Ilyin E. Psychology for teachers. E. P. Ilyin. Psychology of individual differences E p ilin psychology

The second edition of the textbook (the previous one was published in 2001) has been revised and expanded. The book outlines theoretical and methodological issues in the study of human emotions and feelings. The main attention is paid to the analysis of the structure of the emotional sphere and its components: emotional tone, emotions, emotional properties of the individual, feelings, emotional types. The theories of the emergence of emotions, their functions and role in human life, changes in the emotional sphere in ontogenesis and in pathology are considered. The manual contains numerous methods for studying various components of the human emotional sphere, which can be successfully used for both scientific and practical purposes. The scientific content of almost all chapters of the second edition has been expanded taking into account domestic and foreign research published over the past 15 years.

The textbook is intended for psychologists, psychophysiologists, teachers, as well as for undergraduate and graduate students of psychological and pedagogical faculties...

Preface

Several decades have passed since the last textbooks on sport psychology were published. During this time, important political and economic changes took place in our country, which also affected sports. The psychology of athletes and coaches has changed. They began to talk less and less about their patriotism, and more and more about lucrative contracts and material security for the future. Against this background, the developments of sports psychologists, created in the 1960-1980s, seemed to have lost relevance for some time. In the 1990s, the intensity of scientific research in sport psychology and, as a result, the number of publications sharply decreased, and monographs practically disappeared. We can only hope that the stagnation in which sports science, in particular sports psychology, finds itself, is a temporary phenomenon. The study of sports psychology in higher physical education institutions has not been canceled, and therefore new textbooks are needed for students, especially since the old ones have already become a bibliographic rarity.

This textbook includes four sections: “Psychology of the Athlete’s Activities”, “Psychology of the Training Process”, “Social and Psychological Aspects of Sports” and “Psychology of the Activities of Coaches and Sports Judges”. Unlike previous editions, this textbook also examines a number of new issues: psychological aspects of “sports uniform”, psychology of communication in sports, psychology of a sports career, psychology of spectators, psychology of a coach, psychology of sports refereeing. At the same time, the textbook does not contain a section on “Psychological preparation of an athlete”, which in many textbooks and teaching aids on sports psychology is distinguished as an independent type of training along with physical, tactical and technical. It seems to me that it is inappropriate to do this, since psychological preparation includes the mobilization of an athlete before a competition, the regulation of the athlete’s states, the development of his volitional qualities, the tactical training of the athlete, his technical preparation (formation of skills), and his education. That is, everything that a coach and psychologist do with an athlete in terms of developing him as a person is psychological preparation. Therefore, what is reflected in this textbook is most directly related to it.

The reader may also notice that the textbook does not have a section on stress. This may seem strange given the boom that took place in the 1970s regarding stress in sports. I adhere to the point of view that stress is not any physical or mental tension of a person, but the body’s reaction to pathological (traumatic) factors.

This does not mean that stress does not occur in sports. Fans die from heart attacks at football matches, athletes during a road cycling race or marathon running in the case of doping, etc. But these are exceptional cases, generally not typical for sports. The concept of "stress" has now become too vague, so I prefer to use the term "mental stress".

There is no section in the textbook dedicated to athlete's reliability, that is, the athlete’s error-free and stable activity under competition conditions. This concept, which came to sports psychology from engineering psychology and became quite fashionable in the 1970s, hardly added clarity to what is meant by psychological stability and physical, technical, tactical preparedness of athletes (which determines the success of competitive activity). The criterion for reliability was either the number of breakdowns, errors (failures, as they say in engineering psychology) of athletes at competitions (that is, the number of unsuccessful performances), or deterioration in results at competitions compared to training. But both are determined by many factors, including those not related to the athlete’s psyche, which are almost impossible to take into account. Therefore, speaking about the reliability of athletes, we must again talk about all the psychological aspects of sports activity.

The main text of the textbook is framed with sidebars containing additional information from various sources on the issue under consideration. At the end of the textbook there are applications that can be used by coaches and practical psychologists when studying athletes and coaches.

Introduction. Sports psychology as an academic discipline

We cannot get a complete picture of an athlete based only on oxygen consumption, glycogen stores and biomechanical measurements... The main thing to take into account is psychology, an understanding of those personal qualities that determine the highest achievements in sports. If an athlete is able to manage stress, is resistant to interference and knows how to adapt to changing conditions, then we have a complete set... Research and applied development must be carried out comprehensively, taking into account various aspects, but especially psychological ones.

Peter Snell three-time Olympic champion, Doctor of Physiology

Having gone through the path of big sport, we did not seriously think about the role of psychology in the preparation of high-class athletes, we did not pay due attention to the individual approach, the relationship between coach and athlete, in which we lost greatly. Often, a trainer obsessed with vanity fancies himself a psychologist. Later, looking back, you notice with bitterness that many young talented athletes for some reason did not reach their goal.<…>The role of a psychologist in our team is downplayed, but in practice I had to resort to his help. I believe that using the recommendations and advice of a psychologist, it was possible not only to keep many athletes on the team, but also to achieve significant results.<…>Even indirect contact with psychological science - through communication with a psychologist - gave reason to overestimate a lot, to see its enormous possibilities.

Khmelev A. A., Honored Trainer of the USSR

Previously, I was very jealous of the appearance of a stranger in the national team. I thought that I was the best psychologist myself. Gayich thought the same thing before me. But apparently I can’t handle it... I can talk about the importance of the match. It is impossible to remove the feeling of responsibility for the result, which kills the spark in the eyes... My assistant and I will go to special courses. Maybe after them it will be easier to understand a psychologist. And sometimes some people contact you, but you don’t understand what they are doing and why. This was the case at Dynamo, when the guys were asked to put together cubes and disassemble a parachute in order to feel like a team. But it’s obvious to me: the team needs a psychologist.

V. Olekno, head coach of the Russian men's volleyball team

Subject of sports psychology. Sports psychology is a field of psychological science that studies the patterns of human mental manifestations in the process of training and competitive activity. Briefly, we can say that sports psychology is the science of man in the field of sports. The need for the emergence of this science is due to the specific conditions of sports activity, primarily the desire for maximum achievements, competition (the desire to win), large, and sometimes extreme, physical and mental stress.

