History of art. School encyclopedia What ancient Russian art is briefly

Old Russian art is usually called the period in the history of Russian art, which began with the emergence of the Kievan state and continued until Peter’s reforms (from the 9th to the 17th centuries). In the thousand-year history of Russian art, this period accounts for more than seven centuries.

Old Russian art characterizes the first stage in the artistic development of the Russian people. But it cannot be considered just a threshold, a prehistory of Russian art. It first identified features that later became essential features of Russian artistic creativity. These features appear clearly enough to allow us to talk about his originality even at this early stage.

Old Russian art developed during the period of the formation and flourishing of feudalism in Russia. The feudal state invariably relied on the authority of the church; it saw religion as one of the means of strengthening the existing social order. Accordingly, art, like the entire spiritual culture of that time, was called upon to serve the church. The range of themes and subjects of fine art was predominantly religious, the main purpose of painting was cultic, ecclesiastical, and the very nature of artistic expression was marked by features of medieval religiosity.

However, in Ancient Rus', folk art alien to churchism also developed. In feudal society, its manifestation was limited to decorative and everyday use. But the motives of life-affirming festivity, healthy joy, like echoes of folk songs and folk poetry, penetrated into church art, displacing or weakening the harsh, ascetic mood characteristic of it.

Church of St. Sofia in Kyiv (St. Sophia Cathedral). 1037. Reconstruction.

Art, for all its class limitations, went beyond narrow church tasks and reflected the diverse aspects of the life of the Russian people. Its best masters sought to make their work understandable and close to the people. The fabulous, semi-fantastic images of ancient Russian art contain a deep vital, philosophical, and poetic meaning. And we, today's viewers, must understand it.

The initial period in the development of ancient Russian art is determined by the art of the Eastern Slavs. They were engaged in agriculture, worshiped deities who personified the forces of nature, and created images of these gods - the so-called idols. Many of the mythological motifs, such as the images of the foremother-patron of the clan, sacred horses, and the firebird, have firmly entered the popular consciousness and have been carefully preserved in peasant embroidery and carving down to the present day. But they lost their original meaning and turned into an entertaining fairy tale, an intricate pattern motif.

Demetrius Cathedral in Vladimir. 1194-1197.

The most ancient artistic creativity of the Slavs was most fully expressed in the production of jewelry and household items, especially metal products: rings, necklaces, wrists, earrings, often covered with a fine pattern of niello and enamel. This artistic craft was original and bore the stamp of high skill.

With the strengthening of the Kyiv state and the adoption of Christianity, art acquired a monumental, majestic character, enriched with the traditions of Byzantine culture, but largely lost its poetic freshness and fabulous naivety. New monumental art reached its peak already in the 11th century. A characteristic monument of this time is the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv. Its mosaics and frescoes, apparently made by Byzantine masters, amaze with the grandeur of the overall design. In the history of art, there are few examples of the unity of architectural design and wall painting equal in impact to the St. Sophia Cathedral. Just as on the outside twelve small domes were crowned by the main dome, so inside, above the many images of individual characters located on pillars, on walls and on vaults, the stern image of the Almighty reigned. Entering under the arches of the cathedral, seeing the figures in the golden radiance of the mosaic, the ancient Kievans became familiar with the Christian understanding of the heavenly hierarchy, which, with its inviolability, was supposed to strengthen the authority of the earthly hierarchy.

In the 11th century Greek masters - builders and painters - worked in Kyiv. According to their plans, temples were built and decorated with marble slabs, mosaics, frescoes and icons. In the 12th century. The famous icon of Our Lady of Vladimir, one of the best monuments of Byzantine icon painting, was brought to Kiev from Constantinople. However, this does not mean that the oldest monuments of Kyiv should be considered as borrowed. The visiting craftsmen found in Kyiv a different social environment than that which surrounded the court of the Byzantine emperor. The rich life experience of the Slavs, their healthy, cheerful attitude were also embodied in artistic images. Art has lost the imprint of the gloomy asceticism characteristic of Byzantine art of the 11th-12th centuries.

Among the cities of the vast Kyiv state, Kyiv was the main artistic center. Only here did the subtle art of mosaic develop. Magnificent examples of book art (the famous “Ostromir Gospel”, decorated with luxurious miniatures, 1056-1057) and decorative and applied art are also created here. The influence of the Kyiv art school is felt in all Russian cities.

Already at the end of the 11th century. The Kiev state begins to disintegrate into small princely appanages. In the second half of the 12th century. Kyiv loses its leading political and cultural significance; it passes to the Vladimir-Suzdal principality.

The art of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus' developed over almost a century (mid-XII - early XIII centuries). During this time, it made a significant contribution to the history of not only Russian, but also world culture. The most vividly characteristic features of Vladimir-Suzdal art were expressed in architecture. The people of Vladimir were excellent builders. In addition to wooden buildings, there were many stone structures. Vladimir carvers were fluent in stone processing techniques and skillfully used flat wood carving techniques.

The heyday of architecture in Vladimir fell during the reign of Andrei Bogolyubsky. At this time, the Assumption Cathedral and the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl, famous for its perfection, were built (1165). According to an ancient source, the prince built a temple “in the meadow” to commemorate his sadness over the death of his beloved son. This building is striking in its harmony and grace, the exceptional richness of new, previously unprecedented relationships between its parts. With the whiteness of the stone, the regularity and slenderness of the silhouette, the Nerlinsky Temple stands out from the surrounding landscape. This is a person's proud affirmation of the beauty of his creativity. This temple is not capable of turning a person away from the real world. With his entire appearance, he calls on a person to look back at the world around him, to rejoice in the fact that there is no discord between the work of his hands and nature.

A specific feature of Vladimir-Suzdal churches is their sculptural decoration. In the Demetrius Cathedral in Vladimir (1194-1197), the entire upper part of the outer walls is completely covered with carved decorations. Here you can see King David, and Alexander the Great, carried to heaven by griffins, and hunters, and fantastic animals, birds - all this is scattered among strange grasses and lush flowers. Each image is located on a separate stone, but together they form a harmonious whole and form a semblance of patterned fabric, as if thrown over the stone mass of the temple. The reliefs on the walls of St. George's Cathedral in Yuryev-Polsky (1230-1234) are especially magnificent.

Church of the Intercession on the Nerl River (near Vladimir). 1165.

Half-pagan, half-fairytale decorative motifs were used to decorate only the outer walls of temples; all the space inside was given to frescoes and icons, which differed from the reliefs in their subjects and character.

Along with the cities of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, the largest center of artistic life in the 12th century. was Novgorod. If Vladimir-Suzdal art reflected the growing power of the grand ducal power, then in Novgorod art bore a more noticeable imprint of popular influence. It developed its own special style, manifested in the harsh simplicity and restrained grandeur of Novgorod frescoes and icons.

Theophanes the Greek. Our Lady. Icon from the Deesis rite of the Annunciation Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin. Beginning of the 15th century

Novgorodians were on the outskirts of Russian lands, they constantly encountered other peoples. Their love for their hometown and their land grew early. Art played a big role in strengthening this feeling in the popular consciousness. Novgorod churches were a clear embodiment of their proud self-awareness; in their painting, Novgorod masters expressed the ideals of courage and strength of character, which in those harsh years were the main measure of human evaluation. These features of Novgorod art were most clearly expressed in the architectural images of the St. Sophia Cathedral and St. George's Cathedral of the Yuryev Monastery in Novgorod, and in the paintings of the Church of the Savior on Nereditsa.

The works of Russian art of this period clearly demonstrate the features of a common culture. Russian buildings of the 12th century. They differ from Byzantine and Romanesque churches in their simplicity, clarity and integrity of compositions, and soft rounded forms. The aesthetic value of works of art is becoming increasingly important. Chroniclers of that time certainly noted the beauty of churches, temples, icons, paintings, sensitively guessing the perfection of true art. Ancient Rus' moved tirelessly forward, Russian masters showed ingenuity and courage in their quests. Here was that understanding of the greatness of the tasks facing art, which could be born among a people with a great future.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion dealt a heavy blow to the brilliant flowering of Russian artistic culture. Cities were subjected to merciless devastation, communications with the Balkans, Byzantium and Western Europe were severed. Artistic creativity in Rus' did not stop during these years, but major undertakings were not possible.

Andrey Rublev (?). Angel. Miniature from the “Gospel of Khitrovo”. 90s XIV century State Library named after V.I. Lenin. Moscow.

Unlike Kyiv, Vladimir and Moscow, Novgorod escaped enslavement. This helped it become the center where, above all, the creative forces of the Russian people gathered.

At the end of the 14th century. In Novgorod, a master appears who left a noticeable mark on Russian art - Feofan the Greek. Having left Byzantium, where culture was entering a period of decline, Theophanes found in Rus' favorable soil for creativity and wide recognition. The most reliable creation of Theophanes are the paintings of the Transfiguration Church in Novgorod. The most powerful impression is left by the images of the elders. In them, the artist expressed the tragic complexity of emotional experiences, the intensity of struggle, and internal discord.

Feofan introduced into the painting of the 14th century. passion, movement, free pictorial modeling. The masters of Novgorod and Moscow experienced the influence of his talent, which did not stop them from looking for their own paths and solutions in art. During this period, a group of Russian masters worked, creating the best examples of Novgorod mural painting. The most significant artistically are the paintings of the Church of the Assumption on Volotovo Field and the Church of Fyodor. Stratilata (second half of the 14th century).

Panorama of the Moscow Kremlin.

In the formation of Russian national art after the overthrow of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, Moscow played a decisive role. From here began the persistent and successful struggle for the national unification of the Russian people. Old Russian painting reached its brilliant peak in the 15th century. (see Iconography, Old Russian iconography). Moscow painting of the 15th century. developed under the influence of the brilliant personality of Andrei Rublev. Throughout the century, she remains faithful to the best traditions of this illustrious master (see Andrei Rublev).

During the period of consolidation of the Moscow state and the formation of the feudal monarchy (late 15th century), art began to serve primarily the authority of the royal power. During these critical years, the wonderful master Dionysius (c. 1440 - c. 1506) was working in Moscow, who creatively continued the traditions of Andrei Rublev. However, unlike him, Dionysius was not a monk, but a layman, and this left its mark on his work. In the art of Dionysius, the mood of solemn festivity and victorious rejoicing prevails.

In his old age, Dionysius, together with his disciples, painted the temple in the Ferapontovo monastery (1500-1502). This is the only monument of his monumental painting known to us that belongs to the masterpieces of ancient Russian art. Dionysius and his school also own a whole group of excellent icons, now kept in the State Tretyakov Gallery, in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. Dionysius was the last among the great painters of Ancient Rus'. His work closes the golden age of ancient Russian painting.

Bon Fryazin. Bell tower "Ivan the Great". XVI century Moscow Kremlin.

Second half of the XV-XVI centuries. marked in Rus' by major successes in state building. In Moscow, wonderful stone tented churches were created, and extensive construction of cities and monasteries began. With the growth of the power of the Moscow sovereign, one of the first tasks of architecture became the strengthening and decoration of the capital and its center - the Moscow Kremlin.

The construction of the Kremlin cathedrals began with the main one, the Assumption Cathedral. Its construction attracted the attention of contemporaries so much that the chronicle devoted several eloquent pages to it. A wonderful master from Italy, Aristotle Fioravanti, was invited to build the main cathedral of Moscow. The Kremlin's Annunciation Cathedral and the small Church of the Deposition of the Robe were erected by Russian craftsmen, and the Faceted Chamber and the Ivan the Great bell tower were erected by Italian craftsmen. All these structures are combined into a surprisingly solid composition. The buildings of the Moscow Kremlin served as an example for the whole country.

Great achievements were noted in the 16th century. the art of book miniatures. In many richly illustrated manuscripts, both increased graphic skill and artistic observation in relation to the surrounding reality were reflected - the first sign of the emergence of realism.

Portrait (parsun) of Prince M. V. Skopin-Shuisky. 1st half of the 17th century State Historical Museum. Moscow.

In the XVII - early XVIII centuries. Art production in Moscow is gaining wide scope. Its center is the Armory Chamber in the Kremlin. The best craftsmen gather here, and orders are distributed among painters here. The mass of royal icon painters is considered as an army of executive craftsmen. They are used for a variety of needs: they paint towers, paint icons, as well as patterns and coats of arms.

The best works that came out of the Armory Chamber are jewelry, frames, frames, enamels, embroidered shrouds, etc. Nowadays, they are carefully preserved and exhibited in museums (see Moscow Kremlin museums, Jewelry art).

Among the royal painters, the most prominent place is occupied by Simon Ushakov (1626-1686). His art was versatile: he painted icons, tried his hand at portraiture, and made several engravings. The work of this artist marks the turn of Russian painting towards new paths.

In repeatedly repeated images of the “Savior Not Made by Hands,” Ushakov tried to use soft modeling to convey human beauty, earthly physicality and even materiality to the type of “gracious Christ” established in Rus', which caused resistance from the defenders of antiquity.

Fedor Kon. Fortress wall. 1595-1602. Smolensk

In the second half of the 17th century. In the Armory Chamber, along with icon painters, painters work. They paint portraits, or, as they were called then, parsuns. Visiting masters - Poles, Germans, Dutch - introduced a new technique of writing on canvas and distributed engravings in Moscow. However, the Parsuns of the 17th century. even in cases where they convey a portrait likeness, they are generally very static.

