History of Russian journalism. Famous journalists. Union of Journalists of Russia. Private printing houses and life after them

Journalist

Journalist- a person whose journalistic works are published in the media. A blogger is also a journalist if his blog is a media outlet. The main occupation of a journalist is to describe unusual (unusual) actions to entertain the reader (listener, viewer). The main goal of a journalist is to create texts that ensure their mass consumption (reading, viewing, listening). In Russia, publicists (columnists) have traditionally been considered the best journalists, because works of journalistic genres most of all meet the task of sensually influencing the audience in order to form a certain opinion in it. Post-Soviet journalism is focused primarily on news genres, since in democratic societies journalists serve not so much ideological tasks as public opinion, the power of which is usually called the “fourth estate” (in addition to the three constitutional branches of government). The main tool in serving the “fourth estate” is news, the production of which requires the journalist not to be a writer (as in journalism), but to actually be a journalist, a “newsmaker” craft. In this regard, Russian journalists of the first half of the twenty-first century experience certain difficulties in their professional activities, since in Russia the craft school of journalism has not yet developed, and the Soviet one, which continues to be studied in universities, does not have the resources to introduce the skills and abilities necessary for industrial production of news products. (Fedor Grigoriev, “Other Journalism”, Novosibirsk, 2002)

History of journalism in Russia

18th century, first printed publications

The year 1621 can be considered the year of the emergence of the first Russian newspaper, Kuranty. It was handwritten, issued in the form of a scroll in several copies 2-4 times a month by clerks for a very limited circle of people - Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich and his entourage. The newspaper contained a selection of messages on military, court, diplomatic and trade topics from foreign newspapers.

In Russia, journalism arose in 1702 with the appearance, on the personal instructions and personal participation of Tsar Peter the Great, of the first printed newspaper, Vedomosti, published by typographic method. It should be noted that there is a serious difference between the first Russian newspaper and the first newspapers of other European countries. It was less of a commercial publication than the first European newspapers that emerged, but rather served to explain the essence of the sovereign’s policies and his reforms. From the very beginning, the Russian newspaper was a promoter of a certain policy, a propagandist, and sometimes an organizer of public opinion in favor of government reforms, in favor of protecting national independence and independence. The newspaper gave rise to the rapid development of journalism in Russia and contributed to the cultural development of the country, primarily through the simplification of syntax and the introduction of Greek script instead of Church Slavonic. In 1755, the newspaper “Moskovskie Vedomosti” was created under the leadership of the Russian scientist and founder of Moscow University Lomonosov M.V. The newspaper was of an official nature, and its income went to the budget of the Academy of Sciences or the university itself.

By the middle of the 18th century, private magazines began to appear, published by writers as private entrepreneurs. Among them is the magazine of A.P. Sumarokov (1759), which was aimed at a noble audience and sympathized not with the reigning Empress Elizabeth, but with her daughter-in-law Catherine, who later became Catherine II. Hence the critical attitude towards the court nobility of that time. This is why this magazine was closed in 1759.

Despite the limited content of Russian publications of the 18th century and the limited circle of readers, primarily due to the low literacy of the population, journalism played an important role: it was the only source of public information and contributed greatly to literary development.

Newspapers in those years were of a state-official nature; there were few of them. Therefore, the history of journalism itself has evolved as a history of magazines par excellence. Magazines often failed to provide unity of direction. Hence the tendency towards a mono-magazine, that is, a magazine of one person.

In the 1970s and 1980s, samizdat, underground newspapers (Chronicle of Current Events, etc.) appeared and developed, published by representatives of the capital's intelligentsia - Soviet dissidents.

In the 1990s, various legislative acts were adopted that abolished censorship. The press law is adopted. At the end of 1991, Glavlit would be liquidated.

In the post-Soviet period, significant changes took place in the newspaper world of Russia: instead of monotonous party ones, high-quality and mass-produced publications, subsidized from the state budget, began to appear, official publications reflecting the point of view of government structures, as well as private publications criticizing the existing regime.

Fundamental changes have occurred in regional journalism. In the capitals of the autonomous republics, in regional, regional and district centers, along with socio-political ones, business, information and commercial, human rights, religious, literary, artistic, sports, ufological and many other newspapers and magazines are published.

In the 1990s, the first representatives of the so-called “tabloid press” appeared - newspapers with gigantic circulations, the content of which consists of fictional reports about alien arrivals, UFOs, poltergeists, interviews with sorcerers, psychics, scandalous personalities, famous artists, pop music stars, as well as the first tabloids. Typical examples are “Megapolis Express” and “Express Newspaper”.

As Sergei Tsyganov, executive director of the Sobesednik Publishing House, later recalled:

In those same years, the first private daily newspaper “Kommersant” appeared in Russia, on the basis of which a large publishing house was subsequently created. The private daily Nezavisimaya Gazeta is published in Moscow. Representatives of big business start their own media; one such example is the Segodnya newspaper of media tycoon and banker Vladimir Gusinsky. Leading TV channels came under the control of big business in the 1990s.

An important event in the history of domestic journalism in the post-Soviet period was the relatively rapid development of the Internet in Russia, thanks to which wide access for everyone became possible not only to central publications, but also to regional ones. As a result, readers' interest in daily publications published in Moscow has decreased, which is reflected in a drop in circulation.

Standards of Russian journalism

The work of Soviet journalists, as a rule, was carried out by order of party bodies or under their control. The skill of a journalist was one of the most common topics in Soviet applied journalism research. The emphasis on the quality of the product - the journalistic text - was logical for the Soviet literary tradition of analysis for the initial technology of journalistic production. Accordingly, the professionalism of journalists was assessed by the level of development of their journalistic skills. The works of theorists and practitioners of journalism had the goal of teaching beginners the essence of journalistic work - writing a journalistic text. Thus, the Soviet school of journalism laid down the belief that how to write is more important than for whom and what to write. This focus in education led to the fact that journalists had little interest in the audience.

Along with journalistic writing, the skill of a journalist was integrally linked to mastery of working methods. Sociology was intended to enrich journalistic work with sociological methods in order to promote the creative process and make the text more effective in its influence on the audience.