Sports psychology as a scientific and educational discipline includes a number of general And special sections, This:

1) motives for sports activities;

2) psychological foundations of orientation and selection into various sports and psychodiagnostics of inclinations and abilities;

3) psychomotor skills;

4) psychology of training and education in sports;

5) psychological characteristics of physical, technical and tactical training of athletes;

6) psychological characteristics of the personality of athletes;

7) psychology of a sports team;

8) the athlete’s conditions and their psychoregulation;

9) styles of sports activity;

10) psychological characteristics of the personality and activities of coaches;

11) psychological characteristics of the personality and activities of sports judges;

12) psychological characteristics of various sports;

13) psychological characteristics of fans.

Unfortunately, not all of these aspects have been studied equally fully. For example, psychologists have only recently begun to study the psychological characteristics of fans, and the psychology of sports refereeing still remains a virtually untouched topic.

Methods, used in sports psychology to study the psychological characteristics of athletes, coaches, sports teams, are the same as in general psychology. They are divided into four groups: organizational, empirical, quantitative and qualitative analysis.

Organizational methods determine the research strategy and include comparative (including comparative age or cross-sectional methods) and longitudinal.

Comparative method used to study psychological differences between athletes of various sports, playing roles, gender, qualifications, specifics of the training process and other factors.

Longitudinal method is used for the purpose of long-term (over several months and years) tracking of the mental and psychomotor development of the same athlete or group of athletes. It makes it possible to visually and dynamically trace the influence of sports training on changes in the psychological characteristics of athletes.

Empirical methods are very diverse and include objective observation, introspection, experimental method and psychodiagnostics.

Objective observation aims to study various behavioral and emotional manifestations of athletes in the natural conditions of their activities (in training, competitions, training camps). It can be continuous or selective, using verbal (tape recorder), stenographic or protocol recording, technical means (video equipment). Observation should be carried out according to a pre-drawn up plan and scheme. It should be systematic, which will ensure a relatively complete collection of material on the issue of interest.

Introspection is a method of self-knowledge and is used by athletes when analyzing their states, actions, and technique of movements performed in order to improve. Self-observation should also be systematic and become a habit for the athlete. The results should be recorded in a diary to enable qualitative self-analysis.

Experimental method has two types - laboratory and natural experiments:

The laboratory experiment is carried out in special rooms equipped with signaling and recording devices and apparatus (reflexometer, kinematometer, tremometer, etc.);

A natural (field) experiment is organized in natural conditions (in training, competitions) and has two varieties - ascertaining and formative. These types of experiments also use equipment (portable or remote).

Psychodiagnostic methods are aimed at identifying the inclinations, individual abilities and talent of the athlete as a whole, his typological characteristics of the properties of the nervous system and temperament, personality traits, diagnosis of conditions (pre-competition, competitive and post-competition), changes in psychological parameters after exercise. These methods can be used for: selecting candidates for teams, choosing an appropriate type of activity and playing role for a given athlete, as well as a style of activity.

Methods of quantitative and qualitative analysis are used for mathematical and statistical processing of the data obtained in the study and their meaningful analysis.

A brief excursion into the history of the emergence and development of sports psychology

The term “psychology of sports” was introduced into scientific use by the Russian psychologist V.F. Chizh (see: Psychology of Sports. St. Petersburg, 1910), although even earlier, at the very beginning of the 20th century, this concept was used in his articles by the founder of the modern Olympic movement Pierre de Coubertin. In 1913, on the initiative of the International Olympic Committee, a congress on sports psychology was organized in Lausanne (Switzerland), and from that moment on, the science in question received official status. However, the weak development of sports did not contribute to the rapid development of science, which was studied only by a few scientists, mainly in the USA, Germany, and the USSR. In our country, the pioneers of sports psychology were A. P. Nechaev, who published the monograph “Psychology of Physical Culture” in 1927, A. Ts. Puni, Z. I. Chuchmarev, P. A. Rudik. In the pre-war years, special course programs “Psychology of Sports” were developed for physical education institutes.

Intensive development of sport psychology began in many countries after the Second World War. This was due to the growing prestige of sports, as well as the struggle of two political systems - socialist and capitalist, which sought to prove their advantage, including through sporting achievements.

A little later, International Congresses on Sport Psychology began to be held regularly, the International Journal of Sport Psychology was established in 1970, and the European and North American Associations of Sport Psychologists arose in the 60s of the 20th century.

In our country, in 1952, A. Ts. Puni defended the first doctoral dissertation on the psychology of sports, and then monographs appeared devoted to research in this branch of psychology, the authors of which were G. M. Gagaeva, S. Ch. Gellershtein, A. A Lalayan, V. G. Norakidze, A. Ts. Puni, O. A. Chernikova. In subsequent years, many scientists made a great contribution to the development of sports psychology: O. V. Dashkevich, E. A. Kalinin, R. A. Piloyan, V. M. Pisarenko, A. V. Rodionov, O. A. Sirotin, V. A. Tolochek, I. P. Volkov, G. D. Gorbunov, T. T. Dzhamgarov, R. M. Zagainov, Yu. Ya. Kiselev, V. L. Marishchuk, A. N. Nikolaev, V. K Safonov, B. N. Smirnov, N. B. Stambulova, E. N. Surkov, Yu. L. Khanin, B. A. Vyatkin, A. D. Ganyushkin, A. A. Lalayan, Yu. A. Kolomeytsev and a lot others. For ten years now, the Faculty of Psychology of St. Petersburg State University has been training psychologists in the specialty “Sports Psychology”.

Currently, sports psychology has become not only a theoretical, but also a practical discipline that provides significant assistance to athletes and coaches in their desire to achieve high sports results.

Section I
Psychology of sports activity

CHAPTER 1
Psychology of athlete activity

Sport is a specific type of human activity and at the same time a social phenomenon that helps raise the prestige of not only individuals, but also entire communities, including the state.