In Russian culture of the 17th century. The secular principle is strengthening, the needs of scientific knowledge of the world are increasing. S. Ushakov and the masters of his circle came close to the task of displaying visual impressions in all their vitality and completeness. At this time, attempts were made to depict the inside of buildings in perspective on the icon, to introduce chiaroscuro and portraiture of faces. All this reflected signs of the artistic revolution that took place in art at the beginning of the 18th century. Only with a change in social life, statehood and culture will Russian art, in its quest for realism, enter a new fruitful path of historical development.

For us, ancient Russian fine art will forever remain valuable because the image of a person, an ideal personality, marked with the stamp of moral nobility, occupied a central place in it.

Details Category: Fine arts and architecture of ancient peoples Published 03/20/2016 16:47 Views: 5233

In a broad sense, Old Russian art is understood as medieval Russian art, which developed from the 9th to the end of the 17th centuries.

Although the history of Ancient Rus' is considered to be the history of the Old Russian state from 862 (or 882) to the Tatar-Mongol invasion (invasion of the troops of the Mongol Empire on the territory of the Russian principalities in 1237-1240), and the history of the Russian state is the period of Russian history from 1478 or 1485 (annexation of Novgorod or Tver) and before the proclamation of the Russian Empire by Peter I in 1721. Old Russian art is considered in the aggregate of these two periods.

Art of the Old Russian State

Urban planning

Large cities in Ancient Rus' had complex defensive systems. Detinets (city center) defended itself separately. The fortifications covered a significant area; in case of danger, even the population of the city’s environs could take refuge behind them. Each such city was at the same time a princely residence with its own princely court. In some cities (Novgorod, Kyiv, Ryazan, Smolensk) there were also courtyards of ordinary citizens. Usually one or two streets ran along rivers and were intersected by small streets and alleys. A characteristic feature of the Russian city of the 11th-13th centuries. the presence of a church or temple was mandatory. In ancient Russian cities there were from 2-3 to several dozen churches. Monasteries could be located outside the city.

Archaeological Museum "Berestye", remains of buildings
The unique archaeological museum “Berestye” in the city of Brest, opened in 1982, houses about 43 thousand exhibits. The museum is based on the uncovered remains of the ancient Brest settlement, the construction of a craft settlement of the 13th century. On the territory of Berestya, at a depth of 4 m, archaeologists excavated streets paved with wood, the remains of buildings for various purposes on an area of ​​1118 m². The exhibition includes 28 residential and commercial log buildings - one-story log buildings made from coniferous logs. Wooden buildings and pavement parts were preserved with specially developed synthetic substances.

Household items (reconstruction)
Around the ancient settlement there is an exhibition dedicated to the way of life of the Slavs who inhabited these places in ancient times: products made of metals, glass, wood, clay, bones, fabrics, including numerous jewelry, dishes, and parts of looms. Weaving looms were called “krosny”.

Belarusian Krosny

Fortresses and fortifications in Ancient Rus'

Fortifications played a big role in Ancient Rus'. They were constantly improved depending on the historical situation and the nature of enemy attacks. Most of the fortifications and fortresses in the Old Russian state were wooden. This was enough, because... firearms did not yet exist. Russian fortifications of that time were characterized by a moat, city walls, a visor and an embankment.

Ramparts of the Pereslavl Kremlin in Pereslavl-Zalessky
Typically, fortresses were built on a natural hill, which is why in many Slavic lands city fortifications and fortresses were called “vyshgorods.” Sometimes defensive structures were built near steep ravines, making them inaccessible from different sides. In the wooded and swampy areas of Northern Rus', fortresses were located on low hills. Muddy lowlands and swamps were used as cover.
The city walls were installed on ramparts and consisted of gorodnitsa - wooden frames filled with earth. Sometimes the log houses were left empty for residential use. On the top of the walls there were wide platforms, the outer side of which was covered with a “visor”. Slots were arranged in them for firing at the enemy - “holes”. The walls were strengthened with vezhas (towers), often on a stone foundation. Gates were made in the walls. The term “open the gates” meant the surrender of the city. In threatened places, the fortress walls were supplemented with a moat, bridges across which were built on pillars.

Pskovsky Krom (Kremlin)
Pskov Krom (Kremlin) is the historical and architectural center of Pskov and the Pskov Fortress. It occupies an area of ​​3 hectares.
The initial settlement in this part of the site dates back to the middle of the 1st millennium. In the X-XII centuries. there were earthen (possibly stone) fortifications and a wooden Trinity Cathedral. During the period of the Pskov Republic (XIV-early 16th centuries), the Kremlin with its cathedral, veche square and Krom cells was the spiritual, legal and administrative center of the Pskov land.

Pskov Trinity Cathedral (the first mention of it dates back to the 10th century)

Vlasyevskaya Tower of the Pskov Kremlin
This is one of the defensive towers of Pskov. It was erected in the 15th century. It has a high tent and an observation attic. Defended the line of fortress walls at the descent to the Velikaya River.

Old Russian architecture

Old Russian architecture absorbed the traditions of East Slavic culture and art of Byzantium and the Balkan countries. On this basis, outstanding monuments of church and secular architecture were created.

Hagia Sophia (St. Sophia Cathedral) is a temple built in the first half of the 11th century. in the center of Kyiv. According to the chronicle, on the orders of Prince Yaroslav the Wise, the temple was erected on the site of the victory over the Pechenegs in 1037. At the turn of the XVII-XVIII centuries. The temple was externally rebuilt in the Ukrainian Baroque style. Inside the cathedral, the world's most complete ensemble of original mosaics and frescoes from the first half of the 11th century has been preserved. and significant fragments of murals from the 17th-18th centuries.

Our Lady of Oranta (Unbreakable Wall). Mosaic in the altar of the cathedral (XI century)
In 1990, the St. Sophia Cathedral, like the Kiev Pechersk Lavra, became the first architectural monument on the territory of Ukraine to be included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.
Hagia Sophia in Kyiv is the first stone architectural monument in Rus'. The mosaics in Hagia Sophia were made by Byzantine craftsmen.

John Chrysostom. Mosaic (XI century)
Hagia Sophia Cathedral is the main Orthodox church of Veliky Novgorod, created in 1045-1050. This is the oldest church in Russia, built by the Slavs.

The cathedral is a five-nave cross-domed church. Temples of this type were built in Rus' only in the 11th century. In addition to the Novgorod Sofia, these are the St. Sophia Cathedrals in Kyiv and Polotsk, as well as the Kiev Church of Irina and George.
The temple has three apses (lowered projection of the building) - the central one is pentagonal, and the side ones are round. The central building is surrounded on three sides by wide two-story galleries.
The cathedral has five chapters, the sixth crowns the staircase tower, located in the western gallery south of the entrance. The heads of the chapters are made in the shape of ancient Russian helmets.
The cathedral was first painted in 1109, but from this painting only fragments of the frescoes of the central dome with figures of prophets and archangels remained, in the center between which, before the Great Patriotic War, was the image of Christ Pantocrator, which was killed by a shell. An ancient wall image of Equal-to-the-Apostles Constantine and Helen has been preserved in the Martiryevskaya porch. It is assumed that this image was supposed to become the basis for a mosaic, since it was made with highly diluted paints. The main surviving painting of the temple dates back to the end of the 19th century.

The most famous icons of the cathedral

Icon of the Mother of God “The Sign” (XII century)

Tikhvin Icon of the Mother of God (known since the 14th century)
In total, more than 50 ancient Russian architectural structures of the pre-Mongol period have survived. Let's talk about one more of them - the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl.

The Church of the Intercession on the Nerl is a white-stone temple in the Vladimir region of Russia, an outstanding monument of architecture of the Vladimir-Suzdal school. It was founded in the 12th century. The church was consecrated in honor of the Feast of the Intercession of the Virgin Mary, established in Rus' in the middle of the 12th century. on the initiative of Andrei Bogolyubsky.
The old masters knew how to choose the only right place for temples. The location of this temple is unique: the church was built in a lowland, on a small hill located on a water meadow. Previously, near the church there was a place where the Nerl flows into the Klyazma (now the river beds have changed their position). The church was located practically on the river “spit”, forming the crossroads of the most important water trade routes.
The temple is of a cross-domed type, four-pillared, three-apsed, single-domed, with arched-columnar belts and perspective portals. The walls of the church are strictly vertical, but, thanks to the exceptionally well-found proportions, they look inclined inward, thereby achieving the illusion of greater height. In the interior, the cross-shaped pillars taper towards the top, which creates an additional feeling of height.

Old Russian painting

Ancient Rus', having adopted Christianity in 988, adopted from Byzantium not only religion, but also artistic techniques. With the beginning of the construction of temples, the production of wall paintings and mosaics began.
Pre-Mongol painting of Ancient Rus' has been preserved very fragmentarily. The most striking example is the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God.

This is one of the most revered relics of the Russian Church; the icon is considered miraculous.
According to church tradition, the icon was painted by the Evangelist Luke. The icon came to Constantinople from Jerusalem in the 5th century. under Emperor Theodosius. It came to Rus' from Byzantium at the beginning of the 12th century. (about 1131) as a gift to the holy prince Mstislav from the Patriarch of Constantinople Luke Chrysoverg. The icon was delivered by the Greek Metropolitan Michael, who arrived in Kyiv from Constantinople in 1130. At first, the Vladimir Icon was in the women's Mother of God Monastery of Vyshgorod, not far from Kyiv. The son of Yuri Dolgoruky, Saint Andrei Bogolyubsky, brought the icon to Vladimir in 1155 (after which it received its current name, where it was kept in the Assumption Cathedral.) By order of Andrei, the icon was decorated with an expensive frame. After the murder of Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky in 1176, Prince Yaropolk Rostislavich removed the expensive decoration from the icon, and it ended up with Gleb of Ryazan. Only after the victory of Prince Mikhail, Andrei’s younger brother, over Yaropolk did Gleb return the icon and headdress to Vladimir. When Vladimir was captured by the Tatars in 1237, the Assumption Cathedral was plundered, and the frame was torn off the icon of the Mother of God. The Assumption Cathedral was restored by Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich. He also restored the icon
Our Lady of Vladimir. During the invasion of Tamerlane under Vasily I in 1395, the revered icon was moved to Moscow to protect the city from the conqueror. At the site of the “meeting” (meeting) of the Vladimir Icon by Muscovites, the Sretensky Monastery was founded, which gave the name to Sretenka Street. The fact that Tamerlane’s troops turned back from Yelets without reaching Moscow was regarded as the intercession of the Mother of God.
Since September 1999, the icon has been in the Church-Museum of St. Nicholas in Tolmachi at the Tretyakov Gallery.

Among the oldest Novgorod icons, the “Golden Haired Angel” icon, dating back to the 12th century, is known. The icon is kept in the State Russian Museum (St. Petersburg).

“Ustyug Annunciation” (XII century) is also one of the few pre-Mongol icons created in Veliky Novgorod. Stored in the State Tretyakov Gallery (Moscow).

The art of crafts in Ancient Rus'

By the 12th century. there were over 60 craft specialties. Some crafts were based on metallurgical production of a fairly high level, as evidenced by the use of welding, casting, forging metal, welding and hardening of steel by artisans.
Old Russian artisans produced more than 150 types of iron and steel products. Old Russian jewelers mastered the art of minting non-ferrous metals. In the craft workshops, plowshares, axes, chisels, pliers, weapons (shields, chain mail armor, spears, helmets, swords, etc.), household items (keys, etc.), jewelry (gold, silver, bronze, copper) were made. .

Replica of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich's helmet
Pottery, leatherworking, woodworking, stone cutting and other crafts were developed. With its products, Rus' gained fame in Europe at that time.

The main material for production in Rus' was wood. Dwellings, city fortifications, workshops, outbuildings, ships, sleighs, pavements, water pipelines, machines and machines, tools and instruments, dishes, furniture, household utensils, children's toys, etc. were built from it. Old Russian craftsmen knew the technical properties well. and other qualities of wood of all species growing in Russian forests and widely used it. The most common were pine and spruce. Oak wood was scarce; they tried to use it to make products of special strength (sleigh runners, barrels, shovels, etc.). Maple and ash were widely used. Carved dishes, ladles, spoons, etc. were made from maple. Ash was used for the production of turned dishes (made on lathes).

N. Roerich “The City is being Built” (1902)
Double-sided combs were made from boxwood brought from the Caucasus.
Products made of non-ferrous metals (women's jewelry, religious objects and church utensils, decorative and tableware, horse harness, decorations for weapons, etc.) were in wide demand. Foundry reached high artistic development in Ancient Rus'.
Ancient Rus' did not have its own non-ferrous metals; they were brought from Western Europe and the East. Gold mainly came in the form of coins. It was obtained as a result of trade or wars with Byzantium and the Cumans. Silver also came to Rus' in the form of coins and bars from Bohemia, the Urals, the Caucasus and Byzantium.

Hryvnia, bracelets, rings and temple rings of the Vyatichi. Silver. Casting, engraving (XII-XIII centuries)
In Ancient Rus', fabrics were made from wool, flax and hemp. Simple linen fabric used for men's and women's shirts and towels was called linen and uscinka. Coarse fabric made from plant fiber for making outerwear was called votola. Of the woolen fabrics, the most common were ponya and hair shirt; coarse fabrics included yariga and sermyaga. Cloth was made for outerwear.