The last fifteen to twenty years have brought Russia along the path of integration with the West; the Russian journalist began to transform from a propagandist to something else. Lyubov Arkus and Dima Bykov wrote in 1987:

The language of the press is still quite monotonous; journalists with a somewhat individualized style are worth their weight in gold. The newspapers are dominated by a mixture of two Newspeak: this is the language of a previous era, heavily diluted with Anglicisms. This young generation - mainly the children of those same sixties Vladimir Yakovlev, Artyom Borovik, Dmitry Likhanov, Evgeny Dodolev, Alexander Lyubimov - is already taking its toll. Representatives of the recent “golden youth”, who grew up in huge apartments or spent their adolescence abroad, young graduates of the international department of the Faculty of Journalism of Moscow State University, they are beginning to make the news on television and in the press. Excellent starting opportunities and an innate lack of fear allow them, within six months, to dispel all taboo topics and visit all the hot spots where a Soviet journalist has never set foot before.

It is important to note that modern Russian journalism is formed by two types of professional roles, which in turn represent two types of professional subculture: the older generation - Soviet practitioners who entered the profession in Soviet times, and the younger generation - post-Soviet practitioners, those who entered the profession in 1990 and later.

Profession at the beginning of the 21st century

A common phenomenon for the media has become the replacement of reporting work by a journalist simply rewriting news agency reports into his own articles and subsequent publication under his own name

At a meeting of the Media Council under the Russian Ministry of Communications and Mass Communications in June 2009, its participants said that neglect of copyright, expressed in copying news from news feeds, has become a mass phenomenon in the Russian media, in particular in newspapers and the Internet. publications

Number of people, professional education

According to data for 2006, which was presented by the Deputy Head of the Department of Periodicals, Book Publishing and Printing of the Federal Agency for Press and Mass Communications (FAPMK) Yuri Pulya, at least 140-150 thousand people work as journalists in the print media industry. At least 50% of journalists have a professional education, the rest have a higher education, usually non-humanitarian.

In Russia, as of 2006, there were more than a hundred higher educational institutions teaching the profession of journalist.

Journalists' specializations

There are different types of journalistic activities: gonzo journalists, reporters, commentators, columnists, program presenters (moderators of television and radio programs), Internet journalists, photojournalists, etc.

Often, journalists have a specialization within their publication, focusing, for example, on covering the activities of the State Duma (so-called “parliamentary correspondents”), the President of Russia (“Kremlin pool”) or gossip events.

Occupational risk

The work of a journalist involved in investigations or work in zones of war and other conflicts is unpredictable; it is impossible to predict what will happen in the next second. It should also be noted that there is a high risk in the work of journalists.

In 2007, the head of the Center for Journalism in Extreme Situations, Oleg Panfilov, said that according to his data, about 300 journalists have died in Russia since the early 1990s, but of these cases, only 5-10 percent can be said to be that the journalists died as a result of their professional duties . Among the famous journalists who died as a result of murders that remained unsolved are Anna Politkovskaya, Vladislav Listyev. Under strange circumstances, at the beginning of the 21st century, famous investigative journalists, Yuri Shchekochikhin and Ivan Safronov, died.

The main task of a journalist is to inform (among other structures - parties, etc.) the population, citizens in the quantity and quality necessary to unite individual citizens into a people. Only such people can further delegate power to government representatives. Obstructing the activities of journalists by anyone undermines the legitimacy of the government of the Russian Federation and should be prosecuted by law as a state crime.

Committee to Protect Journalists: Russia ranks 9th in the world (2011), 16 journalists have been killed in 10 years, Somalia -10

The actor later recalled:

Sources

• Esin B.I.(2000). History of Russian journalism (1703-1917), Moscow, Flint, Science.
• Makhonina S. Ya.(2008). History of Russian journalism of the early 20th century. Moscow, Flint, Science.
• Kuznetsov I. V.(2006). History of Russian journalism (1917-2000), Moscow, Flint, Science.
• Pasti S.(2004). Russian journalist in the context of change. University of Tampere (dissertation).

Notes

1. Arlen Bloom. Soviet Censorship of the Age of Great Terror
2. “Everything in this life must be done professionally” - an interview with the executive director of the Sobesednik Publishing House Sergei Tsyganov | News from the publishing house "Sobesednik" | Sobesednik.ru
3. Mikhail Leontyev. Newspaper "Segodnya" yesterday and today
4. Encyclopedia of Russian Cinema
5. Newspaper. Ru | Britain | Public media owes a debt to society
6. Double news standards. You shouldn't chop the branch you're sitting on
7. Media Guide:: News:: Who can teach a journalist
8. Lenta.Ru: Press conferences: Alexey Pivovarov, journalist
9. Michael Dorfman Why journalists are killed
10. MEDIACRACY | mediacratia.ru:: Media community:: Statistics on the death of journalists in Russia are overestimated
11. Death of Journalists - Chronicles of the Unsolved
12. Sergei Dupin. Ivan Safronov left without explanation. Kommersant No. 36 (3612) (March 7, 2007). Archived from the original on August 26, 2011. Retrieved August 13, 2010.
13. Alexander Abdulov: I filmed both actors and hippos // KP.RU
14. MK blogs
15. Radio station “Echo of Moscow” / Blogs / Sergey Buntman, columnist / Kholuyam don’t care. / Comments

Media representatives have long occupied a dominant place in the management of public opinion, deservedly receiving the unspoken status of the “fourth estate.” These are people who keep their finger on the pulse of all significant events and shape our vision of this world.

Profession journalist

Famous Russian journalists in print media

Real writers and masters of words work in newspapers and magazines. The list of famous print media journalists can contain countless names. Among them I would like to highlight the most famous.

Mikhail Beketov is a laureate in the field of print media, editor of the Khimkinskaya Pravda newspaper.

An extravagant personality and a person who is not afraid of a “witty word,” Oleg Kashin is also a true professional in his field. He devoted himself to political journalism.

Anna Politkovskaya is a laureate of the Golden Pen of Russia award, which she received for her contribution to holistic coverage of the military conflict in Chechnya. She worked as a columnist in many publications, but was especially remembered for her articles in the media “Novaya Gazeta” and “Air Transport”.