Currently, sports activities are divided into three categories: mass sports, elite sports and professional sports. If the main goal of people involved in mass sports is to improve health, physical and mental development, and spend leisure time, then in elite sports the main goal is to identify and compare the maximum physical and mental capabilities of people in the process of performing various physical exercises. Professional sport has turned into a show and has become a business area, a way to earn big money, and there is no longer talk about improving health. Sometimes, on the contrary, health is ruined for the sake of money. All of these categories are stages of growth for many athletes.

1.1. Features and stages of sports activity

Despite the significant differences between mass sports and elite sports and especially professional sports, sports activity in its main characteristics remains the same everywhere, with all its inherent patterns and features. Therefore, the characteristics of sports activity given below apply to any category of sports.

The activities of athletes are competitive in nature and are inherently aimed at achieving maximum results, regardless of the level of qualification of the athletes.

Without a competitive element, sports activity loses its meaning. In this regard, the interaction of athletes at competitions has two aspects: in relation to the opponent - how confrontation, and in relation to teammates - how cooperation, mutual assistance. The confrontation is regulated by the rules of the competition, violation of which leads to penalties, up to and including disqualification of the athlete.

The activity of athletes is a long-term continuous process of learning and physical development, that is, training sessions using large, and sometimes extreme, physical exertion.

The full value of sports activity requires compliance by the athlete with a lifestyle regimen in general, and not just with a training and competition regimen. The lifestyle of an athlete is associated with many restrictions, depriving oneself of many pleasures, including communication with family and friends for a long time.

The famous sports psychologist R. M. Zagainov writes: “How many times have I seen the homesick eyes of athletes abandoned (even if only for a short time) “in distant distances” from their home (homesickness is especially strong among families!). It is almost impossible to calm such people down. The only way is to somehow distract" (Zagainov R. M. Psychologist on the team. M.: FiS, 1984. P. 77).

The product of sports activity is a change in the athlete as a person and an individual, sporting achievements (records, championship titles) and spectacle.

For competitive activity The following features are characteristic:

publicity with all the ensuing consequences (evaluation by viewers, media, etc.). Therefore, playing sports has become a prestigious activity, providing an opportunity to become famous throughout the country and the world;

importance it for the athlete, since he strives either for victory, or for a record, or for fulfilling a sports category or standard;

limited number of scoring attempts, therefore, there is often no way to correct an unsuccessful action or performance;

limited time, during which the athlete can assess the emerging competitive situation and make an independent decision;

unusual conditions for its implementation when changing competition venues: climatic, temporal, meteorological differences, new sports equipment, gyms and playgrounds.

All this leads to athletes developing states of neuropsychic tension, which is usually absent during training sessions. There is evidence that men respond better to competition conditions than women.

In addition to the athletes themselves, modern sports involve coaches, sports directors, doctors, psychologists, massage therapists, managers, judges, and journalists. Therefore, training an outstanding athlete requires large financial costs and the use of the latest scientific achievements in the field of theory and methods of sports training, physiology, medicine, psychology, pharmacology, and management. However, the central figure remains the athlete; the other actors are engaged in searching for talents and creating conditions for the athlete to realize the opportunities available to him.

Competitive activity as a broad concept includes a number of stages that differ both organizationally and psychologically: preparation for activity, acceptance of the start, implementation of activity, carrying out recovery procedures and evaluation of the achieved result. Each stage of sports activity corresponds to certain psychological states that arise depending on the conditions and specifics of the activity. However, it should be borne in mind that there may not be a strict correspondence between the state and stages of activity. For example, a state of fear characterizes preparation for an activity to a greater extent, but it can manifest itself both during practice and at the stage of direct implementation of the activity. A state of monotony can arise not only during activity, but also during preparation for it, etc. Therefore, the correlation of any state to a certain stage of activity is conditional, and it should be considered only as a structural organization of the material.

At each stage of competitive activity, the athlete faces certain tasks, including psychological ones.

1.2. Psychological characteristics of the pre-launch stage

Experienced athletes begin direct preparation for a specific competition a few days before the start. At this stage the following is carried out:

1) collecting information about the place and conditions of the competition, about possible opponents;

2) forecasting the success of a performance based on a study of the athlete’s functional state at a given period of time;

3) setting a realistic goal;

4) planning future activities (development of tactics, choice of means to achieve the goal);

5) selection and use of ways to maintain the athlete’s mobilization, the optimal level of arousal through the rational organization of free time.

When it comes to collecting information about opponents, keep in mind that athletes respond to it differently. For some, knowledge about the high result of an opponent shown in recent competitions can mobilize them and force them to work harder in training, while for others, on the contrary, it will have a depressing effect.

The outstanding athletics coach Viktor Ilyich Alekseev often used stimulation for his students in the following way:

- Galya! Haven't you heard sports news on the radio?

– And you didn’t look through the newspapers?

– Do you know, so-and-so (the main competitor of Galina Zybina, Olympic champion in shot put) showed such-and-such a result yesterday at a competition in Prague!

And he named the result, which was 15 cm higher than Zybina’s record. After this training enthusiasm, the athlete lasted for two weeks. Only later did she find out that all this information was invented by the coach in order to “turn on” the athlete and better prepare her for the competition.

A very important task facing coaches at this stage is the selection of athletes for the team to perform in the competition. For this purpose, estimates, control starts, battles, and fights are carried out. This causes mental stress in athletes, and they need a certain time to restore the expended mental energy. Selection for US national teams ends three months before a major international competition, such as the Olympic Games and World Championships. In our country, the deadline for the end of the selection process is significantly closer to the beginning of the competition. Moreover, in many sports, despite the expiration of the official selection period, vacant places are left with the presence of several applicants. Numerous calculations are arranged between them. And in almost 100% of cases, it is these athletes who have unsuccessful performances in competitions. Athletes in difficult training conditions associated with additional neuropsychic stress become exhausted ahead of time. Such selection is in many cases even more stressful for applicants than participation in competitions.

I had to observe this picture at a gathering of fencers from the Russian Federation team in preparation for the Spartakiad of the Peoples of the USSR: after morning training and an afternoon rest, daily battles were held between athletes who did not have a firm place in the team. All this was accompanied by endless meetings of the coaching staff and heated debates between coaches defending their students. Naturally, this further aggravated the athletes’ nervousness.