Hair shirt of Ivan the Terrible (XVI century)
Hair shirt (also sackcloth) is a long, coarse shirt made of hair or goat hair; ascetics wore it on their naked bodies to mortify the flesh.
The range of bone products was also wide in the 9th-13th centuries. Combs, knife handles, buttons, mirror handles, chess and checkers, bow and saddle trims, and icons were cut from bone. The most common materials used in bone carving production were the bones of large domestic animals, as well as the antlers of elk and deer. Sometimes they used the horns of bulls, aurochs and walrus ivory. Among the bone products, artistic crafts occupied a significant place: the tops of staffs, plates on caskets and leather bags, and various gifts. The pommels were made in the form of the heads of birds and animals and in the form of various geometric shapes. Fantastic animals, sun signs, geometric, floral patterns, all kinds of braids and other motifs were depicted on flat overlay plates.

Kholmogory bone carving
Pottery in Ancient Rus' was also highly developed due to the presence of clay. It was widespread everywhere, but especially in cities. The dishes were produced in various capacities and shapes. They made children's toys, bricks, facing tiles, etc., as well as lamps, washstands, pots and other products. On the bottoms of vessels, ancient Russian craftsmen left special marks in the form of triangles, crosses, squares, circles and other geometric shapes. On some pottery there were images of keys and flowers.

Old Russian pattern (tiles)

Skopino ceramics
At the turn of the 9th-10th centuries. there was a transition from molded ceramics to pottery, i.e. circular. Pottery wheels were made of wood, so the remains of pottery wheels and their parts have not been preserved.

Glassmaking in Ancient Rus' originated in the 11th century. and reached development by the 12th-13th centuries. At the beginning of the 11th century. Glass beads were popular. From the middle of the 11th century. tableware appears. In the first half of the 12th century. Glass bracelets became widespread.
The first Russian glass-making workshops appeared in Kyiv in the first half of the 11th century. in the Kiev Pechersk Lavra. Perhaps the reason for this was the need to make mosaics for the decoration of St. Sophia of Kyiv.

Fragments of glass bracelets

Architecture of the Moscow Principality (XIV-XVI centuries)

The transformation of Moscow into a strong political center led to a new development of architecture in the city and principality.

Assumption Cathedral on Gorodok
A white-stone, four-pillar, single-domed temple, a monument of early Moscow architecture. Built at the turn of the 14th and 15th centuries. Inside the cathedral, paintings from the early 15th century, attributed to Andrei Rublev and Daniil Cherny, have been preserved.

Saved. Icon of Andrei Rublev

The Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin is an Orthodox church located on Cathedral Square of the Moscow Kremlin, the Patriarchal Cathedral of the Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus' (since 1991).

Built in 1475-1479. under the leadership of the Italian architect Aristotle Fioravanti. The main temple of the Russian state. The temple has six pillars, five domes, and five apses. Built of white stone combined with brick. The famous icon painter Dionysius took part in the painting.

Annunciation Cathedral (Moscow Kremlin)
The Annunciation Cathedral is an Orthodox church in honor of the Annunciation of the Virgin Mary, located on Cathedral Square of the Moscow Kremlin. It was built in 1489 by Pskov craftsmen on a white stone basement from the late 14th to early 15th centuries. (remaining from the old cathedral) and was originally three-domed. The cathedral was badly damaged in a fire in 1547 and restored in 1564.

Saints Constantine and Helen. Fresco (1547-1551). Painting of the south-eastern pillar of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin

The Faceted Chamber is an architectural monument in the Moscow Kremlin, one of the oldest civil buildings in Moscow. Built in 1487-1491. by order of Ivan III by architects Marco Ruffo and Pietro Antonio Solari. It got its name from the eastern façade, decorated with faceted “diamond” rustication, characteristic of Italian Renaissance architecture.

Architecture of the Russian Kingdom (XVI century)

The adoption by Ivan the Terrible of the title of “Tsar” and the transformation of Russia into a kingdom was the next stage in the development of the Russian state and Russian architecture. In the architecture of this period, past traditions continue, but the “tent” form penetrates into stone architecture from wood, which is a noticeable difference in the architecture of the new period.

The most famous architectural monument of this period is St. Basil's Cathedral. Its construction continued in 1554-1560. The cathedral is included in the List of UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Russia. St. Basil's Cathedral (or Intercession Cathedral) was built by order of Ivan the Terrible in memory of the capture of Kazan. The monument is one of the most recognizable symbols of Moscow and Russia.

Another famous monument of this period is the Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye - the first stone tented church in Russia. Erected in Kolomenskoye in 1528-1532. presumably by the Italian architect Peter of France Hannibal (according to Russian chronicles, Peter Fryazin or Petrok Maly) on the right bank of the Moscow River.
Despite the development of stone hipped architecture, temples of the old type continue to be built. The Smolensk Cathedral of the Novodevichy Monastery (1524-1598) and the Assumption Cathedral of the Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius (1559-1585) were built according to the type of the Moscow Assumption Cathedral with five domes.

Smolensk Cathedral of the Novodevichy Convent (1524-1598)

Russian architecture of the 17th century.

Beginning of the 17th century in Russia there was a difficult Time of Troubles, this led to a temporary decline in construction. Monumental buildings gave way to small buildings.

An example of such construction is the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in Putinki, made in the Russian patterned style characteristic of that period. This is one of the last tent churches.

During this period, the type of pillarless temple developed. The Small Cathedral of the Donskoy Monastery (1593) is considered to be one of the first churches of this type.

Theophanes the Greek. Don Icon of the Mother of God. State Tretyakov Gallery (Moscow)
A large number of original architectural monuments of the 17th century. preserved in Rostov the Great. The most famous are the Rostov Kremlin (1660-1683), as well as the churches of the Rostov Boris and Gleb Monastery.

Rostov Kremlin

Church of John the Evangelist of the Rostov Kremlin (1683). The temple inside has no pillars, the walls are covered with excellent frescoes. This architecture anticipates the Moscow Baroque style.
Almost all of Moscow's civil architecture perished, as wooden Moscow burned out. The ancient walls of fortified cities with towers and gates and the fences of monasteries, which were, in essence, also fortresses, have been preserved.
Among civil buildings, the Kremlin Terem Palace occupies a special place, testifying to the great technical knowledge and extraordinary taste of its architects. Built in 1635-1636. by order of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich. These are the first stone chambers in the royal palace.

Terem Palace (view from Mokhovaya Street)
The architecture of the Terem Palace reflected not only the traditional features of Russian wooden architecture, but also the enfilade structure of the interior, which was new for that time.
The painting of the rooms of the Terem Palace was carried out under the direction of S. F. Ushakov. The interiors, built according to the enfilade principle and richly decorated, have not survived. They were damaged by the fire of 1812.
Currently, the Terem Palace as part of the Grand Kremlin Palace is the Residence of the President of the Russian Federation.

Cross (Cathedral) room in the Terem Palace

Armouries

Architects, painters, and masters of other types of art concentrated in the Order of Stone Affairs and in the Armory Chamber in the Kremlin. The Armory became a kind of school where the best artistic forces united. For all Russian lands, Moscow was an indisputable authority in the field of art.
It was from the Armory Chamber that all innovations came. Ukrainian, Belarusian, Lithuanian, Armenian masters and foreign artists educated in Europe worked here. Here began the activity of Simon Ushakov, a major Russian painter who sought to break with the traditions of ancient art.
From the end of the 15th century. Moscow is turning into a center of artistic crafts, where Russian craftsmen create many art monuments.
The Kremlin treasury was replenished by numerous foreign embassies, delivering luxurious gifts to Moscow. Already during the reign of Ivan III, the treasury had grown so much that in 1485 a two-story stone building with deep basements for jewelry was specially erected in the Kremlin for its storage.
The Kremlin treasury was plundered by Polish interventionists during the Time of Troubles, but was quickly replenished during the times of rapid economic growth and the flourishing of crafts under the first tsars of the Romanov dynasty, and under Peter the Great - due to military trophies. A significant part of the valuables were made by craftsmen from the leading Kremlin workshop - the Armory Chamber, to which the museum, located today in a building erected by the architect K.A., owes its name. Tone in 1844

Armory building
The Armory Chamber stores ancient state regalia, ceremonial royal clothing and coronation dress, vestments of the hierarchs of the Russian Orthodox Church, the largest collection of gold and silver items by Russian craftsmen, Western European artistic silver, monuments of weaponry, a collection of carriages, and items of ceremonial horse harness.

14. The process of “secularization” in artXVIIcentury.

The turmoil of the 17th century dealt a terrible blow to the statehood, economy and culture of the country. Nevertheless, Russia not only quickly recovered, but also began to grow stronger just as quickly. It was then that it became territorially the largest power in the world

Apparently, it was architects, artists, and writers who actually “worldized” architecture, painting and literature, although they did this most often with merchant money, inevitably forced in their creations to, to one degree or another, reflect the tastes and demands of the townspeople, their ideas about the environment peace and beauty. One of the most characteristic external signs of the new stage in the development of Russian culture was the construction, in addition to temples, of stone buildings for secular purposes, which were now being built not only by the feudal nobility, but also by representatives of the wealthy merchants. The basement was used for storing goods, and the southern aisle of Nikita the Warrior became the family tomb of this famous merchant family, which originated from Yaroslavl. The interior decoration was completed by the mid-1650s after the death of G. L. Nikitnikov, his grandchildren, and his great-grandson on his daughter’s side, Ivan Grigorievich Bulgakov, also completed some work. The images were commissioned from the most famous icon painters of that time, including Joseph Vladimirov ("The Descent of the Holy Spirit") and the iconographer of the Armory Chamber Simon Ushakov ("The Great Bishop", "The Savior Not Made by Hands" and others). For many years in the temple there was also the famous icon “Tree of the Moscow State” (“Praise of the Mother of God of Vladimir”), which was also created by the “sovereign zographer Pimin called Simon Ushakov.” When painting walls, the masters were the first in Russia to use engravings from the Piscator Bible, recently published in Holland, as samples (rather, iconographic diagrams), and on one of the frescoes they depicted a group portrait of the Nikitnikov family. In the middle of the 17th century, a stone house with high “Dutch gables” appeared on Vagankovo ​​Street in Moscow, which also stood out noticeably against the background of the surrounding buildings. It belonged to the eminent guest Almaz (Erofey) Ivanovich Ivanov (? – 1669) from the Chistye family, who came from the townspeople of Vologda. Trading with eastern countries and knowing several foreign languages, this merchant eventually became a Duma nobleman and head of the Ambassadorial Prikaz. As part of the Russian embassies, Almaz Ivanov traveled to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Sweden. Perhaps his foreign impressions to some extent affected the architecture of the house. Next to his two-story stone chambers at the Pokrovsky Gate, a member of the Living Hundred, Mikhail Semenovich Sverchkov, erected the Church of the Assumption on Pokrovka in 1696-1698 in the “Naryshkin” Baroque style. A little earlier, on Bersenevka (now Bersenevskaya embankment of the Moscow River), by order of the sovereign clerk Averky Stepanovich Kirillov (1622-1682), who came from a merchant environment, a new house and the temple of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker were built from large bricks. The construction book of 1657 speaks about it this way: “In that garden, next to his Averkiev’s yard, his Averkiev’s plat was built again.” A member of the Dutch embassy, ​​Nicolaas Witsen, who visited Moscow in 1665, wrote: “I visited Averky Stepanovich Kirillov, the first guest, who is considered one of the richest merchants. He lives in a most beautiful building; it is a large and beautiful stone chamber, the top is made of wood. In his courtyard he has his own church and bell tower, richly decorated, a beautiful courtyard and garden. The furnishings inside the house are no worse, the windows have German painted glass (stained glass). In short, he has everything you need for a richly furnished house: beautiful chairs and tables, paintings, carpets, cabinets, silverware, etc. He treated us to various drinks, as well as cucumbers, melons, pumpkins, nuts and transparent apples, and all this was served on beautiful carved silver, very clean. There was no shortage of carved goblets and glasses. All his servants were dressed in the same dress, which was not customary even among the Tsar himself. He treated us very kindly, talked about the recently appeared comet; the Russians talk about this incorrectly. He showed us a book of predictions of the future, translated into Russian, as if it contained true predictions, and asked my opinion about it." As we see, elements of "worldliness" and the penetration of foreign influences are evident. In stone residential construction, eminent merchants did not lag behind the capital's merchants people of provincial centers. During the period under review, Pskov was adorned with several notable merchant mansions. The most famous of them, perhaps, belonged to Sergei Ivanovich Pogankin. “Pogankin’s robes” still stand there. Nearby are the merchant houses of the Menshikovs, Rusinovs, Trubinskys, Yamskys. They, as a rule, two-story, stone, with a third wooden floor and storage rooms in the form of cages and basements. The house of the Pushnikov merchants in Nizhny Novgorod consisted of two large chambers. In Kaluga, the elegantly decorated two-story house of the merchant K. I. Korobov has been preserved. Merchant stone chambers XVII centuries are known both in the small town of Gorokhovets near Vladimir, and in Cheboksary. The question of the role of Moscow “trading foreigners” (Vinius, Kelderman, Marcelis and others) in introducing Russians to Western European culture deserves special consideration. All of the above, without a doubt, contributed significantly to the “secularization” of Russian culture, that is, to the penetration and growth of purely secular elements in it.

Kyiv, Novgorod, Vladimir, Suzdal, Pskov, Moscow... Can you really list all the cities in Rus', covered with centuries-old glory, cities in which monuments of ancient Russian art have been preserved. Kremlins and monasteries, golden-domed white-stone churches, and whimsical, like fairy-tale wooden churches still amaze us with their beauty and grandeur.