Famous journalists also write about fashion. Among fashion observers, Miroslava Duma stands out. She doesn't just work in the fashion industry as a journalist. She is a world fashion icon. Her professional background includes the position of editor of a special project in the magazine Harper’sBazaar, the gossip column “OK!”, charitable activities and the creation of her own project Buro 24/7, covering life in the cultural and social sphere.

Famous Russian journalists on radio

As in the case of newspapers, we do not see the faces of these people, but we hear the beauty of their voices, we realize the power of the word, the level of professional skill.

Not many people are considered sharks of Russian radio journalism. But they are undoubtedly experts in their field. Not all well-known radio journalists are represented in this article, but those that stand out are highlighted.

Andrey Binev has experience working in all types of media. But still, he made his most significant contribution to the development of journalism on the radio. He worked as a presenter of daily programs at the Mayak station. Also on Radio Russia. He currently holds the position of political commentator and is the presenter and director of several programs.

Alexey Kolosov is a shining example of how you can combine what you love with work. A musician and composer, for more than 20 years he has been hosting his own program “When Jazz Is Not Enough” on Radio Russia.

And we must not forget about the real legend of Russian radio journalism, Seva Novgorodtsev, presenter of the Russian BBC service, author of the worldwide popular program “Rock Sowings” and the first DJ in the history of radio broadcasting in the USSR. Now his fan clubs exist in many large cities of our country.

World famous foreign journalists

Foreign colleagues are not inferior to our domestic sharks of the pen in skill.

First on this list is Oprah Winfrey, named the most influential person in show business according to several publications. An American journalist, producer, and she personally manages a whole range of different media: a channel, a magazine, an Internet portal and hosts her own TV show. Oprah Winfrey has become a real legend.

Ukrainian journalist Oksana Marchenko has the most diverse range of interests. Already at the age of 19, she became the face of several national channels. In 2000, she founded her own television company and hosts social, cultural, and entertainment programs.

Oleg Lukashevich is a journalist from Belarus who became famous thanks to his passion for cinema, as well as visiting a number of major festivals, including Cannes and Venice, where he was able to interview many world-class stars.

Anna Piaggi is an eccentric Italian journalist specializing in fashion. She managed to work in the world's largest glossies, where she was highly valued for her ability to accurately recognize future trends. He is one of the founders of Vanity Fair magazine.

An informant from a Novaya Gazeta journalist made it clear that the publication is already dying, and the employee himself is a so-so genius. Only the genius is not of investigative journalism, but of shows and performances for those who believe any lie. “This has never happened, and here it is again” - the catchphrase of Viktor Stepanovich Chernomyrdin is ideal for the situation with the newspaper, because they have been caught lying before. Only now it doesn’t look like another lie, but like agony. But first things first.

In early October, Novaya Gazeta editorial staff member Denis Korotkov reported the disappearance of his informant, 61-year-old Valery Amelchenko, and the details of the disappearance at the very beginning made it clear that not everything was pure. According to the journalist, first the informant complained to him in a telephone conversation about two men following him (“Tamara and I go as a couple” for some reason), and then disappeared completely. Later, an honest janitor answered his phone and said that he had found two phones and one shoe (yes, yes!), which he then gave to Korotkov.

What would a normal journalist do in such a situation? He would trumpet the kidnapping everywhere, giving law enforcement agencies no rest. What was Korotkov doing? He modestly reported Amelchenko’s disappearance to the police and probably went on a drinking binge, otherwise his further actions cannot be explained. The media anonymously reported that he began calling and threatening the relatives of the missing person. F - Journalism...

The series of strange things continues. Two weeks later, allegedly unknown persons threw first a wreath and then a basket with a severed goat’s head at the Novaya Gazeta editorial office. Both parcels were addressed to Korotkov, based on the attached notes. The media also reported that flowers were also sent to the journalist’s home. This is all romantic, of course, but then the publication itself distinguished itself.

The newspaper's editors reported threats against them due to the publication of data from the Russian military. And here it would have been possible to raise a wave of indignation, but there were no threats to the publication. The mustachioed Korotkov was threatened, Fontanka, where the mustachioed Korotkov wrote his investigations, was also threatened, but Novaya was not threatened. So why the hell is she saying this?! This is where the understanding comes - journalists simply also decided to comprehend dirty PR technologies.

Things are frankly not going so well for Novaya Gazeta, as they themselves stated. Libel lawsuits do not allow us to reach the pinnacle of truthfulness and seriousness, there is not enough finances, we even had to create a special service for collecting donations. True, without any reports, so it’s very convenient to steal what you receive, but that’s not about that now. The newspaper definitely needs some kind of breakthrough, fresh blood (in the context of the severed head of an animal it sounds horrifying), revelation.

And Denis Korotkov, who was preparing another devastating material, could become salvation. It seems that the disappearance of the informant, the show with flowers and notes - this is all to attract attention to the publication, and they really succeeded. It was so successful that even their own readers suspected Novaya was staged. Oops, a little not what I wanted, but then the long-awaited investigation of the “savior” comes out in time and takes attention away from the failed performance...

It leads away because it turned out to be even more absurd, raising the degree of inadequacy to a new level. A vinaigrette of speculation, fragmentary information and outright lies - this is the current standard of both Denis Korotkov himself and Novaya Gazeta. Who will read this and remain delighted? Either they are fools who cannot add one fact to another, or they are outright enemies of the country. The latter, by the way, have long become the target audience of the newspaper, as even one of the Internet search engines hints at: if you start typing in the query “new newspaper mouthpiece,” the service itself will offer a choice of either “State Department” or “fifth column.” Reputation, sir!

In general, the new material from Novaya did not resonate with the audience, the comments are full of doubters, so it’s time to stop the performance with the disappearance of the informant. Well, at least here Korotkov did everything right, so Amelchenko, after several weeks of his “partisanship,” came to the police and reported that he was alive, healthy and happy with everything. A happy ending for the person, but definitely not for the editor.

I really want to read some new material by Denis Korotkov in Novaya Gazeta. Considering the methods of work, next time they themselves will have a herd of killed goats and goats. Well, or the body of the informant himself, why waste time on trifles.