The following episode shows the nervous and emotional stress that athletes are in before major competitions: one of the fans, seeing the famous domestic weightlifter walking towards him, decided to take a photo of him. Noticing this, the weightlifter snatched the fan’s camera and smashed it on the asphalt.

Organization of leisure time for athletes on the eve of competitions. For an athlete’s successful performance at competitions, it is important to organize leisure time the day before. It is necessary to fill free time with activities and cultural events so that the athlete does not languish from idleness and painful, exhausting thoughts and worries about the upcoming outcome of the performance. Unfortunately, this is exactly what is observed most often.

The use of certain methods by the athletes themselves before a competition is purely individual. Some athletes seclude themselves and withdraw into themselves, while others become increasingly sociable and talkative. The famous American runner Katie Hadmont said the following a day before the start at the Munich Olympics: “I’m looking for a rumble. I can't tune in without noise. In silence, the arms drop and the legs do not run.” Others are distracted from the upcoming competitions: for example, the future Olympic champion in short-distance running V. Borzov wandered through the halls of painting exhibitions. Still others try not to disturb the usual rhythm of life - they train as usual.

The coach of the USSR national basketball team, A. Gomelsky, wrote: “Many people believe that training on the day of the game is inappropriate. I take the opposite point of view. And here's why: morning training significantly relieves the psychological stress before the match; in the end, it simply keeps the player occupied until lunch. After lunch - rest, sleep, for those who are used to sleeping, walks - for those who do not sleep before the games. Sometimes on the eve of the match, and sometimes two or three hours before the match there is a team meeting. I would especially like to note the following. Analysis is not a purely technical operation, when basketball players and the coach are only busy developing technical and tactical means of playing the game. Indeed, in most cases, especially when it comes to high-class teams, basketball players understand the technique of the game quite well. Analysis is, first of all, the psychological preparation of athletes going into a difficult fight together with a coach. This is their unification, unity. This and, I’m not afraid to say in a high style, patriotic preparation. For a team located far beyond the borders of the Motherland must be united by a high patriotic spirit. In such analyzes, intonation and words that inspire victory are very important. The coaches of our strongest teams never forget about this, and the coaches of our national teams always remember this. In the remaining time, players have time to calm down, digest, perceive and think through the upcoming game plan. And further. Don't leave impressionable players alone. Try to accommodate them in a hotel so that they psychologically support each other” (Soviet sport. 1971. January 23).

On the eve of the competition, you can successfully use entertainment events (theater, cinema, circus), however, for impressionable people, performances and films should be selected based on their content so as not to disrupt a normal night’s sleep. But not all trainers have a positive attitude towards such “cult trips”. I remember how, during an evening examination of the Leningrad hockey team SKA, its coach, an outstanding former goalkeeper V. Puchkov, looked at his watch and interrupted the conversation with me, saying: “Sorry, but, unfortunately, I have to take the team to the cinema.” - "Why "Unfortunately?" – I asked. “Because when I was a player, on the eve of the match I sat and thought how I would play tomorrow.”

The main activities carried out by coaches 24 hours before the start of the competition in order to increase the mental reliability of the athlete are: individual and collective conversations - “settings”, individual and collective conversations on abstract topics.

Trainers believe that giving lectures and reports on both special and abstract topics is inappropriate.

Regarding the organization of entertainment and cultural events, 65% of coaches believe that their focus should be general, and not specifically sports.

A very important question is whether it is advisable to conduct training 24 hours before the competition. All 100% of coaches believe that training is advisable, but 68% of them believe that it should be for their sport, and 32% for other sports.

Autogenic training as a calming part and psychotonic training as an stimulating part of psychoregulatory training (PRT) are always used by 46–47% of trainers in their work with athletes, sometimes used by 35–36%, and never used by 17–19% of trainers. It is considered optimal to conduct PRT in the period from 30 minutes to 1 hour before the start of the competition under the direct supervision of a coach.

Plakhtienko V. A., Bludov Yu. M. In: Mental stress in sports. Perm, 1975. pp. 115–116

As one of the methods of combating the athlete’s premature strong excitement and preserving his mental energy, one can use his “unexpected” inclusion in the starting line-up of the team or in the composition of the competition participants on the eve of it. Then the emotional athlete will not have time to “burn out.” Guided by this, experienced coaches announce the team's starting lineup on game day.

It is known from chess championships that athletes who are included a few days before the competition in place of a sick participant perform very successfully and often even become winners, although they did not engage in special preparation for this tournament. There is a well-known case in football when the Danish national team at the very last moment was included in the European Championship instead of a disqualified team from another country. As a result, it was the Danes who won the championship, and not those who had been preparing for this championship for a long time. These facts can be explained by the absence of pre-start tension and the preservation of nervous energy.

From a psychological perspective, another question is also important: should athletes participating, say, in evening competitions, visit the competition site in the morning and monitor the performance of their opponents before the start of their performance? Undoubtedly, familiarization with the place of future competitions should be carried out, if possible, in advance, the day before or even earlier. When a person finds himself in new and unusual conditions, he often has an indicative reaction, the “What is it?” reflex. (according to I.P. Pavlov). Such a reaction can increase pre-start arousal, but when the situation or environment is repeated, the indicative reaction fades away. It is precisely because of the presence of an orienting reflex, as K. M. Smirnov believes, that shifts before the preliminary races can be more pronounced than before the finals.

Obviously, you should not watch your opponent’s performance before your own appearance, because this increases the psychological load. Thus, according to the coach of the CSKA volleyball players, the athletes played a match in the tournament much worse than the day before, because before the match they carefully watched the game of the team with whom they had to play on the last day. In fact, these were two matches, a double dose of psychological stress, which is very difficult to withstand.

One scientific publication wrote that pressing on a dynamometer when two groups of athletes compete with each other is stressful.

