many opponents of absolutism; they formed an opposition to King Charles.

The king's supporters received the nickname royalists (from "royal" - "royal") or "cavaliers", and his opponents - "roundheads", because the former were distinguished by a passion for elegant silk suits and long hairstyles with curls in court fashion, and the latter had the custom of cutting your hair in a circle, which corresponded to the Puritan desire for severe simplicity. Behind these external signs, so to speak, aesthetic differences, serious differences in positions were hidden: the “cavaliers” defended the powers of royal power, the “roundheads” wanted to strengthen the position of parliament, although both of them were supporters of the monarchy and did not even dream of abolishing royal power.

The beginning of the conflict. The “Roundheads” countered Charles I’s demand for money to wage war with the Scots with the demand for regular convening of Parliament and mandatory approval of taxes by Parliament. In addition, the king had to abandon the practice of housing soldiers in houses without the consent of their owners. A very important requirement was that no one should be arrested without a charge signed by a judge. This was one of the first conditions guaranteeing human rights. All requirements were formulated in a special document. They entirely met the interests of wealthy Englishmen. But the demands of the peasants were completely ignored; moreover, the document supported “fencing”, i.e. the practice of driving peasants off the land.

The dispute between the king and parliament occurred just at the moment when the uprising of Catholic Irish against the Protestant conquerors, immigrants from England and Scotland, began in Ireland. Charles I insisted on providing him with an army to suppress the Irish rebellion, but was refused by Parliament. The angry king left the capital at the beginning of 1642 and went to the north of the country to gather troops. In response, parliament began to create its own army. The country actually split into two hostile camps, one of which supported the king, and the other supported parliament. At the same time, the more developed south-eastern regions supported the parliament, and the backward north-west, where medieval traditions were strong, supported the king. Parliament could count on support from the Scots. The king expected that the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) would end on the continent and that he would receive assistance from other monarchs.

Read also other topics Part III ""European Concert": the struggle for political balance" section “West, Russia, East in the battles of the 17th – early 18th centuries”:

• 9. "Swedish flood": from Breitenfeld to Lützen (September 7, 1631-November 16, 1632)
  • Battle of Breitenfeld. Winter Campaign of Gustavus Adolphus
• 10. Marston Moor and Nasby (2 July 1644, 14 June 1645)
  • English Revolution 1640 Long Parliament
  • Marston Moor. Victory of the parliamentary army. Cromwell's army reform
• 11. “Dynastic wars” in Europe: the struggle “for the Spanish inheritance” at the beginning of the 18th century.
  • "Dynastic Wars". The fight for the Spanish inheritance
• 12. European conflicts are becoming global
  • War of the Austrian Succession. Austro-Prussian conflict
  • Frederick II: victories and defeats. Treaty of Hubertusburg.
• 13. Russia and the “Swedish question”

LONG PARLIAMENT in England - convened by King Charles I in 1640; actually became the legislative body of the beginning of the English Revolution of the 17th century. Dispersed by Cromwell in 1653.

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"THE LONG PARLIAMENT OF ENGLAND" in books

“This is no longer parliament”