One of the most significant features of our time is the unprecedentedly increased role of the media. And most importantly, they became capable of exerting an unprecedented impact on society and social processes, shaping the dominant political mood and moral attitudes in it, elevating some and “drowning” other public figures. Today the media have become even more than the fourth estate, as they have long been called. The key players in this government are journalists. They, their professionalism, civic and moral position determine the nature of the power over the minds and souls of people that is in their hands.

The work contains 1 file

Modern Russian journalism: civic duty and reality.

One of the most significant features of our time is the unprecedentedly increased role of the media. And most importantly, they became capable of exerting an unprecedented impact on society and social processes, shaping the dominant political mood and moral attitudes in it, elevating some and “drowning” other public figures. Today the media have become even more than the fourth estate, as they have long been called. The key players in this government are journalists. They, their professionalism, civic and moral position determine the nature of the power over the minds and souls of people that is in their hands.

In the professional community, the question is increasingly being discussed whether there is such journalism as we teach in our university courses. And in general, what is journalism for if there are fewer and fewer people who believe that the word still means and can do something. Who can she count on in her intentions to change something in this world - to be an instrument of modernization, if most people have already abandoned any social ideas and ideals and live only by the personal interests of their family, home, dacha. They also ask about what can be taught in journalism departments today, if PR has in many ways already replaced journalism and displaced all of its individual professional qualities - genres, authorship, opinions, positions.

Another contradiction of time. On the one hand, the painful problems of Russia have never before been so acutely raised before public opinion, as the President of the Russian Federation D. Medvedev did in his famous article “Forward Russia!” These problems include: 1. The economic backwardness of the country and the associated poverty of a significant part of the population. 2. The main injustice of modern life is corruption, which has affected all spheres of activity of Russian society and the state. 3. Dependency, the traditional Russian habit of counting and relying on the state, on foreign countries, on omnipotent teaching, but not on oneself. The President’s very harsh and self-critical conclusion is also fair: over the past 20 years, we have done nothing constructive in economic policy to radically change the situation in the country and are essentially eating away the legacy we inherited from past generations.

It is impossible not to share the critical assessments and conclusions of the President of the Russian Federation, however, on the other hand, it is difficult to find an answer to the question why in his analysis and proposals there was no place (even mention) of the media and journalism. Where to start and what is the main tool that will allow Is the modernization project proposed by the President a public asset? In our minds, such a tool is the media; there is simply no other mechanism with the same enormous potential capabilities. The fact that the modernization project does not address the media can be assessed in different ways. Behind it lies an incomprehensible and inexplicable satisfaction with what is happening in the domestic media community or a completely understandable disbelief that the Russian media in their current form are still capable of doing anything creative. Answers to these questions, of course, should be sought not only in theoretical discussions and scientific research, but, above all, in real practice. Only practice can answer the question of what journalism is like today and what it can do.

The analysis of processes and trends occurring in domestic journalism is most useful, in our opinion, to be traced over the last 25 years at 3 main stages of development, which most fully allow us to understand the role of the media and their capabilities.

The first of them is associated with the stage of perestroika (1986-1991), when in Russia there was a transition from a closed administrative regime to glasnost, and the influence of the media on social processes became most noticeable. This period is still waiting for its researcher. However, now, 20 years later, it can be argued that it was at this time that the media represented the main opposition force and became the most important instrument for destroying the foundations of the Soviet social system.

At this time, the media had all the necessary conditions for their independence and independence - the most favorable logistics and financial support. Not a single newspaper was closed during these years, and not a single editor-in-chief was released for his opposition to the authorities. There was, however, one timid attempt by M. Gorbachev to free the editor-in-chief of the newspaper “Arguments and Facts” Vyacheslav Starkov, but it also ended in the capitulation of the President of the USSR. An expression of the enormous influence and authority of the press were the unprecedented, gigantic circulation of Russian newspapers (obviously, they will never be like this again): “AiF” - 33.5 million copies, “Komsomolskaya Pravda” - 19 million, “Trud” - 15 million ., “Izvestia” - 12 million, “Soviet Russia” - 8 million. It was a time of universal popularity and influence of leading well-known television programs such as “Vzglyad” (Listyev, Lyubimov, Zakharov...), “Before and After Midnight” (Molchanov), Leningrad’s “600 seconds (Nevzorov)… Almost all of them, together with the editors-in-chief of leading newspapers and magazines, on the wave of universal popularity, became deputies of the Congress of People’s Deputies of the USSR and the perestroika Supreme Council of the RSFSR.

During perestroika, the media turned from means of serving the political elite, as they always were, into creators of its formation. The democrats of the first wave, Yuri Afanasyev, Anatoly Sobchak, Gavriil Popov... owe their fame to a large extent to the media. It is absolutely no coincidence that the current law of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR on the media as a standard of democracy in post-perestroika Russia owes its appearance to this very time. It was born in the depths of perestroika in the USSR on the wave of the enormous public authority of domestic journalism, and it is unknown whether something similar could be accepted today in our time. Thus, the period of perestroika in the second half of the 80s is characterized by the fact that the media and journalism fully demonstrated their independence and autonomy and had every reason to be called the fourth estate.

The second post-Soviet stage of media activity dates back to the 90s and is distinguished by the fact that market relations fundamentally change the position and role of the press in society. This stage was characterized by a complete change of owners of the domestic media, when the CPSU and the Soviet state were replaced by owners in the person of individual oligarchs such as Berezovsky, Gusinsky, Potanin... financial and industrial groups in the form of Lukoil, Yukos, Gazprom... who turned the editorial offices newspapers and magazines, radio and television to their information branches. The most important feature of this stage is the emergence and development of information monopolies, in whose hands the control powers of many federal print and electronic media are concentrated; at another level they are created in the regions.

At this stage of the transition from Soviet to post-Soviet times, domestic journalism did not pass the test of freedom. It so happened that the time of defending freedom and remaining in a state of dissent during the years of perestroika completely exhausted the opposition potential of Russian journalism. And when the 90s came, it turned out that most of the ideas of perestroika professed by the media turned out to be unclaimed. The ideas of journalistic idealists about how their lives would develop after the hegemony of the CPSU was ended were categorically at odds with what happened in reality.