The art of Ancient Rus' spans several centuries - from the 10th century, the time of Yaroslav the Wise, to the era of Peter I. At its origins, ancient Russian art was closely connected with the culture of the East Slavic tribes that preceded it, which, in turn, inherited many of the artistic traditions of the Scythian-Sarmatian world and the ancient colonies of the Northern Black Sea region (see article “Ancient art of the peoples of our Motherland” and vol. 8 DE, articles in the section “Our Motherland in the Middle Ages”).

Almost no civil architecture from its heyday has reached us. Kyiv State and the beginning of feudal fragmentation - X - beginning of the XII century. Only from excavations and from meager literary evidence do we learn that ordinary people lived in half-dugouts, that at home (mansions) rich people and princes were built from several wooden frames with complex passages and roofs, which also built richly decorated stone palaces. From that time, the remains of the fortress ramparts, ancient gates, church buildings, and the tower of the palace in Bogolyubov - a monument of ancient Russian civil architecture of the 12th century - have reached us.

Amazing monuments of art of Kievan Rus are preserved in our museums. Works of painting, handwritten books decorated with miniatures and headpieces, objects carved from wood, bone, stone, and jewelry speak of a very high artistic culture. The successes of applied art are explained by the high development of all kinds of crafts (Kievan Rus knew over 60 of them).

In the churches of Ancient Rus', they not only performed church services - they received ambassadors, held a ceremony for the approval of princes to rule, and stored the treasury and libraries. In Novgorod, townspeople gathered around churches (evening). Ancient chronicles tell us that people were saved from enemies in churches many times during the raids of the Mongol-Tatar conquerors.

Grandiose cathedral buildings of the 11th century. and now they stand in Kyiv and Novgorod. They were named Sofia in honor of the main cathedral of the capital of Byzantium, Constantinople (now Istanbul) - St. Sofia. The Russians, having adopted the religion of the Byzantines - Orthodoxy, tried to imitate them in the luxury and grandeur of palace ceremonies and church services.

The interior decoration of the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv (founded in 1037) is striking in its splendor. It is decorated with mosaics made of multi-colored stones, ceramics and smalt (pieces of glass painted in different colors) and frescoes (see illustration in vol. 8 DE, p. 196). The images of saints and scenes from their lives on frescoes and mosaics are monumental and majestic. However, the painting of the temple glorified not only the Christian religion, but also the power of state power. On the choir of the temple there was a portrait of its founder - Prince Yaroslav the Wise, his daughters and sons (now only images of daughters and younger sons have been preserved), and on the walls along the stairs leading to the choir are scenes of equestrian competitions, hunting, and circus performances.

At the beginning of the 12th century. Huge cathedral buildings continue to be built in Kyiv and Novgorod. An example of such structures in Novgorod is the Antoniev (1117) and Yuryev (1119; Master Peter) monasteries.

The most ancient buildings were erected from light, narrow bricks, held together with a binder mortar, which, when hardened, formed wide stripes - cemyanka. Often large uncut stones were laid in the walls. The current white coloring of the walls belongs to a later period.

In the middle and end of the 12th century. in Novgorod and Pskov, small-sized single-domed churches in the shape of a cube with three semicircular projections are being built - apses. The inside of these temples is extremely simple. Typical buildings of this kind are the Church of St. George in Staraya Ladoga (second half of the 12th century), the Church of the Savior on Nereditsa (1198) in Novgorod, the Transfiguration Cathedral of the Mirozh Monastery (c. 1156) in Pskov, etc.

From the beginning of the 12th century. begins to develop, becoming increasingly important, Vladimir-Suzdal Principality, or, as they said in ancient times, Zalesskaya land.

In the cities of Zalesye - Rostov, Pereslavl-Zalessky, Suzdal and Vladimir - under Prince Yuri Dolgoruky and his sons Andrei Bogolyubsky and Vsevolod the Big Nest, fortress walls were erected, palaces and cathedrals were built. Construction was carried out from local white stone, the buildings were richly decorated with carvings - arcature belts with masks (arcature - a series of decorative false arches on the façade of a building or on the walls of interior spaces), perspective portals, and complexly profiled windows. These are the Assumption Cathedral (1158 - 1160; rebuilt after a fire in 1185 - 1189) and the Golden Gate (a tower with a passage arch, topped with a gate church; 1164) in Vladimir, the Church of the Intercession of the Virgin on the Nerl (1165), the tower of the palace in Bogolyubovo (1158 - 1165), etc. The walls of the Dmitrievsky Cathedral in Vladimir (1194 - 1197) and the St. George Cathedral in Yuryev-Polsky (1230 - 1234), like a carpet, are covered with images of human figures, fantastic animals, birds, plants.

St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod. 1045 - 1050.

According to literary sources, ancient cathedrals were richly decorated with icons, but less than 30 icons have reached us from that time.

Studying them became possible only after the Great October Socialist Revolution, when scientists found them in churches and monasteries, and restorers cleared them of later layers of painting.

Icons were painted on boards, which were fastened with transverse wooden bars - dowels. Canvas was usually pasted onto the board - pavoloku. The pavoloka was covered gesso - a mixture of chalk and glue. The gesso was polished to a shine and painted on with egg tempera - mineral and vegetable paints diluted with yolk. The finished icon was covered with drying oil. The drying oil darkened over time, the icon became covered with dirt and soot, and then it was painted over with a new painting. Some icons were updated three or more times. It is this later painting that restorers have to clear in order to discover ancient writing.

Artists in icons knew how to convey their feelings and hopes, their attitude towards good and evil, and the ideals of their people.

The most ancient Russian icons date back to the end of the 11th - beginning of the 13th centuries. They are full of calm grandeur, depicting courageous, strong, intelligent people, ready for heroism. These are the warriors - Dmitry of Thessalonica on the icon kept in the Tretyakov Gallery, and George on the icon located in the Moscow Kremlin Museum. They are brave warriors, in full armor, with swords and shields in their strong hands.

The Mother of God is depicted as an intercessor for people in the icon of the Great Panagia (Great Tretyakov Gallery; Panagia translated from Greek means “perfect holiness”). The Mother of God stands with her hands raised up, as if shielding people from all troubles.

Artists of ancient times used rich blue, green, and cherry colors, which seemed even deeper next to pink and blue shades, bright red and white. And thanks to the combination of these colors with a gold and silver background, the colorful range acquired a special solemnity and sonority

The development of Vladimir-Suzdal art was interrupted at the end of the 30s of the 13th century. invasion of the Mongol-Tatars. Cities were destroyed, villages were burned. The centuries-long Mongol-Tatar yoke began.

Church of the Intercession of the Virgin Mary on the Nerl River (near the city of Vladimir). 1165.

Church of the Savior on Ilyin Street in Novgorod. 1374.

George the warrior. Icon XI-XII centuries. State museums of the Moscow Kremlin.

Miracle of George about the serpent. Icon. Beginning of the 16th century State Tretyakov Gallery. Moscow.

Theophanes the Greek. Angel. Fresco from the Church of the Savior on Ilyin Street in Novgorod. 1378.

IN Novgorod And Pskov, not damaged by the Mongol-Tatars, were built in the 14th century. small stone temples. They were painted by both Russian and visiting artists. A famous artist born in Byzantium worked in the Novgorod Church of the Savior on Ilyin Street (1374) Feofan the Greek(1330s - c. 1410). The frescoes he created are built on a subtle combination of various brown, blue, indigo and lilac shades. Dark faces covered with vigorous white strokes (space), full of extraordinary inner strength and expression.

However, Russian cities are gradually beginning to rise from the ashes. The brilliant traditions of Vladimir-Suzdal art and the ideas of unification of Rus' that inspired this art were picked up and developed in the 14th century. artists of Moscow. Leading role in artistic culture since the end of the 14th century. passes to Moscow, which led the unification of Russian lands and the struggle for liberation from the Mongol-Tatar yoke.

The famous artist of Ancient Rus' worked in Moscow Andrey Rublev. Rublev's date of birth has not been precisely established; it is assumed that he was born between 1360 and 1370. He was probably a monk of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery - one of the major cultural centers of Rus' at that time (located in Zagorsk near Moscow), and at the end of his life - Andronikov monastery in Moscow. Chronicles report on him twice: in 1405, when he, with Prokhor from Gorodets and Feofan the Greek, painted the Annunciation Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin and painted icons for it, and in 1408, when he and his elder friend, an icon painter Daniil Cherny(c. 1360 - 1430) worked on the restoration of the painting and iconostasis of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir (the old painting of the cathedral was almost completely lost during the Mongol-Tatar invasion in 1237). The frescoes made by Rublev for this cathedral on the theme of the “Last Judgment” have been preserved (according to religious legends, the “Last Judgment” is supposedly God’s judgment, which was supposed to take place on a certain day, “the end of the world,” on which all people are given what they deserve: sinners will receive punishment, and the righteous will receive eternal bliss). Not all of the grandiose composition that once occupied the western part of the cathedral has reached us, but only fragments. The painting has lost its former brightness of colors, its surface is very worn. But her images still captivate us with their beauty and smooth movements. And most importantly, this painting is deeply human: the soft and gentle faces of the saints are the faces of ordinary Russian people.

Rublev also worked on the painting of the Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra and in the Andronikov Monastery, where he was apparently buried around 1430. Rublev, like other artists of Ancient Rus', never signed his works, so the question of his authorship in each specific The case has repeatedly caused controversy among scientists.

“Trinity” is one of Rublev’s most reliable works. It was written in the 1st quarter of the XVB. for the Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery in honor of its founder - the major church and political figure Sergius of Radonezh (c. 1321 - 1391).

The icon depicts three angels sitting at a table around a sacrificial bowl. There seems to be a quiet conversation between them. They came to the house of the prophet Abraham and predicted the birth of a son for him - this is the theological meaning of the icon. But Trinity was also a special holiday - on this day, according to custom, people who had quarreled were reconciled. And this second content is the main one in the Trinity. Peace, harmony, unanimity - This is what the artist calls on the Russian people to do. And this real content of the icon reflected the desire of the Russian people to unite Rus' and unanimously repel their enemies. Therefore, it is no coincidence that this icon was dedicated to Sergius of Radonezh - a fierce champion of the unification of Rus', an opponent of feudal wars and strife.

Andrey Rublev. Trinity. Icon. 1st quarter of the 15th century State Tretyakov Gallery. Moscow.

Everything in the icon is harmonious, consistent. Pure colors: bright cornflower blue, soft green, golden yellow, blue - remind us of the colors of Russian nature on a clear June day.

Three more icons belong to the brushes of Andrei Rublev: the Savior (Jesus Christ), Archangel Michael and Apostle Paul, found near the Zvenigorod Cathedral of the Assumption “on Gorodok”. In these icons the artist’s humanism manifested itself with particular force (all three in the Tretyakov Gallery). The Savior is especially remarkable. His kind face embodied the ideal man of that time.

At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century. Another wonderful Russian artist lived and worked - Dionysius(c. 1440 - after 1502 or 1503). He worked in Borovsk, Moscow, Volokolamsk, Ferapontova Monastery near Kirillov (not far from Vologda), and in the Pavlovo-Obnorsky Monastery. He painted frescoes, icons, and possibly miniatures for books. His work in the Ferapontova Monastery is especially significant, where he created frescoes, musical in lines and rhythms, infinitely rich in color. Two of his icons are famous, telling about the life of Moscow metropolitans of the 14th century. Peter and Alexy, - “Metropolitan Peter in the Life” and “Metropolitan Alexy in the Life” (the first - in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, the second - in the State Tretyakov Gallery). Very interesting hallmarks these icons, which tell about actual historical events (in icon painting, stamps are small completed compositions located around a large central image). For example, about Alexy’s trip on a diplomatic mission to the Tatar Khan, about the healing of the Khan’s wife Taidula.

Many stamps depict the real architecture of that time: white churches with helmet-shaped roofs, belfries. At the end of the 15th century. in Novgorod the first works were written that can be attributed to historical genre - these are icons illustrating the historical story of the victory of the Novgorodians over the Suzdalians in 1169 (one of them is kept in the State Tretyakov Gallery, the other in the State Russian Museum, the third in the Novgorod Historical and Architectural Museum-Reserve).

The most valuable works of ancient Russian art are handwritten books. It is difficult even to convey that deep aesthetic feeling, that excitement that covers a person when he leafs through an ancient Russian handwritten book. Leather or brocade binding, often decorated with jewelry; white smooth parchment (paper appeared only in the 15th century); carefully written letters; complete fantasies, initials created from drawings of animals, birds, flowers, leaves and various curls; bright, intricate, multi-colored screensavers; masterfully written miniatures - all this makes the book a real work of art.

Books were written and decorated by hand in numerous scriptoria - writing workshops at monasteries. And now libraries contain thousands of handwritten books created in Ancient Rus'.

In the middle of the 16th century. books began to be printed in Rus'. The first printed book (“Apostle”) was created in Moscow in 1564 in a printing house organized by I. Fedorov together with P. Mstislavets.

At first, the circulation of printed books was very small, and therefore in the second half of the 16th and even in the 17th century. Along with printed books, handwritten books were also created. They continued to write handwritten books for special occasions.

Church of the Transfiguration in Kizhi. 1714.