When they talk about the stability or instability of the results shown by an athlete as criteria for his reliability, the question arises: what is better - to be unstable, but to win Olympic gold once in his career (as the American long jumper Bob Beamon did in his time, who established at the Olympics in Mexico a phenomenal world record, which he himself could not even come close to), or be stable, but take places somewhere in the top six? In our country there was a 400 m hurdler who showed the same result throughout the season, a record for himself, but he could not improve it. I think that such reliability of performances hardly pleased him.

How important this is for athletes is shown by a survey of Soviet Olympians. Half of them collected clippings from newspapers and magazines with materials about them, 38.5% said they remember when, where and who first mentioned their names in the press, 39.2% of athletes claimed that publications about them in the press helped them in life and sports. At the same time, 35.1% noted that during their sports career, biased materials and unfair reproaches against them appeared in the press, which caused an unpleasant aftertaste (Milshtein O. A., Kulinkovich K. A. Soviet Olympian: a social portrait. M .: FiS, 1979. P. 123).

SCIENTIFIC SCHOOLS

Y. V. Chezhina

scientific and pedagogical activities of E. P. Ilyin: on the anniversary of the scientist

On March 20, 2013, Evgeniy Pavlovich Ilyin, Honored Scientist of the Russian Federation, Doctor of Psychological Sciences, Candidate of Biological Sciences, Professor, turned 80 years old.

The study of psychological problems was preceded by a complex educational route. E. P. Ilyin received a higher medical education, and then during the years of postgraduate study at LNIIFK and physiological. The scientist began to show interest in physiology while still a second-year student, and by the end of the institute he had collected experimental material, which served as the foundation for later writing his Ph.D. dissertation. In 1956, at the All-Russian Conference of Students of Medical Institutes, E. P. Ilyin’s research received a diploma and a second degree prize. And the next year his first publications appeared in the All-Union journal and collection of scientific works of the Department of Physiology.

In 1962, Evgeniy Pavlovich defended his Ph.D. thesis in biology on the topic “On symmetry and asymmetry in the activity of the human motor analyzer” at the Faculty of Biology of Leningrad State University.

Subsequently, E.P. Ilyin continued his activities as a physiologist in the laboratory of labor physiology of Leningrad State University, in which Boris Fedorovich Lomov, who headed the laboratory of industrial (and then engineering) psychology, played a major role in getting a job. Both laboratories were located on the same floor, and the head of the laboratory of occupational physiology borrowed for E.P. Ilyin a contract position for a junior researcher from B.F. Lomov. Thus, E.P. Ilyin was officially listed as an employee of the laboratory of engineering psychology since January 1963.

Since 1964, Evgeniy Pavlovich became an employee of the laboratory of engineering psychology. Six months later, E.P. Ilyin was appointed by B.F. Lomov as the head of a group of referents, which was the first step towards his psychological self-education. This was facilitated by the creative, democratic atmosphere created by Boris Fedorovich in the laboratory, and by regular seminars on the research being carried out.

After the creation of the Faculty of Psychology at Leningrad State University in 1966, E. P. Ilyin was enrolled in the staff of the Department of Ergonomics and Engineering Psychology, and after B. F. Lomov left for Moscow, he served as the acting head of the department.

In 1968, with the scientific consulting of B.F. Lomov, E.P. Ilyin defended his doctoral dissertation in psychology on the topic “Optimal characteristics of human performance,” which was the first of 11 dissertations defended by B.F. Lomov’s Leningrad (St. Petersburg) students. One of the official opponents was Boris Gerasimovich Ananyev.

It is worth noting a number of interesting circumstances in the scientific biography of Evgeniy Pavlovich: he received his first diploma of Doctor of Psychological Sciences, and not Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences (in psychology), as they have written until now, and E. P. Ilyin was confirmed in the rank of associate professor a month after the approval by his Higher Attestation Commission for his doctorate. "Damn-

Universum: Bulletin of Herzen University. 1/2013

His opponent for his doctoral dissertation was Konstantin Konstantinovich Platonov, who, after familiarizing himself with the personal file of E.P. Ilyin, was surprised by the coincidence of their professional paths: both graduated from medical school, both were assigned to work in the Chita region, both studied urinary disease there on Yamkun research station, after which they began to study the physiology and psychology of work, both made the problem of abilities the subject of their consideration.

In 1969, E.P. Ilyin accepted an invitation to take the position of professor at the Department of Theoretical Foundations of Physical Education and School Hygiene, Faculty of Physical Education, Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute named after. A. I. Herzen, having gained independence in conducting research on a number of new problems that interested him in the field of differential psychophysiology and sports psychology. During his work at this faculty, on the basis of the organized public laboratory of psychophysiology of sports and physical education under the leadership of E. P. Ilyin, 11 collections of scientific works were prepared, in which more than 250 works of employees, graduate students and students were published. In the same years, the publishing house "Prosveshcheniye" published educational manuals by E. P. Ilyin - "Psychophysiology of Physical Education" (book 1, 1980; book 2, 1983), "Psychology of Physical Education" (1987), the total circulation of which was 70 thousand.

Since 1992, E.P. Ilyin became a professor in the Department of Developmental Psychology and Education at the Faculty of Psychology and Education of the Russian State Pedagogical University named after. A.I. Herzen, which was associated, first of all, with the scientist’s appeal to general psychological fundamental problems: will, motivation, emotions. And this turn in research interests was not spontaneous. E.P. Ilyin nurtured his understanding of the structure of the motif for a quarter of a century and briefly outlined it back in 1980 in his first textbook. The approach to the problem of will was determined by the diagnosis of volitional qualities in athletes back in the 1970s. The study of the state of monotony led E. P. Ilyin to consider human states from the position of P. K. Anokhin’s functional system. As a result, since 2000, scientists have published a number of fundamental monographs at the Peter Publishing House: “Psychology of Will”, “Motivation and Motives”, “Psychomotor Organization of Man”, “Emotions and Feelings”, “Psychology of Individual Differences”, “Psychology of Sports” ", "Psychology of risk" and many others.