In real life, Russian journalism of the 90s largely lost its leading public role during perestroika and began to act only as assistants to radical liberals Yegor Gaidar and his team. Domestic journalists were unable to refute or oppose anything to what these neo-Bolsheviks were doing to the country, driving it into the market by force. Now it is already obvious that it was necessary not only to gain freedom, but to be ready to take advantage of this freedom and actively comply with it, caring for connections with one’s people, showing compassion for them. During the time of privatization, which was ruinous for the people, the press not only did not take the side of the offended, robbed citizens of Russia, but did not even show compassion, directing all efforts to protect their new owners. This is the source of Russians' current distrust of the media.

This period is also associated with a noticeable shift in the Russian media towards open manipulation of public consciousness in the interests of their masters, when a one-sided explanation of the events taking place in the country, directly opposite to the objective perception of people, was directly imposed on society. Television was especially distinguished in this imposition of its opinion. Russians still remember the openly deceitful speeches of journalists, generously paid for by Boris Berezovsky, a hired team consisting of S. Dorenko, M. Leontyev, A. Nevzorov. The television activities of this team will long be remembered as an example of journalistic corruption and immorality. The union of power and the media in conditions of total and unlimited (moral and financial) use of information and administrative resources has shown that it can give unusually high results in manipulating public consciousness and allows one to achieve almost any political goals. A convincing example of this is Boris Yeltsin’s victory in the 1995 presidential elections with a voter support rating of only 6 to 12%.

In both the first and second stages of the past twenty-fifth anniversary, the media had a decisive influence on the development of social events in Russia (the collapse of the Soviet system, the defense of Boris Yeltsin’s presidency). True, it should be recognized that at the first stage during perestroika, the reformist role of the media fully reflected the civic position of journalists, their desire for freedom and independence, democracy and social justice - this was the free choice of the media themselves, and at the second stage they already fulfilled the will of their owners, the social order of the media oligarchy. In general, the active public position of the domestic media at both the first and second stages allows us to assert that democracy, even in its unique and very imperfect form in Russia, owes much to Russian journalism, which was its defender and guarantor.

Time and changes occurring in society determine the appearance of the media and dictate their topics and genres of journalism. The main thing here, of course, depends on how the relationship between the media and the authorities develops at the current stage. If we evaluate the main trend of recent years, we can state an increasing increase in the managerial and regulatory role of the state. There is a danger of repeating what we had in Soviet times.

We adhere to the position that relations between the media and the authorities cannot be conflict-free and friendly. And when they claim that contradictions between the press and the authorities are not at all necessary, then there is more deceit in this than truth. Media opposition to those in power is not only necessary but also inevitable, because it is based on the natural and necessary dissent in society that exists in any democratic government - this dissent can only be expressed by independent media in opposition.

What is happening today, at the third stage, in the media and domestic journalism? To understand this, it is necessary to critically assess the state and comprehend the main guidelines in the activities of the Russian media. Let's start with the fact that an analysis of the evolution of domestic journalism in the last two stages convinces us that many of its ailments have one of their main sources in the inability to withstand the test of freedom and civil responsibility to the people and nation. And the point here is not only the lack of the necessary immunity, but more that the majority of journalists have misconceptions about the freedom and independence of the media, as well as civic duty. The press, operating under the media freedom law, has truly become more independent. However, one cannot help but see that this is a very strange independence - independence to a greater extent from the reader, viewer, listener.

The growing influence of the state in the media system aggravates the process of decline in the public authority of the Russian press and leads to an increasing loss of its trust among a significant part of readers, viewers, and listeners. Data from sociological studies indicate that the degree of trust of Russians in the media has now reached a critical limit: the number of those who do not trust the central press at all among the population is more than 60%, and those who completely trust it are no more than 5%. In addition, about 70% of readers and viewers urgently demand the introduction of public censorship in order to protect themselves and their families from the treachery of the all-powerful media, and primarily television.

Why is the attitude of Russians towards the media and especially television so unfriendly? It is obvious that they are defenseless in front of them and cannot have any influence on them.

Meanwhile, the independence of the media and freedom of speech have an undoubted value, but not absolute, and to see only positive principles in their social influence is wrong and imprudent. Freedom of the media is beneficial and creative when it is in a system of other values, and, above all, moral ones. And when it replaces and suppresses all other values ​​and remains alone, unrestricted by anything (neither morality nor law), it tramples and destroys everything around, including itself, somewhat reminiscent of a kamikaze terrorist.

The state in Russia, while declaring in words that the media serves public and social interests, in practice adheres to a liberal course in relation to the press, which considers the media only as a business, and the product of their activity as a market good. Society - citizens of Russia - in these conditions finds itself defenseless against the media business and cannot oppose anything to its ideological expansion.

The destructive role of the domestic media, and especially television, in creating a negative moral atmosphere in the country is especially obvious. How to determine whether it is healthy and favorable for the normal life of people? And what does the media have to do with this? The most important indicator here is people’s belief that justice, decency, honesty are possible in the life and activities of citizens, authorities, and countries. The presence of this faith or its increasing loss depends to a large extent on the media. In recent years, domestic media have worked hard to create an atmosphere of disbelief in Russian society. And above all, lack of belief that it is still possible to change something in the country, to make the country favorable for life. The press persistently instilled habituation to the existing abomination of life, its injustice, its unfriendliness towards simple, ordinary people. She literally hammered home what is today will always be. Why be surprised now at the indifference and inertia of people! What depresses people most is the feeling of inequality. The media are doing everything to show that there are and always will be two Russias. Russia of wealth, luxury, permissiveness for the elite - VIP Russia, where there are endless presentations, anniversaries, receptions, balls... And next to it is the big Russia of poverty, poverty. In this Russia there is a struggle for survival, it is difficult to make ends meet. There is an unprecedented increase in social orphans, street children, and drug addicts, as during the war years.