In the second half of the XV and XVI centuries. Moscow subjugates all Russian principalities, a unified Russian state is created. He is faced with the task of building a new defensive system. Therefore, new ones are starting to be built fortified cities, Pre-existing kremlins are being repaired and rebuilt, and fortress walls of monasteries are being erected. The existing walls of the Kremlins date back to this time: Moscow (1485 - 1516; see article “Moscow Kremlin”), Tula (1514 - 1521), Kolomna (1525 - 1531), Nizhny Novgorod (1500 - 1511), as well as monasteries : Novodevichy (founded in 1524), Simonov (founded in 1379; both Moscow), Kirillo-Belozersky (founded in 1397, Kirillov), Trinity-Sergiev (founded between 1337 - 1340, Zagorsk), etc.

New in the architecture of the 16th century. there was the construction of stone churches with tent covering, that is, a covering in the form of a tetrahedral or multifaceted pyramid, reminiscent of a tent. Such a temple was built in the village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow, according to legend, in honor of the birth of Ivan the Terrible (Church of the Ascension, 1532, now within Moscow). The Intercession Cathedral, erected in 1555 - 1560, also has a tent roof. in Moscow on Red Square to commemorate the victory over the Kazan Khanate according to the design of Russian architects Barmy And Fasting. Later, at the end of the 16th century, an extension was made to the cathedral and after it it was called St. Basil's Cathedral. The cathedral amazes with its originality and boldness of architectural design. It was originally two-colored - red and white. The current coloring, covering it from top to bottom, like precious embroidery, dates back to the 17th century. and meets the popular tastes of the time.

Dionysius. Metropolitan Alexy heals Taidula (the khan's wife). Mark from the icon “Metropolitan Alexy in the Life”. Beginning of the 16th century State Tretyakov Gallery. Moscow.

Portrait (parsun) of Prince M. V. Skopin-Shuisky. 1st half of the 17th century State Historical Museum. Moscow.

Harvest. 1680 - 1681. Fresco from the Church of Elijah the Prophet in Yaroslavl.

Uniquely beautiful works of wooden architecture, many of which have survived to this day, were created mainly in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. There are especially many of them in the northern regions. Small chapels, tented and multi-domed churches, wooden huts, bathhouses, mills - all of them were built without nails, using one ax and are an example of the amazing skill of folk craftsmen.

In the 17th century architecture becomes elegant and colorful. Houses and temples are decorated with carved platbands and porches; Tiles with a variety of bright images are widely used. In many cities, architectural ensembles are being created, and architects are working on city planning.

Painters of the 16th and 17th centuries. strive to more fully and accurately depict the world around them. Portraits appear, called parsuna(from the word “person”), which, despite some conventionality of the image, convey individual facial features. In the paintings of temples and in miniatures illustrating books of religious content, scenes from life and labor processes are depicted: harvesting, hay harvesting, winemaking, fishing, etc.

Throughout its complex and long development - from the 10th to the end of the 17th century - ancient Russian art was closely connected with the historical destinies of the people, with their struggle for independence, with the strengthening of their national identity. Even in conventional, symbolic images of religious art, the artists of Ancient Rus' were able to embody the ideals and dreams of their people.

Moscow Kremlin

The battlements, towers crowned with red ruby ​​stars, the Spasskaya Tower on which the famous Kremlin chimes are installed, Red Square lying nearby - all this is the Moscow Kremlin, the center of our Motherland.

The Kremlin has stood on the banks of the Moscow River for the eighth century. It was first mentioned in the chronicle in 1147. At first it was made of wood. Under Dmitry Donskoy, white stone walls were erected, which were subsequently, from 1485 to 1516, replaced by the existing brick walls and towers. At the end of the 17th century. the towers were built on and received a tent roof.

At the time of its creation, the Kremlin was a first-class European fortress, built according to all the rules of the art of fortification of that time. The Kremlin walls have the shape of a huge triangle, their length is more than 2 km. The height of the walls ranges from 5 to 19 m, their thickness is 3.5 - 6.5 m. The Kremlin has 20 towers. But the Kremlin had not only a defensive significance, but also a political one: it embodied the power of Moscow - the capital of the united Russian state, freed from the Mongol-Tatar yoke.

A person coming to the Kremlin finds himself on Cathedral Square - one of the most beautiful squares in the world.

In its center stands the main Assumption Cathedral, built of white stone and crowned with five golden domes. Its walls are dissected by blades ending in soft semicircles.

The cathedral was built in 1475 - 1479. His model was the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, built in the 12th century. The cathedral was painted by the wonderful Russian artist Dionysius.

In front of the Assumption Cathedral on the left, if you are facing it, there is the building of the Faceted Chamber. (Built by an artel of Russian craftsmen in 1487 - 1491. The “faceted” chamber received its name because its walls were made of faceted white stone. It served as a reception hall and a place for feasts.) On the right is a tall tower-like structure topped with a golden dome - Bell tower “Ivan the Great” (architect Bon Fryazin, built on in 1600). Near the bell tower there are two unique monuments of Russian cast iron casting: the Tsar Bell and the Tsar Cannon, so named for their enormous size at that time. On the other side of the square are the Archangel Cathedral (built in 1505 - 1508 by the architect Aleviz Fryazin Novy). The cathedral served as the tomb of Russian great princes and tsars.

Almost opposite the Archangel Cathedral stands built in 1484 - 1489. Pskov masters Annunciation Cathedral. In 1508, the son of Dionysius Theodosia painted it with frescoes. The cathedral is also famous for the fact that it contains an iconostasis made by famous artists Theophanes the Greek, Prokhor from Gorodets and Andrei Rublev.

The Moscow Kremlin has gone through centuries of history, and new buildings were built in it every century. In 1635 - 1636 Russian masters Antip Konstantinov, Larion Ushakov, Vazhen Ogurtsov and Trefil Sharutin built the Terem Palace, which in many ways resembled wooden buildings. The building was crowned with a high roof, the windows were elegantly decorated with carved colored frames. In 1702 - 1736 An Arsenal was erected in which weapons were stored and manufactured.

In 1776 - 1778 the famous architect M. F. Kazakov erected the Senate building (now the building of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR). In 1844 - 1851 The Armory Chamber is being built, which is now a repository of national valuables and weapons.

In 1839 - 1849 According to the design of architect K. A. Ton and with the participation of architects N. I. Chichagov, P. A. Gerasimov and others, the Grand Kremlin Palace is being built. In this palace, meetings of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR and the RSFSR, congresses and plenums of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, and all-Union meetings take place.

In 1959 - 1961 The Palace of Congresses was built according to the design of a group of architects led by M.V. Posokhin.

Faceted Chamber. Interior. 1487 - 1491.

ancient Russian fine art rublev

Icon painting played an important role in Ancient Rus', where it became one of the main forms of fine art. The earliest ancient Russian icons had the traditions, as already mentioned, of Byzantine icon painting, but very soon in Rus' their own distinctive centers and schools of icon painting arose: Moscow, Pskov, Novgorod, Tver, Central Russian principalities, “northern letters”, etc. Their own Russian saints also appeared , and their own Russian holidays (Protection of the Virgin Mary, etc.), which are clearly reflected in icon painting. The artistic language of the icon has long been understandable to any person in Rus'; the icon was a book for the illiterate.

The works of art of Moscow of the 14th-15th centuries, known today, allow us to assert that Andrei Rublev and his associates were formed in an artistic environment that was at a very high level. Although none of Andrei Rublev's contemporaries surpassed him in art, nevertheless, the masters who worked with him often evoke in us a feeling of respectful surprise at the significance of their creations. What Rublev elevated to the level of high style was prepared in the artistic environment that surrounded him. He was not alone; there were like-minded people and comrades around him. Actually, we do not see the imitator students next to him; they appeared later, after he completed his creative path. Even in the last years of the great artist’s life, masters work with him without losing their face. They independently work to solve the same problems that faced Rublev and, in general, Russian artistic thought of that time. But no one but him was able to bring into harmony and agreement everything that had to be embodied in art in such a significant era of Russian life. Considering everything created by Russian artists of the distant past, artists of the era preceding Andrei Rublev and his time, and, in addition, masters of the South Slavic countries and the Greeks, we see that Rublev was able to select all the best that was in their works. By creatively translating the richness of this diverse artistic culture, he acquired his own visual language, native and understandable to everyone around him. He managed in his work to reflect the best aspirations and aspirations of the Russian people at the decisive moment of their struggle for their national existence.

Therefore, it is necessary to comprehend in his artistic works those values ​​that were a reflection of the truly popular views and tastes of his time.

In the youth of Andrei Rublev and the masters of his generation, a significant event took place, which was already recognized by contemporaries as the decision of the fate of the Russian people - the Battle of Kulikovo Field. The victory left a deep imprint on the people's consciousness. The Russian people have proven in practice their willingness to sacrifice their lives for the sake of their homeland. Awareness of the power of this love strengthened in the Russian people a sense of true human dignity, courage and fearlessness. This is clearly evidenced by the words of the author of “Zadonshchina” - a military story about the Battle of Kulikovo. Written (possibly by Sophony Ryazan) with an orientation towards the Tale of Igor’s Campaign, which was caused by the general ideological position of the authors: the unity of the Russian principalities in the face of an external enemy... Modern encyclopedia: “Princes and boyars and daring people, leave all your houses and wealth, wives both children and livestock, receive the honor and glory of this world, lay down their heads for the Russian land and for the Christian faith.”

As is known, very few monuments of early Moscow painting have survived, although the chronicle speaks of the great scope of painting in Moscow. Under the year 1342 it is said that in one fire in Moscow 18 churches burned down, and it is added that in 13 years this was already the fourth fire (Nikon Chronicle). In the following years, the Metropolitan, Prince and Princess, taking care of the restoration of the churches, entrusted their painting to Russian masters, Greeks and their Russian students.

Among the monuments of this period, the icon of Boris and Gleb on horseback from the Moscow Assumption Cathedral (State Tretyakov Gallery) is of particular interest, which is considered to be the work of a Russian master who collaborated with the Greeks or studied with them, since the writing techniques and style of the icon reveal in it the master’s familiarity with monuments of Paleologian art. The icon is an outstanding work of art and speaks not of its master’s borrowing of Byzantine painting techniques, but of their free implementation in a monument filled with original content.

The cult of Boris and Gleb has always been associated with the idea of ​​brotherly love and unity of the Russian princes. Their lives were often read by the clergy for edification in times of discord and disagreement between the princes.

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The icon shows, against the backdrop of high conventional rocky hills, a lively scene filled with action and pathos. Boris and Gleb ride side by side on horses, marching warlike in step. The brothers, as usual, are dressed in ordinary Russian princely clothes, the horses are wearing rich attire - everything is accurately and carefully depicted by the artist. In their faces, conveyed using techniques close to Byzantine painting of that time, i.e. with a sharp juxtaposition of light and shadow, features of the Russian type are still visible through the conventions, especially in the face of Boris. In the coloring, although somewhat dark, one can feel the cheerful and intense sound of colors - red, reddish-yellow, green, dark gray, common in Russian painting.

There seems to be a conversation going on between the brothers. Gleb turns to Boris, who, looking into the distance in front of him, listens to him attentively. In the agreements of the princes and their speeches, the expression “to mount a horse” meant to start a war, which was usually followed by the condition of mutual assistance: “then you, my brother, must also mount a horse.” It is quite obvious that such an icon seemed to call on the princes to follow the example of Boris and Gleb, avoiding strife, helping each other in brotherly love and, if necessary, unitedly and militantly speaking out against the enemy. In the upper right corner, the Savior in heaven blesses, as if giving instructions to the brothers. Images of Boris and Gleb are not rare in the 14th century. The icon of Boris and Gleb with a life from Kolomna (State Tretyakov Gallery) dates back to the same century. The brothers are shown standing next to each other with swords and crosses in their hands, i.e. in the form of a martyr. If we compare their faces with those depicted on the just described icon of the 1340s, we will see that typically Russian beauty is reflected much more clearly in them. They are Russian, their eyes are larger and more transparent, their noses are straight. Painting techniques are different. The faces are sculpted softly with a gradual transition from shadow to light, the paints, instead of dense and thick strokes, cover the surface fluidly and transparently.

To the era immediately adjacent to the Battle of Kulikovo, i.e. The icon of St. Nicholas and St. George of the Moscow school (State Russian Museum) dates back to the end of the 14th century. George is given in the form of a slender young warrior. His weapons and military armor are depicted with love and attention by the artist. In his hands is a heavy sword and a thin spear. Despite his youth, the warrior has a courageous and impressive posture. The face, stern and gentle, reflects concentrated depth into one’s inner world and unyielding determination. He looks away and does not communicate with the viewer; one senses some alienation and loneliness of the hero. This is the face of a man who has seen death before him and is again in full military readiness. When you look at his figure with wide shoulders and strong legs, images of warriors of the 11th-12th centuries come to mind. The painting techniques of this monument lack the features of the Paleologian style. He stands freely, but straight, without bending.

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The transitions from shadow to light are soft and gradual, only the volume is sculpted more definitely than in Boris and Gleb from Kolomna. The colors are light and transparent, the cinnabar of the cloak is combined with green, yellow and brown tones. The entire image appears in clear, even lighting, in which all the details of the armor and weapons are noticeably revealed. Apparently, the master carefully peered into the artistic techniques of painting of the distant past and the faces of ancient icons, trying to understand their expression. For the artist of the late 14th century, this warrior owes some of the heaviness of his figure, the decisiveness of his gaze and the natural ease of his military posture to the long-standing military culture of the Russians and the charm of the images of the heroic past for the artist of the late 14th century. Only the former severity of the former appearance of the warriors of the pre-Mongol period has softened, more subtlety has appeared in the facial features, its power is no longer exaggerated. George is portrayed as an ordinary participant in battles, but he is elevated in his human dignity, and the pathos of heroism is given in him in a different way than before, in a new way. What was the change?