E.P. Ilyin and his students made a great contribution to the development of psychodiagnostic techniques. Thus, express methods for studying the properties of the nervous system are still actively used today by the St. Petersburg Research Institute of Physical Education, and are also used in Russian national teams (including Paralympic teams) in the process of psychological support for athletes. Among the students of E.P. Ilyin at the Faculty of Physical Culture of Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute named after. A. I. Herzen created many outstanding trainers who, in their professional activities, relied on his developments. Among them are V. A. Platonov (coach of the USSR volleyball team), Yu. M. Chistyakov and L. D. Mirsky (speed skating coaches), and others, who trained high-level athletes.

One of the significant scientific merits of E. P. Ilyin and his school is the fundamental theoretical and experimental substantiation of B. M. Teplov’s position on the illegality of I. P. Pavlov’s evaluative approach to the properties of the nervous system, dividing them into “good” and “bad”. Thus, a “weak” (in the terminology of I.P. Pavlov) nervous system, characterized by higher sensitivity compared to a “strong” one, has a number of undeniable advantages in certain types of activity and behavior. E. P. Ilyin and his students identified typological complexes of the nervous system that influence the manifestation of various abilities and inclinations of a person to this or that type of activity. A differentiated approach taking into account the typological characteristics of the nerves

Scientific schools

This system provides objective criteria for selection into various types of labor, sports and educational activities. To date, E. P. Ilyin and his students have studied typological complexes of volitional (courage, determination, perseverance, patience, etc.), motor (speed, reaction time, frequency of movements), intellectual characteristics (various types of memory, creativity, etc.) .

The versatility of the scientist’s scientific interests is striking: general and differential psychophysiology, psychology of physical culture and sports, occupational psychology, developmental and educational psychology, psychology of communication. Recently, a line of research has emerged, carried out by E. P. Ilyin’s students, devoted to the study of aggressiveness, as well as problems of the relationship between biological and social sex (gender) in psychology. As a result of the scientist’s thoughts within the framework of this scientific problem, the concept of “phenotypic sex” appeared, which E. P. Ilyin substantiated in detail in his monograph “Sex and Gender.”

For many decades, Evgeniy Pavlovich has been a member of various dissertation councils, and has acted as an official opponent in the defense of doctoral and candidate dissertations more than 100 times. His students defended 7 doctoral and 47 candidate dissertations.

The scientific and pedagogical activities of E. P. Ilyin were awarded a number of awards. He is a laureate of the All-Russian competition of psychologists "Golden Psyche" in the category "Patriarch of Psychology", laureate and winner of the gold medal of the All-Russian Exhibition Center, awarded the badge "Excellence in Education of the USSR", Diploma of the Russian Olympic Committee, medal of the International Academy of Psychological Sciences for scientific merits "Human Factor" " His books have been repeatedly awarded with diplomas at various competitions.

Currently, E. P. Ilyin continues his teaching and scientific activities at the psychological and pedagogical faculty of the Russian State Pedagogical University named after. A. I. Herzen. His research is devoted to solving the most pressing, relevant and practically needed problems of modern psychological science. We sincerely congratulate Evgeny Pavlovich on his anniversary and wish him health, longevity and new creative success!

E. P. Ilyin

violence as a psychological phenomenon

Currently, the phenomenon of violence has begun to increasingly attract the attention of both society and specialists from various fields of knowledge (lawyers, psychologists, teachers). Articles, books and dissertations are written about violence. However, paradoxically, the question of what violence is remains without discussion. The term “violence” is used so broadly that it sometimes becomes unclear what we are talking about.

Definition of violence. In the “Dictionary of the Russian Language” by S. I. Ozhegov the following definition is given: “Violence is the use of physical force against someone; coercive influence on someone. " In this definition, the main thing is coercive influence (to force - to force someone to do something against the desire of the person himself), and what its nature is (physical or psychological), these are already details.

Thus, S.I. Ozhegov considers oppression and lawlessness to be coercive influences. Oppression is an unjust restriction of freedom, and lawlessness is a violation, lack of legality, i.e., violation of human rights.

E. P. Ilyin

Psychology of will

Preface to the second edition

During the time that has passed since the first edition of this book (2000), there have been no significant changes in the study of the problem of the psychology of will. As before, some physiologists ask with undisguised irony: “What is will?” As before, V. A. Ivannikov writes that “the concept of will does not mean some kind of reality, but is a theoretical construct introduced into science to explain this reality.” It is still argued that “it is unlawful to move on to generalizations in terms of understanding the will in general” (Yu. B. Gippenreiter) and that volitional functions are a special case of arbitrary functions. However, this does not explain what voluntary functions are and how they differ from volitional ones [ibid., p. 16].

As before, the number of publications on will can be counted on the fingers of one hand, and the very concept of “will” is a rare guest in the fundamental works of not only Russian, but also Western psychologists. True, there are signs of a revival of interest in this problem. Thus, in the reissue of H. Heckhausen’s book “Motivation and Activity” (2003), a chapter “Volitional processes: the implementation of intentions” appeared. However, this turned out to be necessary for the author not in order to include motivation in the structure of volitional (voluntary) behavior, but in order to separate motivation from volitional processes. Meanwhile, B. Rush wrote that will without motives is as impossible as vision without light or hearing without sound [cit. from: Yaroshevsky, 1986, p. 156].

Therefore, in my two books, “Psychology of Will” and “Motivation and Motives” (as well as in part in the third, “Emotions and Feelings”), the same problem is considered - the psychology of voluntary (volitional) control of human behavior and activity. Presentation of this problem in one book is unrealistic due to its excessively large scale. If you take the path of reducing the material, you will lose a lot of interesting and important information related to the volitional, motivational and emotional spheres of a person, the study of each of which may be of independent interest.

The second edition of this book includes some new theoretical and experimental data on will, and the paragraph “Unwilled behavior” of the first edition is expanded to include a discussion of the issue of laziness and is separated into a separate chapter. The appendix provides methods for identifying laziness.

Preface to the first edition

When, after the battle of Borodino in 1812, the famous cavalryman of the Napoleonic army, Marshal Murat, reproached his generals for the lack of energy in cavalry attacks, one of the generals replied: “The horses are to blame for everything - they are not patriotic enough. Our soldiers fight brilliantly even if they don’t even have bread, but horses without hay don’t budge” [Fatal decisions of the Wehrmacht, 1999, p. 126–127].