The beginning of journalism in the 19th century was laid by the magazine "Bulletin of Europe", which was published for almost thirty years, from 1802 to 1830. However, after the appointment of its editor N.M. Karamzin in 1804 as a court historiographer, he left the "Bulletin", the magazine lost its former modernity and topicality: political reviews and journalistic articles now appear rarely. In the early twenties, “Bulletin of Europe” was, according to V. G. Belinsky, “the ideal of deadness, dryness, boredom and some kind of senile moldiness.” (Note that 38 years after the collapse of the first “Vestnik”, which lost its readers, a second, more successful one appeared, which will be discussed below).

A significant role in the development of social thought and journalism was played by the “Free Society of Lovers of Literature, Sciences and Arts” created in 1801 in St. Petersburg, on whose behalf the almanac “Scroll of the Muses” (1802, 1803) and the magazines “Periodical Publication of the Free Society of Lovers of Literature” were published , Sciences and Arts" (1804) and "St. Petersburg Bulletin" (1812), which, in fact, was the first critical and bibliographic publication in Russia.

Such departmental and private newspapers as “Northern Post, or New St. Petersburg Newspaper” (organ of the Department of Posts of the Ministry of Internal Affairs), “St. Petersburg Commercial Gazette”, “Northern Bee” and others appeared.

The term “newspaper” appears for the first time on the title of the Northern Post Office. True, Karamzin was the first to use this word to designate foreign daily press organs. From the second half of the 19th century, the word “newspaper” completely replaced the word “vedomosti” and completely separated from the term “journalism,” while in the first half of the 19th century, some newspapers were also called magazines at the will of the publishers. Northern Mail, published twice a week on four pages with a circulation of up to 5,400 copies, contributed to the development of domestic industry, trade and agriculture. Having merged in 1811 with the St. Petersburg Commercial Gazette, this publication began to be published under the name Kommercheskaya Gazeta.

In 1811, the first Russian provincial publication “Kazan News” appeared. Political-scientific-literary newspaper.” In 1821, on the basis of this newspaper, the Kazan Bulletin magazine was created.

And in other major cities of Russia, the publication of local magazines began. “Eastern News” is published in Astrakhan, “Ukrainian Bulletin” in Kharkov, the publishing activity of the Academy of Sciences, universities, and literary societies has expanded. “Economic Journal”, “Statistical Journal”, “Medical and Physical Journal”, “Military Journal”, “Moscow Notes”, “Artillery Journal”, etc. began to be published.

In the first decade of the century, 77 periodicals (mainly magazines) of different directions appeared: liberal (“Son of the Fatherland” by N. I. Grech, published from 1812 to 1820), conservative (“Russian Bulletin”), bourgeois (“Moscow Telegraph” ). Since 1813, the newspaper “Russian Invalid” began to be published for charitable purposes. The magazines “Nevsky Spectator” and “Competitor of Education and Charity” were under the ideological influence of the future Decembrists. Shortly before the uprising, the Decembrists began publishing the journal Polar Star (1823-1825) in St. Petersburg and the almanac Mnemosyne in Moscow (27).

The different approaches to social reality, characteristic of publications of different orientations, can be traced in their relation to the War of 1812. “Son of the Fatherland” considers it a liberation struggle for the national independence of the Motherland, showing in sketches ordinary soldiers, brave, resilient, ready to sacrifice themselves for the Fatherland. The “Russian Messenger” (1808-1820), published by the writer S.N., has a different view. Glinka at the expense of the Moscow military governor F.V. Rastopchin. “Vestnik” viewed the war as a defense of the Orthodox Church, the throne, and landowners, and counted only the tsar and the nobility among the true “sons of the Fatherland.”

But the most striking publication of those years was the Moscow Telegraph (1825-1834), the “telegraph of ideas,” as it was called. It was published by N.A. Polev, a man of merchant rank, without a systematic education, who, according to A. I. Herzen, “was born to be a journalist, a chronicler of successes, discoveries, political and scientific struggle.” And here is what V. G. Belinsky writes about the magazine and its publisher: “From the very first book, the magazine amazes everyone with its liveliness, freshness, news, variety, taste, and good language.” Polevoy “published each of his books with care, thoughtfully, sparing neither labor nor expense. And at the same time, he possessed the secret of the magazine business and was endowed with a terrible ability.” Guessing that a literate reader was no longer interested only in literature, but also in politics, economics, trade, and scientific achievements, Polevoy decided to make the Moscow Telegraph mass-produced, encyclopedic, involving famous scientists and writers in cooperation (including A.S. Pushkin and A. Mitskevich). He walked ahead of the reader, cultivated his taste, unlike others who either confined themselves to a narrow circle of readers, or went towards the general reader, indulging his tastes. The magazine was closed in 1834 due to Polevoy’s published review of N.V.’s drama. Puppeteer “The Hand of the Almighty Saved the Fatherland”: the reviewer expressed the idea that the savior in 1612 was, after all, the merchant Minin. Three years later, Polevoy moved to St. Petersburg, where he became the unofficial editor of the magazine “Son of the Fatherland” and an employee of the “Northern Bee”; in 1841-1842, together with Grech, he edited the magazine “Russian Herald”, in which he opposed the “Hero of Our Time” and poems Lermontov, against Gogol’s “Dead Souls”. In 1844, Polevoy nevertheless moved away from Bulgarin and Grech, became close to Kraevsky and began editing the Literary Newspaper (having released only a few issues, he died in February 1846).

Journalism in the 1830s was characterized by a reduction in the number of social and literary publications, but at the same time, the volume of special periodicals - economic, scientific and technical - increased. During these years, monetary relations penetrated into Russian journalism and literature for the first time: the introduction of fees contributed to the professionalization of the work of writers and journalists.

Newspapers still lag behind magazines in their development. Of the private publications, the most interesting was “Literary Newspaper” by A. A. Delvig and O. M. Somov, in which A. S. participated in editing. Pushkin. All private newspapers, except for the reactionary “Northern Bee” by F.V. Bulgarin (began publishing in 1825), were prohibited from touching on political issues. “Really, besides the Northern Bee, no one here dares to announce that there was an earthquake in Mexico and that the Chamber of Deputies is closed until September?” - Pushkin was indignant in a letter to P. A. Vyazemsky on May 2, 1830.