Often the Russian people of the Middle Ages did not find an explanation for the feats accomplished in the heat of military inspiration, and attributed them to George, Dmitry of Thessalonica, Boris and Gleb and the Archangel Michael, whom they called in their military terminology “the commander of the perfect regiment.” They considered them as real participants in the battle. This kind of intervention of ordinary patrons is found, for example, in the description of the Battle of Kulikovo.

How much ideas about the character of the Moscow warrior have changed in comparison with the image of the hero of the pre-Mongol period can be seen from the description of the battle of Dmitry Donskoy with Oleg Ryazansky at Skornishchovo in 1371. The chronicler (Trinity Chronicle and the Moscow Code of the late 15th century) calls the Ryazan people “severe people, fierce and become arrogant, humble the people, inflamed with greatness.” He condemns them for their contempt for the Muscovites, whom, having not experienced in battle, the Ryazan people call “weak, fearful and not strong,” and for the fact that, relying on their strength, they considered it unnecessary to arm themselves, but only took “trap” those. ropes to tie Muscovites with. Further, he describes how the Ryazan people in an evil and fierce battle were defeated by the “humble”, as the chronicler puts it, Muscovites and how Prince Oleg himself barely escaped with a small retinue. Narrating about this victory of the Muscovites, the chronicler condemns, using the example of the Ryazan people, the type of warrior, although brave, but imprudent, overly relying on his own prowess and not commensurating his strength with the strength of the enemy. At the same time, he admires Muscovites who “do not rise with pride.”

In the depiction of George on the icon “Nicholas and George” from the Russian Museum, the pathos of heroism is not as exaggerated as in the works of the pre-Mongol period, but more commensurate with human capabilities. He is closer to the truth of life, to those people from whose midst the heroes of the battles of that time emerged. George does not suppress the viewer with his exclusivity; the viewer seems to see himself in him, only in an exalted form.

The icon we examined, “Saints Nicholas and George,” dates back to the time when Andrei Rublev was still young. This is the art of the older generation. By the very beginning of the 15th century. Another wonderful monument rises, the creation of a Russian woman.

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The design for sewing was usually given by the icon painter, the execution was carried out by the embroiderer. There is an assumption that the design for this sewing was made by an artist who personally knew Sergius. The appearance of the old man is far from canon. Before us is a man with a strong and original character: his mouth is energetically compressed, his eyes are set somewhat askew, close together and full of penetrating concentration. Artistic sewing techniques are very diverse, picturesque and expressive. The features of Sergius’s complex appearance are masterfully emphasized: the peculiar outline of the forehead, the narrow frame of the face with somewhat prominent cheekbones, the closeness of the eyes and their unequal shape, the difference in the pattern of the eyebrows, the asymmetry of the nose, beard and all the features of the face and head with a lot of hair. The keen eye of the artist sees the varying thickness of the beard, noticing the sparse hairs on the cheeks where it begins. In his entire appearance there is great restraint and composure for purposeful action and at the same time great breadth of soul, something courageous, but not strict. The slender and full of movement figure of Sergius is dressed in modest clothes, in the depiction of which the embroiderer even managed to convey the color and texture of homespun woolen fabric and the simplicity of sewing a canvas stole. One can feel from everything that the artist was completely inspired by the living personality of Sergius, and he seemed to be characterizing him as a historical figure. When you look at this work, what least comes to mind are the conventional signs of a “saint” given in the lives, and what comes to mind is Sergius, carrying out diplomatic missions that no one else could do in the stormy turmoil of internecine disagreements. I remember how he “closed” the churches in Nizhny Novgorod, when in 1365 he persuaded Boris Konstantinovich to make peace with his elder brother, who had seniority rights to reign in Nizhny Novgorod, and with this unprecedented measure for that time he achieved, together with the great prince, reconciliation of brothers; then - his visit and inducement to peace of such an evil enemy of Moscow as Oleg Ryazansky. What comes to mind is not the “benevolent words” that life speaks of, but something else: willpower, knowledge of life and people, the inexorability of the arguments of the practical mind. Before us is a living, active person who “spoke few words, but learned great deeds,” i.e. Taught more by deed, and not by word, that Sergius, who “disobeyed not the slightest, nor hesitated, but with much diligence,” went and chose places for new monasteries and laid their foundation “with his own hands.” In order to more clearly imagine the changes that took place in art at the end of the 14th and beginning of the 15th centuries. , one should compare the image of Sergius on an embroidered shroud with the images created by Theophanes the Greek. The contrast will be astounding: if the titanic strong elders of Theophanes are majestic and lonely, if the strength of their character is aimed at establishing their individuality, then in the image of Sergius a character is given that suppresses the features of isolation. The entire figure of Sergius is shown in movement towards the viewer. He is insightful and full of attention.

In the works of Andrei Rublev and the masters of his circle, many images of people also amaze with their vitality and vivid reflection of the national image.

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Rublev very likely knew the artist who created this image of Sergius, and perhaps collaborated with him. He got used to appreciating and admiring people who not only knew how to die on the battlefield, but also devote their entire lives to serving what they saw as the salvation of the Russian people.

In the Archangel Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin, where the ashes of Dmitry Donskoy rest, in the local row of the iconostasis, there is an icon “Archangel Michael” with a life. It dates back to the beginning of the 15th century. and with some features of style it is already adjacent to the work of Rublev. There is an assumption that it could have been made by order of Evdokia, the wife of Dmitry Donskoy. Her life says that shortly before her death in 1407, she had a dream in which the Archangel Michael appeared to her and ordered his image. She rejected several icons, and finally one satisfied her. This icon was placed by Evdokia in the Church of the Nativity of Our Lady in memory of the victory on the Kulikovo Field.

The flexible, courageously stern figure of the Archangel Michael, dressed in military armor, is full of tension and readiness for rapid action. In his left hand he holds a sheath, from which he pulled out a sword with his right hand and raised it threateningly. His body is curved like a bow. The fragile face with lush hair is delicate and full of restrained passion. It captivates the imagination as an unusual vision - it captures the romance of the victory won on the Kulikovo Field.

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End of the 14th and beginning of the 15th centuries. There were times when the self-awareness of the people deepened, its character was nurtured by historical conditions in accordance with the ideas of the unity of the Russian land.

Andrei Rublev and the masters of his circle said a new word at this important historical moment, and what they said about the man of his time was borne in the depths of the people's consciousness, was called to life and raised to the level of an ideal.

It is especially important to consider from this side the frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir in 1408. Unfortunately, we can only judge the frescoes of Andrei Rublev and Daniil Cherny from individual scenes of the “Last Judgment” in the middle and southern naves, several figures on the pillars and minor fragments of gospel scenes . But even the little that has survived to this day is of great importance for the history of Russian artistic and spiritual culture as a whole.

In the inexorable, harsh idea of ​​​​the “Last Judgment” of the Middle Ages, Andrei Rublev and Daniil Cherny invested so much deeply vital content, so much sympathy for man, that it turned out to be radically rethought.

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From a formidable event, the scene of “The Last Judgment” turned under the brush of Andrei Rublev into a triumph of philanthropy. The frescoes are located in the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir and is a cultural monument taken under the protection of UNESCO. They allocated only an insignificant place to retribution for sins; judging by the later record, it was depicted only symbolically. The “Last Judgment” for them is the beginning of the “kingdom of the righteous.” He was associated with a deeply popular idea of ​​​​restoring truth and justice, trampled on earth.

In the image of the Savior Rublev (vault of the middle nave), “who is coming to judge the living and the dead,” there is not even a shadow of frightening menace. Dressed in golden robes, full of youthful strength and movement, he soars easily and freely. blue halo, surrounded by the winged faces of “ethereal forces”. He is the embodiment of triumph, humanity and creative enthusiasm. In Rublev's style, impeccably inscribed in the circle, he is not limited by it. Touching its limit with his foot, he seems ready to step out of it, which is why the composition, full of monumental clarity and completeness, acquires life and movement. He is the entire embodiment of the poetic image of light. Above the Savior, also in the vault, two angels are flying a scroll with the image of the moon and stars, which means the end of the earthly world; they seem to be closing the book of life.

Above the angels are depicted four kingdoms, whose dominion ceases with the end of life on earth. They give way to the kingdom of truth and justice. Four symbolic animals are closed in an earthly circle. The winged panther, the “Kingdom of Macedon,” boldly rushes forward, terrifying with its military power and the surprise of its attack. A winged lion strides widely in it - the “Roman Kingdom”, striving for world domination. Standing stubbornly, with his head down and his eyes squinting suspiciously, is the completely real owner of the Russian forests, the bear - the “Kingdom of Babylon”, asserting dominance within its borders. It is said about him that he “hundred (that is, stands) in one place.” Terribly baring his teeth, he walks, raising his predatory muzzle, a “monstrous beast”; he has horns and a human face, and on his tail is a snake's head. This is the destructive “Kingdom of Antichrist,” “consuming and destroying all flesh and arrogantly desecrating every holy thing.”

There were many interpretations of the four beasts of the vision of the prophet Daniel, and often the characteristics of the kingdoms were based on the existing historical situation. Even such church authorities as John Chrysostom considered their interpretation “infallible” in relation to their time.

It is possible that Andrei Rublev, like his contemporary Luka Smolnyanin, a patriot of his city, who illustrated the Psalter in 1395 (i.e. just 12 years before the painting of the frescoes in the Assumption Cathedral) could mean: by the lion - united Poland and Lithuania , where the Roman Catholic religion became dominant; under the panther - the aggressive Teutonic Order; under the bear is the Principality of Moscow, which was persistently engaged in establishing strong power and unity within its borders; under the monstrous beast are the Tatars, with whose cruelty the Russians associated the idea of ​​the onset of the “Last Judgment”.

In a semicircle under the arch adjacent to the vault, there is a composition of the “Prepared Throne” (“Etymasia”), towards which the flying “Savior in Power” seems to be rushing. On the throne lies a book in which the deeds of people are written. At its foot, kneeling on their knees are the trembling ancestors - Adam and pretty Eve, the culprits of the fall of people. Near them is a vessel with atoning blood and scales - a symbol of justice.

The Mother of God and John the Baptist selflessly stretch out their hands to the throne, as if rushing to help people. Their faces have hardly been preserved, but in their hasty aspiration, in the veil of the Mother of God that has bunched up in front and in the disheveled beard of the Forerunner, human emotion is felt.

On the sides of the scene at the throne are the apostles Peter and Paul and the angels standing behind them, which connects the image on the wall with the sitting apostles on the slopes of the vault. The entire composition is perfectly inscribed in a semicircle above the arch and framed below with a modest floral ornament. The bowed figures rhythmically echo the outline of the arch and vault.

The consideration of architectural forms is also visible in the placement of the other ten apostles on the slopes of the vault. Closed rows seem to support the arch. The halos, reminiscent of an ornament, echo the circles in which the Savior and the animals of the kingdoms are inscribed.

Among the angels on the frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral there are many naively simple-minded, inquisitively attentive and sadly thoughtful girlish faces. Apparently, what was seen in life was embodied under the brush of artists. Following the basic laws in the depiction of the apostles, the artists essentially went far beyond their limits and gave a whole gallery of vitally truthful images of Russian people with those moral virtues that were realized and appreciated by the people in the crucible of difficult trials.

The epic “The Last Judgment” is presented by artists, like Dante’s “Divine Comedy,” in deeply folk and patriotic images. This is especially felt in the “Procession of the Righteous”, which is shown in the form of a crowded crowd located on the right on a pillar in the central nave, in the passage to the southern nave and in the vault of the southern nave. Striving for the truth of life, the artists neglected the unity of the composition and arranged it in separate groups.

Instead of the usual figure of a single saint, the pillar depicts a close-knit group of righteous women facing the “Prepared Throne.” They not only have simple Russian faces, but also Russian clothes. What occupies them is not a vision, not a dream; there is no detachment in them, on the contrary, their attention is directed to something vital and common to them, they are preparing, each according to their character and temperament, for some significant, important action - they are preparing for a feat. In the foreground is, apparently, St. Catherine is a young maiden wearing a crown. If you mentally eliminate this detail of the iconic convention, then the viewer will see the typical face of a Russian girl. The artist did not try to make her beautiful, this is the most ordinary face, of which there are many, but its expression makes her beautiful and spiritual. The other wives are also typical Russian women. The artist managed to capture national features and character in such a way that the remoteness of centuries loses its power: the images come closer to us and are perceived as something familiar and well-known. It is not the anticipation of the bliss of heaven that occupies their thoughts. All their mental strength is directed towards decisive and final action on earth. It is believed that with this feeling of readiness for heroism, the Russian sons cut off their path to retreat on the Kulikovo Field. The question of the role of the Russian woman in the era of liberation from the Tatar yoke and the creation of the Russian centralized state would not be clear, and much could only be guessed at if this document had not remained. The artist conveys the high dignity, firmness, courage and subtle grace of Russian women, their willingness to sacrifice themselves. These images of husbands and wives reflected the high national self-awareness of the Russian people. It is not the moment that leads to a heroic act, often unconscious and accidental, that is extolled by the artist, but a person’s awareness of the value of his sense of selflessness.