This dialogue reflected the main difference between human behavior and animal behavior - humans have motivation and “willpower”.

The problem of will, the voluntary and volitional regulation of human behavior and activity, has long occupied the minds of scientists, causing heated debates and discussions. Even in Ancient Greece, two points of view on the understanding of will emerged: affective and intellectualistic. Plato understood will as a certain ability of the soul that determines and motivates human activity. Aristotle connected will with reason. This dualism in one form or another has survived to this day.

Despite the fact that several doctoral dissertations on this problem have been defended over the past quarter century, it is still far from being resolved. Until now, the views of psychologists differ sharply even on the most key issues related to this topic. Some deny the existence of will as an independent psychological phenomenon, question the value of the very concept of “will” (G. English, A. English), others, defending the independence of will, see only one side of it - the ability to overcome difficulties and obstacles (A. Ts. Puni). And often in scientific works, voluntary regulation turns out to be divorced from the will.

Physiologists simply ignore the problem of will and voluntary control. None of the textbooks on higher nervous activity published in recent decades even mention this problem, as if it does not exist at all.

All this causes significant difficulties in presenting the problem of will both in the process of teaching psychology and in searching for adequate methods for diagnosing the degree of development of “willpower”.

One of the objectives of this monograph is a critical examination of the problem of will as arbitrary, i.e., conscious and intentional (motivated) control on the part of a person of his behavior, activities, and emotions.

From the very beginning, the question of the essence of will turned out to be closely connected with the problem of motivation, with an explanation of the causes and mechanisms of human activity. While studying will, scientists inevitably touched upon issues of motivation, and when studying motivation, they certainly touched upon volitional regulation. And this is not accidental, since both of these directions in psychology discuss the same problem - the mechanisms of conscious, purposeful behavior. However, this does not prevent scientists from identifying will and motivation in one case, and in another from separating them from each other. Both ultimately lead to the fact that motivation in most cases is studied as an independent problem. As a result, will and motivation as stimulants and regulators of activity are considered as independent mental phenomena. For example, V.I. Selivanov noted that “the undoubted merit of scientific psychology is the establishment of a close connection between a person’s will and his system of motivations.” My position is that it is necessary to talk not just about the connection between will and motivation, but about the inclusion of a person’s motivation in his will. N. Akh also wrote that of the two sides of the problem of will - the implementation of intention and determination - only the second side was studied in scientific works. Thus, he included motivation in will.

The peculiarity of my approach to presenting the issue of the volitional sphere is that I do not consider will as motivation (more precisely, will - not only as motivation), but, on the contrary, motivation - as volitional (voluntary) intellectual activity of a person, as an essential part of voluntary control .

However, let the reader not be surprised that this book does not deal with issues of motivation. My other book is devoted to this extensive and relatively independent problem (Ilyin E.P. Motivation and motives. St. Petersburg, 2000). At the same time, by design, both books form a single whole, and the book “Motivation and Motives” only examines in detail one of the functions of voluntary control (will).

Despite the fact that motivation is a single whole with will - since without motivation there is no will - the functions of will are not limited to motivating human activity (self-determination). It manifests itself in the initiation (launch) of actions, and in the conscious control of them, and in overcoming difficulties that arise in the course of activity. In this regard, the book examines issues of self-initiation of actions, self-control and self-mobilization. Here the relationship between voluntary control and volitional regulation is analyzed in detail; it reveals what stands behind the concept of “willpower”; the essence and structure of volitional qualities is revealed in a new way; a description is given of the ways of development of the volitional sphere of a person and its violation in various pathologies. At the end of the book there is a scientific and everyday volitional dictionary of terms and phrases, as well as methods and techniques for studying volitional regulation.

When writing this book, I relied not only on literary sources that are inaccessible to a wide range of readers, but also on extensive experimental data obtained by my students.

"Ilyin E.P. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2012. - 640 pp.: ill. - (Series “Masters of Psychology”).

The textbook is addressed primarily to educators: teachers, preschool teachers, college and university teachers. Particular attention is paid to psychological information. relevant for practical pedagogy and absent from most textbooks on educational psychology.

The manual includes five sections: “Psychology of teacher activities.” “Psychology of education”, “Psychology of education”. “Psychological characteristics of teachers”, “Preschoolers and students as subjects of play and learning activities and as objects of teacher activity.” At the end of the book there is an appendix in which there are two sections on methods for studying the characteristics of the activities and personalities of teachers and methods for studying the psychological characteristics of pupils and students. The publication contains an extensive list of literature related to this issue.

Preface........................................................ ..... 9

Introduction, or Why does a teacher need psychological knowledge.................................12

Section one

Psychology of teacher activity

Chapter 1. Activities of a teacher......................................20

1.1. Pedagogical activity and its structure...................................20

1.2. Stages of pedagogical activity...................................................21

1.3. Pedagogical tasks and their solutions....................................................22

1.4. Functions of a teacher................................................... .............23

1.5. Formation of motives for educational activities...................................25

1.6. Creation of an emotional background adequate to the pedagogical task.................................27

1.7. Stages of organizing educational activities..................................................30

1.8. Teacher's study of students' personalities....................................................31

Chapter 2. Pedagogical communication....................................33

2.1. The concept of “communication”, its types.................................................... ......33

2.2. Characteristics of pedagogical communication...................................................34

2.3. Means of communication........................................................ .............38

2.4. Factors determining the effectiveness of pedagogical communication.........41

2.5. Teacher skills that influence the effectiveness of communication....................................47

2.6. Pedagogical tact................................................... ..........49

2.7. Teacher’s speech culture................................................................... .........50

2.8. Personal characteristics of teachers that make it difficult to communicate with students......53

2.9. Communication and relationships between teachers and students’ parents................57

Chapter 3. Establishing mutual understanding between teacher and students............60