During these years, new newspapers appeared in the provinces, which were of an official nature: in 1838, provincial Vedomosti began to be published in 42 provinces, and in subsequent years - in all other regions. The provincial “Vedomosti” was subordinate to the governor and edited by officials on special assignments; the newspapers consisted of two parts: official (decisions of the provincial administration, awards, personnel movements, ranks, government announcements) and unofficial (articles on history, geography, ethnography, works of local authors, private advertisements for purchase and sale). The most interesting were Vedomosti, in which political exiles collaborated. For example, “Vladimir Provincial Gazette”, the unofficial part of which he edited in 1838-1839. A.I. Herzen, exiled to Vladimir.

In 1830--1840 The central figure of Russian journalism is V. G. Belinsky. At first he collaborated in Moscow publications - the magazines "Telescope" and "Moscow Observer", as well as in the newspaper "Molva", and in 1839 he moved to St. Petersburg, where he became a leading employee and unofficial editor of the magazines "Domestic Notes" and "Sovremennik". Two years after Pushkin was killed in a duel, the magazines Sovremennik and Literaturnaya Gazeta, associated with his name, fought the reactionary triumvirate of publishers: N. I. Grech and F. V. Bulgarin published the magazine “Son of the Fatherland” and the newspaper “Northern Bee” ", and O.I. Senkovsky - “Library for Reading” magazine.

The second half of the 19th century was the time of the final formation of Russian journalism. Authoritative liberal-oriented magazines are published (“Russian Thought”, “Bulletin of Europe”), populist “Russian Wealth”, monarchist “Russian Bulletin”, monthly magazines “God’s World”, “Life”, “Nachalo”, illustrated family magazines “Niva”, "Motherland", "Around the World". A special niche in history is occupied by “The Polar Star” and “The Bell,” published by A. I. Herzen and N. P. Ogarev at the Free Russian Printing House, created by Herzen in London in 1853.

A noticeable revival in the newspaper business was associated with social activity caused by the end of the Crimean War, but, most importantly, by the reforms of 1861. After 1855, almost all metropolitan newspapers were given the opportunity to discuss issues of foreign and domestic policy, and it became easier to obtain the right to publish new newspapers. In 1855-1864. 60 newspapers were allowed to be published, although in reality only 28 newspapers were published in 1865. This was a period of intensive development of journalism, the emergence of new genres, headings, and forms of creativity.

With the development of capitalism and the growth of cities, new mass readers appeared (merchants, clerks, small employees, artisans, servants, etc.). The pace of life has increased, and it has become impossible to get by with just magazine information about political life once a month. Under these conditions, the private newspaper acquired great importance, since the government, state-owned press could not satisfy the increased readership interest and serve various social groups. The government was forced to expand the scope of private newspaper business, which was recorded in the “Temporary Rules on the Press” of 1865. It was not writers who flocked to the newspaper business, but commercial people, merchants, bankers who could find 400-500 thousand rubles (!?) needed to found a new newspaper. Writers didn't have that kind of money. If in 1860 15 newspapers appeared, and in 1861 - 20, then in 1865 - already 28, and in 1870 - 36 newspapers. Among them are craft, “folk” publications, designed for readers from the lower classes: “Sunday Leisure” (St. Petersburg), “Friend of the People” (Kyiv), etc.

Based on the “Temporary Rules,” the sale of newspapers by street peddlers was officially permitted. Moreover, only the presence of a breastplate - a license plate - gave peddlers the right to sell newspapers on the streets of the capital. The “case” of the 13-year-old boy Efremov, who was put on trial for illegally selling newspapers in St. Petersburg, is known. In 1872, the police detained the boy Yegor Yakovlev, fined him 25 kopecks, and the peasant boy Pavel Golubin, 12 years old, was released from punishment due to his infancy. In 1877, 58 peddlers were fined, and in May 1878, to streamline street trade, the first St. Petersburg artel of newspaper peddlers was established, and a “Common Warehouse for the peddling trade of printed works” was organized.

The events of the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878 became a new stimulus for the development of journalism. If in 1870 there were 36 newspapers of general content, then in 1877 there were 51, and in 1881 - 83. There was no unanimity in the journalistic community regarding the war with Turkey. If the St. Petersburg press perceived it as a way to distract the public from Russia’s internal problems: from the need for reforms (“Bulletin of Europe”) or from a radical restructuring of society (“Otechestvennye zapiski”), then the Moscow press (the newspaper “Russian Vedomosti” by N.N. Skvortsov , published by M. N. Katkov, the magazine “Russian Bulletin” and the newspaper “Moskovskie Vedomosti”, other publications) considered the war to be a necessary, paramount matter and was a spokesman for public opinion in this. Katkov considered the role of the Russian Tsar in the liberation of the Balkan peoples to be especially significant.

One of the long-lasting monthly magazines was “Bulletin of Europe” (1866-1918), advocating the rule of law, freedom of enterprise, and reform. A constant circle of readers among the Russian intelligentsia ensured its steady circulation over the decades (6 thousand in the 70s of the 19th century and 6,400 subscribers in 1905). The composition of employees expressing the liberal direction of the publication was also stable. The magazine was published regularly, had good printing, and was famous for its accuracy in paying royalties - all this was not a common occurrence. It consisted of two sections: the first contained fiction and articles of scientific and historical content; the second section consisted of a number of reviews (domestic, foreign, literary) and individual journalistic articles, bibliographic notes. The coverage of current life events is very impressive: from the little things of provincial life to the world exhibition in Paris.

The leader of the entertainment press was the family weekly Niva, published from 1869 to 1918, which sought to be diverse in content with a small volume (three printed pages). "Niva" had a literary department (novels, stories, short stories, essays, poems), a department of characteristics and biographies of outstanding contemporaries and historical figures, a department of geographical and ethnographic essays, a scientific department on archeology, astronomy, medicine, etc. The magazine's circulation included 9 thousand copies in the first year of publication increased to 235 thousand by the beginning of the 20th century (for comparison: the circulation of the most widely read thick magazines - “Russian Thought” and “Bulletin of Europe” in 1900 did not exceed 14 thousand copies).