On the wall of the opening to the southern nave there is a crowd of righteous people with worried faces. They seem to enter the middle nave, where the main action of the court takes place; the artists brought them extremely close to those who are in the temple. In the vault of the southern nave, the procession of the righteous heads to the doors of heaven, led by the apostles Peter and Paul. With a passionate appeal, Paul stretches out his hand with an unrolled scroll: “Come with me...” In contrast to his willful tension, Peter steps lightly and swiftly. His face, facing the crowd, is animated by kindness and trust in people, he is passionate and carries others along with him. The movement of the crowd, consisting of separate groups, occurs obliquely, from bottom to top, which gives the whole composition the dynamism of ascension.

What is reflected in the images of wives is literally repeated in the faces of the righteous. There is more excitement and movement in this composition than in the procession of wives.

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The old man and the medieval man are remarkable for their significance. They wear hats like prophets, but this does not prevent them from being seen as types of ordinary Russian people. They have the same attention and the same determination as their wives, only more expression. The artist considers their life mission to be the same, but the wives are given a more prominent and more responsible place in the painting. Whether these two compositions were painted by the same artist or different ones will be shown by future research. Now I just want to give an assessment of this phenomenon in the history of ancient Russian painting and culture in general.

Nothing outwardly ostentatious attracted the artist; the significance of the plan determined the complete truthfulness and sincerity of the feeling. This is reflected in the centuries-old culture of personality. Each time, at decisive moments of historical existence, the power of the people's spirit is called to action, and amazing feats are accomplished. We should pay tribute to the artists who were able to capture in their creations the images of those who reflected the greatest truth of the manifestation of national character.

Between the compositions, against the bluish-gray background of the walls, like bindweeds, thin white stems with brown, green, yellow leaves and delicate flowers with stamens rose up. Amazing in their grace, these ornaments, despite their stylization, have not lost their life-like truthfulness. These modest decorations were the fruit of a loving observation of nature and turned out to be much closer to it than the strong, but less mobile ornaments of the era of Andrei and Vsevolod.

Unfortunately, one very interesting link in the complex composition of “The Last Judgment” has been almost lost by time and is barely visible - the participation of nature in its action. Above the entrance to the southern nave are the personifications of Water and Earth in the form of two female figures. On the left, the Earth is strong, holding a coffin in her hand with a proud posture; behind her, weak-willed, like the shadows of Hades, stand the dead, shrouded in a shroud. In front of her is a snake with a round head and a scaly body, above is an elephant and an angry lion, similar to the image of a sitting lion in the Khitrovo Gospel. On the right, Water, a woman with long wavy hair, just like a mermaid, holds a once-sunk ship with a broken mast, under which a sea monster with a beak and two legs can be seen. Such a strange beast also appears in the Khitrovo Gospel, but there it is depicted with a long intertwined scaly tail. One must think that they were written by the same hand. A very real fish swims below: on the side, below, moving to the ledge of another wall, a cranked water creature wriggles and a real, authentically depicted crab crawls. Birds with long necks stand at the top and one in the center, above the entrance, splashes in the water - the fast, fleeting movement of its wings is conveyed amazingly correctly.

Thus, all representatives of the animal world of earth, water and air are given: four-legged animals, reptiles, water creatures and birds. Those whom the artist might have known from books and works of art are also depicted. For example, an elephant is already on the reliefs of the cathedral in Yuryev-Polsky, and crabs that appeared on early Christian reliefs depicting the story of the prophet Jonah against the backdrop of the Nile landscape could have passed into Byzantine art. Apparently, these sources were known to Rublev and gave rise to the depiction of marine wonders, including the crab.

In the ancient Slavic worldview, reflected in Russian folk poetic imagery, many animals and birds participated in human life and foreshadowed future events. Thus, in the description of the fortune-telling of Dmitry Donskoy and Dmitry Volynets on the night before the Battle of Kulikovo, they heard how “geese and swans were constantly splashing their wings with an unusual thunderstorm” foreshadowed. The cackling of geese and the splashing of swan wings is also mentioned by the author of “Zadonshchina” before the invasion of Mamai’s regiments on the Russian land. Wasn’t it the same meaning of the foreshadowing of the “Last Judgment” thunderstorm that the artist put into it when he depicted a bird splashing in the water on the frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral? This is all the more likely since the earth in a female form has long lived in folk poetic imagery. In the same fortune-telling, Dmitry Donskoy and Volynets listen to how the earth cries for the Tatars, who must die on the Kulikovo field, “like a wife with a Hellenic voice,” and in Russian - “like a girl crying out in a mournful voice,” “like some kind of pipe to hear pitifully.”

With the greatest certainty, one can attribute to Rublev the wonderful angel leading the baby John the Baptist on the wall to the left at the entrance to the altar. Unfortunately, only the lower part and some fragments of this composition have survived. With ancient grace, turning back as he walks, the angel leads the little Forerunner by the hand, who, like a child, can barely keep up with his light step. The action takes place against the backdrop of a golden ocher desert landscape with green trees and rocky hills. The bright spaces on the angel's green robe, his blue tunic, the baby's white shirt and the highlights on the slides seem to glow. The whole scene is imbued with rhythm and movement.

In Theophanes the Greek, the body, the flesh, is something in itself dark and ponderous; it only begins to live in his art when he illuminates it with the lightning light of his imagination. The form will cease to exist if the highlights are lost. His temperament required expression and contrast to convey spirituality.

Let's compare the frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral with the detail of the “Last Judgment” on the icon of the late 14th century, associated, as we assume, with the work of Theophanes the Greek (State Tretyakov Gallery, listed as found on the bell tower of Ivan the Great in the Moscow Kremlin). The icon depicts a crowd of righteous people emerging from darkness into dazzling light; in the foreground are those rising from coffins. Among the righteous one can see the elders and hermits typical of Theophanes, terrifying with their inhuman tension. The contrast of light and shadow gives the entire image an extraordinary character, stunning the viewer with its tragedy and gloominess of the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bretribution. Before us is a mysterious and fantastic world.

Rice. eleven

Rublev seemed to separate spirit and matter less than other medieval people; he saw light, airy, living flesh in their inextricable unity. As a result, he and the masters of his circle always have a light palette. He doesn't need a shadow to highlight the power of the light. Light vibrating tones themselves express light and are always the background for more intense and bright sounds, such as the famous blue or amber-yellow, rose-red, etc. In the frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral, everything happens in a bright, airy environment, in spiritual and spatial proximity to the viewer.

How much the content of the Assumption frescoes was related to reality and how much the life of the era was reflected in them can be judged by the events that took place very soon after they were painted and were typical of the 14th-15th centuries. The chronicles say: on December 1, 1408, Edigei came to Moscow with all the Tatar strength. They scattered “from the land of Ryazan to Galich and to Belaozer”, “like angry wolves.” “And then in the entire Russian land there was a great pain among all Christians and there was inconsolable crying and sobbing and screaming... everyone was struggling and everyone was confused, because there were many misfortunes and losses for all people, both greater and lesser, near and far.” Everyone was “in a state of grief and sorrow, overwhelmed with sorrow.” In this common disaster, as can be seen from the words of the chronicler, a sense of equality, a sense of humanity was born: “it’s pitiful not to see and worthy of the tears of many,” as one Tatar “led up to forty Christians to the needy.” Many were cut off, others died from frost, hunger and thirst. Fathers and mothers cried when they saw their “children being killed,” and “children wept” when they were separated from their parents; “And there was not,” says the chronicler, “one who has mercy or delivers and helps.”

In these trials, as we know, amazing characters emerged. So, in 1410, in front of the frescoes of Andrei Rublev and Daniil in the Assumption Cathedral, the following event occurred: in the summer, Prince Danilo Borisovich from Nizhny Novgorod brought Tsarevich Talycha and sent his boyar Semyon Karamyshev with him into exile to Vladimir. They came to Vladimir “unknown through the forest” from across the Klyazma River, “like people sleeping at noon”; The city did not have a fence at that time, and the governor was absent. The “damned” first took the city herd, and then began to flog and rob people, and then “bringing the Holy Mother of God to the church, the sacristan, priest Patrick, shut himself up in it with other people.” Patrikey hid the church vessels and people at the top of the church and then, removing the stairs, stood in front of the “image of the Most Pure One, weeping.” The Tatars and the messengers of the Nizhny Novgorod prince, burst into the temple, seized Patrikey and began to cruelly torture him about where the precious forge and the people who were with him were hidden; “He didn’t say anything about it, but he endured a lot of torment: he was in a frying pan, and he cut chips through his nails and his legs, he pulled a snake, dragged along the horse’s tail, and so in that torment he died.” “This is the malice,” the chronicler concludes, “disconnected from your Christian brethren.”

It was an era of severe moral failures and greatest exploits. Great was the role of those people and that art who were able to carry faith in the best that was in the Russian person, and through the power of charm to support and cultivate in him high patriotism and humanity. Selflessness gave birth to deep joy and faith in victory and the possibility of unification in the Russian people as a whole.

In the images of some of the apostles on the frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral, even through canonically established features, the eyes of those people who knew how to see and love the world often look at us. John’s face is full of such tenderness and kindness that the viewer feels like the gaze of those people close to him who love him. This look is perceived by the heart and gives great joy and a feeling of fullness of life. Apparently, one of the famous creations of Andrei Rublev, the Savior from the Zvenigorod rank, should be attributed to the first decade of the 15th century, an image that made a huge impression on the Russian people.

Icons of the Savior, attributed to the Moscow school of the 15th century, usually imitated this model to one degree or another. The latter circumstance usually forced us to consider the image of the Savior from Zvenigorod to be what is called a canon. But shouldn’t the question be posed somewhat differently: did it not represent, at the time when it was written, a completely unusual phenomenon and only purely outwardly followed the established requirements of the canon? Of course, in it the Russian ideal image of Christ was found for the first time, different from the images of previous art, which sometimes amazes the viewer with the severity of its expression. Rublevsky Spas is the embodiment of typically Russian good looks. Not a single element of Christ’s face is overly emphasized - everything is proportional and consistent: he is Russian, his eyes are not exaggerated, his nose is straight and thin, his mouth is small, the oval of his face, although elongated, is not narrow, there is no asceticism at all, his head has a thick mass hair rises with calm dignity on a strong, slender neck.

The most significant thing about this new look is the look. It is directed directly at the viewer and expresses lively and active attention to him; he feels a desire to delve into a person’s soul and understand him. The eyebrows are freely raised, which is why there is no expression of either tension or sorrow, the gaze is clear, open, and benevolent. Before us is a strong and active person who has enough mental strength and energy to give himself to support those who need it. The Zvenigorod Spas is larger than the life size of a person. He is full of greatness. In addition, there is a rigor of inner purity and spontaneity in him, there is complete trust in a person.

The “Savior” from Zvenigorod seemed to complete Rublev’s search for the image of the Russian Christ, already anticipated in the “Savior” of the central nave and the “Savior in Power” of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir.

Later, as if on the way between the creation of the Zvenigorod rank and the work of Rublev and Daniil in the Trinity Cathedral of the Sergius Monastery, another wonderful image was created. This is “John the Baptist” (Andrei Rublev Museum), a hermit-ascetic and martyr for the truth. This image was especially close to the monk Rublev, who poeticized it in the spirit of Russian asceticism of his difficult time.

“John the Baptist” was once included in the waist-length Deesis row of the iconostasis, like the icons of the Zvenigorod rank. The figures of the “Deesis” from the Nikolo-Peshnoshsky Monastery (near Dmitrov), unlike the icons from Zvenigorod, were not exaggerated, but were almost proportionate to a person and thus seemed to be even closer to the viewer.

As a hermit, the Forerunner is dressed in a bluish mantle (clothing made of skins), visible only on the chest, since a green himation is draped over it, the color reminiscent of the dark green of oak forests. Its brittle folds glow with light greenish gaps, transparent like dew on tree leaves, being a poetic image of the shining moral purity of the Forerunner. John is courageously broad-shouldered, fair-haired, and light-eyed. In its appearance one can feel the similarity and spiritual kinship with the “Savior” from the Zvenigorod rite and the images of the apostles and saints on the frescoes in the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir. A bowed head, a high forehead, straightened, sadly compressed eyebrows, a self-absorbed gaze, a thin nose and sensitively tender silent lips testify to the intense work of thought, to the presence of the deity, which, according to accepted iconography, is expressed in a broad, calm and extremely delicate prayer gesture beautiful hands with thin elongated fingers. A soft but decisive line outlines the courageous silhouette of the Forerunner, freely, harmoniously and steadily inscribed in the golden background of the icon. The Forerunner is full of silence and meekness. Only in the flowing fluidity of the curls of thick hair and beard, depicted with purely Rublevsky perfection, is John’s inner excitement felt. Before us is not a prophet, a stern preacher-ascetic, as Byzantine art created John the Baptist, but a lover of truth, a contemplator of the Russian “green mother of the desert”, glorified by the poetry of Russian spiritual verses. This is the image of a selfless, highly moral ideal of a silent monk, sensitive to the beauty of the world, brought up in the spirit of Sergius of Radonezh and embodied in the works of Andrei Rublev and his friends.