3.1. The essence of mutual understanding and the stages of its establishment.................................60

3.2. Teachers’ perception of students and their first impressions of them.....61

3.3. Teacher's learning and understanding of students...................................66

3.4. Peculiarities of students’ perception of teachers.................................................70

3.5. Ensuring that the teacher understands his students....................................74

3.6. Bringing together the positions of the teacher and students....................................75

3.7. Establishing mutual understanding between teacher and students.................................76

3.8. Collaboration between teacher and students...................................................82

3.9. Typification of students by teachers...................................................83

Chapter 4. Types and forms of teacher influence on students...............84

4.1. Types of impacts................................................... .............84

4.2. Showing attention to the student...................................................85

4.3. Requests and requirements of the teacher.................................................. ..85

4.4. Persuasion and suggestion............................................................. .........88

4.5. Explanation........................................................ ...................89

4.6. Compulsion................................................. ................90

4.7. Assessing the actions, behavior of students and the success of their completion of educational tasks.........91

4.8. Encouragement......................................................... ...................96

4.9. Punishment................................................. ...................98

4.10. Use of humor, jokes............................................................. 102

Chapter 5. Teacher behavior in conflict situations ................104

5.1. Conflict situations and conflicts.................................................... 104

5.2. Causes of conflicts between teachers and students.................................. 105

5.3. Conditions Conducive to Conflict ...................................... 108

5.4. Phases of conflict development......................................................... .... 109

5.5. Outcomes of conflict situations.................................................. 110

5.6. Basic rules of behavior for a teacher in a conflict situation.................................... 113

5.7. Pedagogical management of conflict between students.................................. 116

Section two

Psychology of training and education

Chapter 6. Psychological foundations of learning..........................118

6.1. Learning and its psychological patterns.................................... 119

6.2. Didactic principles......................................................... ... 120

6.3. Psychological and pedagogical characteristics of educational material.................................. 123

6.4. Types of educational influences................................................................... 125

6.5. Monitoring student activities......................................... 126

6.6. Survey of students and its psychological characteristics.................................... 127

6.7. The mark and its psychological impact.................................................... 129

6.8. Psychological characteristics of various educational systems.................................. 134

Chapter 7. Psychological features of enhancing students’ cognitive activity in the classroom ........145

7.1. Activation of students' cognitive activity................................... 145

7.2. Ways to maintain sustained attention in class.................................... 150

7.3. Student inattention, its causes and consequences.................................... 151

7.4. Organization of effective perception of educational material in the classroom........ 152

7.5. Organization of conditions for better memorization of educational material by students......... 154

Section three

Psychology of education

Chapter 8. Social and psychological patterns of forming a team and educating students in it ...............168

8.1. The concept of a social group and team....................................................168

8.2. Social status of students in the study group....................................172

8.3. Stages of development of a team of students.................................................... .179

8.4. Psychological features of educating students in a team....................................181

8.5. Public opinion of the student body and the psychological characteristics of its formation.................................184

Chapter 9. Psychological aspects of the formation of morality in students.............192

9.1. What is morality and moral education.................................. 192

9.2. Discipline as a moral quality.................................... 193

9.3. Responsibility (sense of duty) .................................................... 196

9.4. Psychological and pedagogical conditions for the formation of morality........... 198

9.5. Stages of formation of moral behavior of students.................................... 203

9.6. Semantic barrier in education...................................................204

9.7. Taking into account the age-related characteristics of students’ personalities in the process of moral education..................................... 207

9.8. Psychology of education of students with deviant behavior.........213

Chapter 10. Psychological aspects of instilling in students the desire for self-improvement.......217

10.1. Psychological features of the development of student independence.......218

10.2. Formation of a standard (ideal)..................................................222

10.3. Self-knowledge and self-esteem as incentives for self-improvement.......224

10.4. Stages and means of self-education for adolescents and older schoolchildren.......231

10.5. Age-related characteristics of self-education...................................236

10.6. Typical self-education mistakes...................................................237

Chapter 11. Labor education and career guidance for students............239

11.1. Cultivating a positive attitude towards work...................................239

11.2. Self-determination of students and their choice of profession.................................242

11.3. Age stages in the development of professional interests of schoolchildren.......245

11.4. Professional self-determination of schoolchildren of different genders.................................246

11.5. Career guidance work of a teacher....................................................249

Section four

Psychological characteristics of teachers

Chapter 12. Components of professional skill of a teacher..........253

12.1. Pedagogical orientation (vocation)...................................253

12.2. Knowledge (eruditeness) of the teacher.................................................... ...255

12.3. Teacher skills........................................................ ..........258

12.4. Abilities and professionally important qualities of a teacher......261

Chapter 13. Individual and personal characteristics of modern teachers.....279

13.1. Personality features of people who have chosen the teaching profession.........279

13.2. Peculiarities of the motivational sphere of teachers...................................285

13.3. Peculiarities of the emotional sphere of teachers...................................287

13.4. Teachers' resistance to stress...................................................293

13.5. Aggressiveness of teachers................................................... ...293

13.6. Psychophysiological characteristics of teachers...................................296

13.7. Possibility of using some tests for professional selection of teachers........297

13.8. Psychological characteristics of teacher-leaders.................................299

13.9. Image of teachers........................................................ ..........305

Chapter 14. Stylistic features of teachers...........................309

14.1. Stnli activities of kindergarten teachers .................................... 310

14.2. Teachers' Activity Styles...................................................311

14.3. Style of activity and properties of the nervous system and temperament......317

14.4. Pedagogical leadership styles and their perceptions by students......319

14.5. Pedagogical communication styles...................................................325

14.6. Psychological and pedagogical features of questioning students by teachers with different leadership styles......333

14.7. Peculiarities of student assessment by teachers with different leadership styles....................................334

14.8. Types of teachers........................................................ .............336

14.9. Gender differences in the activities and personality of teachers..................................340

Chapter 15. Psychological aspects of the development of professional skills of a teacher.............343

15.1. Stages of professional development of a teacher...................................343

15.2. Differences between young and experienced teachers...................................345

15.3. Difficulties in the work of young teachers...................................................351

15.4. Features of productive and unproductive teachers...................354

15.5. Psychological characteristics of university teachers of different skill levels.................................360

15.6. Criteria for assessing teaching skills...................................365