Rublev's images were born in an era when the people were looking for leaders and defenders of their interests, when the pathos of individual heroism of the past gave way, as we have already seen, to the pathos of a nationwide movement for liberation from foreign yoke. As a result, the ability to self-sacrifice, perseverance and long-term commitment acquired particular importance. In Rublev's era, national self-awareness was elevated to the highest level; Every Russian person fought for Rus' and its unity, in whom the consciousness of a community of national interests awoke. In the image of the Savior from Zvenigorod, the Forerunner and others, we see the embodiment of the dream of an ideal personality; The Russian people, including Rublev, sought and found this ideal personality in their own environment. Hence Rublev’s innovation in the images he created. The thoughtful, sincere, humane artist was in complete harmony with the reality around him. He was invested with the people's trust, and therefore expressed himself in life fully and freely. His ideals coincided in spirit with popular ideas. With his images, Rublev supported the people's faith in their own strength. During the invasion of Edigei, the Trinity-Sergius Monastery was destroyed and burned. Nikon, the successor of Sergius, gradually restored it and in 1422 began construction of the now existing white stone cathedral. He invites Andrei Rublev and Daniil Cherny to paint the temple, but since they were in a hurry to paint the temple, many other artists also worked with them. The frescoes of Rublev's era in the cathedral, as shown by the work of restorers, have not been preserved at present, but the iconostasis has survived almost completely. So many artists took part in its creation that it is rare that two or three icons can be attributed to one artist. Almost every work of this iconostasis is worthy of a special monograph. But we will focus only on a few details and compositions that amaze with the vitality or originality of the design. In the center of the festive row is the “Eucharist”.

The composition is divided into two icons: “Distribution of bread” and “Distribution of wine”. Both icons were made by different masters. In the “Distribution of Bread” on the left, as usual, the ciborium, the throne and Christ distributing bread are depicted. A group of apostles approaches him. Apostle Peter accepts bread from the hands of Christ. The action takes place against the backdrop of ordinary wards. Peter's face is typical of an ordinary Russian person and expresses touching gratitude towards the one who gives him bread. He accepts bread as alms; the other apostles stand huddled together like the poor, waiting for their turn. The two young apostles on the left seem to have been snatched straight from life, they are concentrated and thoughtful, they are wearing unusual attire for apostles - these are not tunics and himations, but clothes with wide collars, reminiscent of homespun caps that peasants used to wear. Perhaps these are the simple robes that the monks of the Trinity Monastery wore at that time. The master of this composition is an excellent colorist, light and clear, but he is not very concerned about the grace of forms: his architecture of a Hellenistic character seems to be knocked together with simple clumsiness from wood; the dome of the ciborium has a somewhat simplified shape; The apostles are completely unsophisticated. The artist doesn't care about making their group look pretty. His intention is deep, and he does not think about the external effect. This is especially striking when compared with the elegant harmony and grace of the composition “Distribution of Wine”, in which the architecture is complex and skillfully constructed, the colors are subordinated to a somewhat dark range of brown, yellow, dark green and dark pink tones. On the beautifully painted throne cover there is a light gold pattern; a group of apostles moves as if in a dance; their clothes flutter beautifully, their proportions are elongated, their lines are rhythmically coordinated, their facial expressions are complex and intense. The master is a sophisticated artist who understands the distribution of wine as a kind of inspired action elevated above everyday life. The conventional language of the master of the “Distribution of Wine” emphasizes the ingenuously vigilant attention to life’s truth in the master of the “Distribution of Bread.”

The artist's interpretation of the sacrament of the Eucharist as alms was completely in the popular spirit of that time. If we remember that in 1422 there was a famine throughout the Russian land, and it was “a cold winter,” people were dying “of hunger and cold,” and other “dead cattle, horses, dogs, cats, and people of people yadosha,” then one wonders whether the vital fidelity of this scene was not inspired by the artist’s recent impressions of reality. And the chronicle itself in these cases describes everything with impartial accuracy. I would like to imagine in the clear, sober and truthful artist of the “Distribution of Bread” a man from the people, who is entrusted with one of the most important themes, on a par with the aristocratically sophisticated master of the “Distribution of Wine”. The artists of the Trinity iconostasis feel a great interest in the young faces whom they looked closely at in life. These observations helped them create an unusually charming image of the young man Dmitry Solunsky, full of the gentle grace typical of Rublev’s era. It was created by poetic imagination and is full of artistic truth, reflecting the lyrical feeling of the Russian man in all his maturity. Dmitry of Thessalonica bows like a ripe ear of corn. Young in years, he “has an old meaning.” Rublev's art is characterized by elders with unfading youth of feelings and young men with the wisdom of elders - apparently, these were the best Russian people of his time. The fruit of inspired insight was the image of the wives at the coffin. Three women contemplating the miracle of the resurrection, compositionally fused together, are the living embodiment of the grace of Russian femininity. They reflect three ages: the middle one - young - captivates with virginal gullibility, the right - elderly - with the impeccability of simplicity - and modesty, the left - middle-aged - with the awareness of the strength of her character and the charm of her femininity. Their images are close to the wives from the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, mentioned above. Along with such poetic reflections of reality, in the holidays of the Trinity iconostasis there is also something that is, apparently, directly related to the exciting moments of the reality surrounding the artist. There are two more compositions in the iconostasis, connected by semantic content.

The first belongs to the brush of one of the best artists who worked on the iconostasis, and is closest in techniques to Rublev, the other - to an artist who, more than others, gravitates towards the techniques of painting of the 14th century.

The theme depicted in the first composition is as follows. Christ, preparing to wash the disciples' feet, teaches them that the greatest of them should be a servant to all. Peter, not understanding the meaning of what is happening, does not want to allow the teacher to humiliate himself by washing his feet. During the dialogue, Christ says: “if I do not wash you, you have no part with me,” that is, in the future life. Peter, frightened by these words, says, pointing to his head: “Lord! Not only my feet, but also my hands and head.” In the iconography of this subject, his gesture is traditional; the other apostles usually just prepare to follow Peter's example, some of them taking off their sandals, others looking on or turning to each other.

A special feature of the design of this work is the general thoughtfulness of the apostles. One of them is especially remarkable - the medieval one, located on the right, just opposite Christ. He sits, leaning back freely; his hand rests on his chest; his pose and facial expression indicate that he is deep in thought, withdrawn into himself. The face and pose are so vitally true that his image is very powerful. With general concentration, Peter's gesture turns into a call to think about what is happening. The general concentration of the apostles is, as it were, reflected in the composition closed in an oval. The bluish, greenish, brownish, pinkish and amber-yellow tones, coordinated in a somewhat muted soft palette, are covered with a light silvery haze. Everything is permeated as if by the light of a foggy day. The atmosphere of this work is calming and induces contemplative reverie. This composition contains a moment where an example of the elder serving the younger is shown: “the greater must be the servant of the lesser.”

The idea of ​​serving the Russian land was leading in that era, and was reflected in the entire spirit of our ancient chronicles. People capable of this service were invested with popular trust and were an active force that brought to life the progressive aspirations and aspirations of the masses. Dmitry Donskoy fought with the Tatars on the Kulikovo field “in the face, standing in front.” Many told him: “Mr. Great Prince, do not stand in front to fight, but behind or on the wing, or somewhere in the opposite place.” To this he replied: “Yes, I will say: my brethren, let us pull together from one, and I will begin to cover my face or bury myself behind. But just as I want in word, as well as in deed, in advance of everyone and before everyone, to lay down my head for my brothers and for all Christians, and others, who have seen it, will accept boldness with zeal.”

The artist of the "Washing of the Feet" clearly called on the audience to reflect on the wonderful teaching that the greatest should be the servant of all. Turning to another composition - to “The Last Supper”, among the apostles sitting around the table, you first notice the swift and greedy movement of Judas, like a bird of prey. Leaning forward, he reached out to the bowl on the table. All the apostles were in restrained excitement, Christ uttered the words: “One of you will betray me.” The beloved disciple reclines on his chest and, at Peter’s request, asks him the question: “Who is the traitor?” Christ answers: “And behold, the hand of him that betrayeth me is with me at the table.” Judas's gesture thus reveals him as a traitor. His outstretched hand and figure in a dark robe stand out sharply against the pink background of the table; behind it rise a dazzlingly bright cold yellow chamber with a dark opening and a portal repeating the curve of Judas’s back. The curls of the portal resemble the heads of birds of prey. The color contrasts of yellow and dark green, pink and almost black give the impression of tension and anxiety. The image of the portal, as if repeating the movement of Judas, enhances the characteristics of Judas’ greed and rapacity. The remarkable thing is that his face is young and his, although unkind, beauty is amazing. Next to him sits an apostle in a dark robe, he has curly hair, the characteristic face of a man of strong will and great temperament. He was deep in thought, but his whole appearance was full of energy; he looks forward, and his right hand makes a gesture towards Judas, as if wanting to stop his movement. The lines outlining Judas and this apostle are so compositionally related to each other that both figures are distinguished from all others. The question involuntarily arises: what is hidden behind the amazing interpretation of this topic?

We must remember that the greatest evil that hindered the unification of Rus' in the 14th-15th centuries was internal strife. The chronicle, in a vivid comparison of Oleg Ryazansky and Dmitry Donskoy, already treats this topical topic for that time, calling Oleg more than once “the new Judas, a traitor to his enraged ruler.” She passionately brands Oleg, calling him a bloodsucker, loquacious, thin, flattering, murderous, an apostate from light into darkness, and extremely extols Dmitry Donskoy, admiring his modesty, courage, and willingness to sacrifice himself for the sake of the Russian people.

In the icon, the artist could not act like the chronicler - to depict Judas as disgusting, as was usually done in Western painting and often in Greek; Russian people did not allow his tact and taste in understanding the beautiful. In Russian icons, Judas is usually young and not marked by anything from the other apostles, but, apparently, the master of the Trinity iconostasis had a very lively attitude to the theme: he wanted to warn, to keep a person from betrayal, revealing in his work the nature of this disaster. Such images inclined those who did not understand the interests of the people to take a critical attitude towards themselves and their actions. In everything one can feel great gentleness and knowledge of the human soul, a great ability to educate and convince with love, condescension, but with unyielding firmness. In the chronicle we see that as soon as the culprit turned to the path of reconciliation and faithful service to common interests, the chronicler, who did not spare color to condemn Oleg Ryazansky, described with satisfaction in 1385 how Sergius managed to persuade him to an eternal peace with the Moscow prince, and wrote that in 1387 “Great Prince Dmitry Ivanovich gave his daughter Princess Sophia to Ryazan for Prince Theodore Olgovich,” i.e. for the son of Oleg Ryazansky. Apparently no one was bothered by his past; the most important thing was to prevent new discord with this marriage.

Let us pay attention to one more detail from the composition “Candlemas”.

Rice. 13

Before us is an old man who accepted a baby from the hands of a modest, thoughtful woman. His face reflects such a clear and joyful kindness of a wonderful old age, as if the whole outcome of a long life was reflected in it. It is full of such truthfulness and sincerity that you are amazed how this old man acquired the ability to surrender to the eternal youth of feelings. How much optimism and moral health one had to have to create such a miracle of art! Looking at the face of Elder Simeon, you understand that the elders who painted the icons of the Trinity iconostasis could fill them with light, color, harmony and wisdom drawn from an actively and fully lived life. These were not harsh ascetics, but only people who knew how to deny themselves everything without losing their cheerfulness. They reveled in the surroundings of nature and the love of life, not tearing themselves away from it, but merging with it with every breath.

After the images of the past passed before our eyes, vivid, diverse, full of awe, anxiety and joy of life, so close and accessible to us after more than 500 years, you naturally ask yourself the question: can we consider such a work by Rublev as “ Trinity,” is the product of his detachment from life, his fantasy and dissatisfaction with reality? It is impossible to agree with this opinion.

True, as a man of the Middle Ages, Rublev spoke in the language of religious symbols, but we, having overcome the difficulties of his conventional language, can safely say that he did not speak for a select few, his speech was addressed to everyone who loved their homeland, life and people, his those around. The artist of the “Distribution of Bread,” depicting the Eucharist under the guise of alms, essentially spoke the same language with him. Only he conveyed impressions of actions directly observed in life, and Rublev created the heights of philosophical and artistic generalization based on the same reality.

Rice. 14

The theme of the Trinity, as we know, is Eucharistic. The cup, which is the compositional center of this work, has long been included in folk poetic imagery as the “mortal cup”. This poetic image is implied in the “Tale of Igor’s Host” when it speaks of feast and wine; in “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan” it is repeated like a refrain: “having died all the same, a single cup of death is food”; The Battle of Kulikovo is spoken of, though in the Synopsis, as “about a bitter and terrible hour, in which many of God’s creatures drink the cup of death in battle,” etc. In the Trinity it means the highest degree of human love, i.e. that love that motivates a person to sacrifice his life.

In “Trinity,” Rublev reflected the popular idea of ​​his time, the idea of ​​unity and love for the Motherland. This image stands before us as femininely tender and courageously selfless love, as human love. Rublev could embody it in his work with such clarity and sincerity only because he lived a full life with the people of his era, because he loved them and loved his Motherland. The idea of ​​the unity of Rus' and the personal feeling that connected him with it were reflected in the general agreement of the three angels of the “Trinity” and in the general harmony of the whole. Rublev was a true poet in painting. His works were full of rhythm, air, light and pure sonorous colors. With all this, like the author of “Zadonshchina,” he wanted to “amuse” the Russian people, who had suffered and endured so much - after all, nothing pleases and consoles a person more than trust in his good and valiant qualities. And Rublev consoled the Russian man, made him happy; in the language of the time, he “touched” him.

Rublev knew how to dream about a wonderful person and knew how to translate his dream into the living reality of an artistic image. It is impossible to create such images without personal heroism and self-sacrifice, this is evidenced by the entire work of his life. Rublev’s ability to dream and act also reflected a characteristic feature of the Russian national genius.