At the turn of the two centuries, newspaper printing became the leading, predominant type of journalism: 125 newspapers with socio-political content were published, in addition to them, reference, theater, medical, and church publications were published. In terms of efficiency and volume of information, newspapers were far ahead of magazines, although many theoretical issues were still resolved primarily in magazines. In total, according to official data, in 1894, 785 periodicals were legally distributed in Russia. Almost half of them - 342 - were published in St. Petersburg and Moscow, the rest - in the provinces. Most publications were published in Russian, 79 newspapers in Latvian, 64 in Polish, 41 in German, 11 in Estonian, 5 in Georgian, 5 in Armenian, 8 in French, 3 in Hebrew. Newspaper circulations are also growing, reaching hundreds of thousands of copies.

Technological progress made it easier to organize publications. Paper production is increasing, powerful printing machines are appearing, and the telegraph has accelerated the flow of information many times over. Photography has replaced hand-drawn illustrations. The material base of newspapers is being strengthened, and the first newspaper and magazine associations are being created. Major publications are published not only in the morning, but also in the evening; Independent evening newspapers also appeared. The first information telegraph agencies and intermediary advertising offices appeared. With the creation of the Russian Telegraph Agency (RTA) in 1865, the dissemination of operational news acquired a national scale. Large information bodies - Russian, International and Northern - supplied information to almost all provincial and many metropolitan newspapers. Note that in the West powerful news agencies appeared earlier than Russian ones: the French Havas - 1835 (in 1944 it became the basis for the creation of the current France Press agency), the American Associated Press - 1848, the English Reuters ", created by Paul Julius Reuther in 1851.

Newspapers are becoming profitable commercial enterprises, but only those that are published by talented, competent entrepreneurs prosper. In this regard, the history of “New Time” is indicative.

Created in 1866, the newspaper suffered a disaster four years later due to the publication of a review of the Russian translation of the first volume of Karl Marx's Capital. The editor, State Councilor I. Sukhomlinov, was forced to resign, and the publisher F. Ustryalov, after a second warning from the Main Directorate for Press Affairs of the Ministry of Internal Affairs on May 22, 1873, handed over the newspaper to O. Notovich. The latter promised to reduce the subscription fee, increase the circulation to 15 thousand copies, that is, to make the newspaper profitable. However, the publication was under suspicion from the Main Directorate for Press Affairs and in March 1874 received a third warning; the publication of Novoye Vremya was suspended for six months. Then Notovich transferred the publishing rights to K. Trubnikov. Trubnikov wanted to change the name of the newspaper, but this was denied to him, so that the newspaper would not be considered new. It was not possible to win the trust of the censorship: in 1875, the retail sale of issues was twice prohibited. Under these conditions, Trubnikov managed to sell the right to publish Novoye Vremya to A.S. Suvorin, who was a feuilletonist for the St. Petersburg Vedomosti (wrote under the pseudonym “Stranger”) and collaborated in the magazine “Bulletin of Europe” (reviewed new book releases). With the arrival in 1876 of A.S. Suvorin's "New Time" becomes one of the most widespread and influential Russian newspapers (already in the first year of Suvorin's leadership its circulation increased from three thousand to sixteen thousand copies). Suvorin himself personally worked on the content of the newspaper; for example, when the Serbian war began in 1876, he went to Constantinople as a correspondent for his publication. In an effort to best satisfy the needs of readers, Suvorin began publishing works by Turgenev, Nekrasov, Flaubert and other writers, even changing the typographic font to a lighter and more convenient one. I was attracted by the newspaper's courage in its judgments, the variety of materials and their thoughtful grouping.

Among the capital's publications, one can distinguish a group of liberal newspapers: St. Petersburg Vedomosti and Golos, published in St. Petersburg, and Russkie Vedomosti, published in Moscow. The St. Petersburg Gazette, which supported the reforms of Alexander II and spoke out in favor of reforms, after 1875 passed to the banker Baimakov and lost popularity. G. Uspensky, A. Chekhov, Mamin-Sibiryak, Pleshcheev and many other democratic publicists published in the Moscow “Russian Vedomosti”. Among the new newspapers, A.A.’s “Voice” quickly gained popularity. Kraevsky. An experienced publisher, betting on the mass production of the publication, managed to increase the circulation from five thousand to 20 thousand subscribers in a few years (from 1865 to 1877).

The monarchist press at the turn of the 20th century was represented by the magazine “Russian Bulletin”, the newspapers “Grazhdanin”, “Svet”, etc. It placed all responsibility for the shortcomings of life on the intelligentsia, zemstvo, “foreigners”, and the policies of foreign states. “Russian Messenger” by M. N. Katkov, for example, defended the class rights of the nobility and condemned female education, which turned women away from the family hearth. The newspaper “Citizen,” published with government subsidies by Prince Meshchersky, was edited by F.M. for a year. Dostoevsky.

Briefly, the history of journalism in the 19th century can be considered by decade:

1) 1801-1810: 60 magazines, 9 newspapers, 15 collections appeared; all of them were short-lived, with the exception of the "Bulletin of Europe" (1802-1830). Publications of the Free Society of Lovers of Literature, Science and the Arts: “Scroll of the Muses” (1802, 1807), “Periodic publication” (1804), “Northern Herald” (1804-1805). “Northern Mail, or New St. Petersburg Newspaper” is published, on the title of which the word “newspaper” appears for the first time (1809, Postal Department). The first provincial publication in Russia “Kazan News. Political-scientific-literary newspaper.”

2) 1811-1820 Ideas of patriotism in connection with the War of 1812 in magazines: the pro-government “Russian Messenger” by S. N. Glinka and the insufficiently well-intentioned “Son of the Fatherland” by N. I. Grech. Newspaper "Russian Disabled".

3) 1821-1830: Almanacs of the Decembrists: “Polar Star” by A. A. Bestuzhev and K. F. Ryleev, “Mnemosyne” by V.F. Odoevsky and V.K. Kuchelbecker, “Russian Antiquity” by A.O. Kornilovich. Newspaper by F.V. Bulgarin “Northern Bee”. Publisher of the Moscow Telegraph N.A. Polevoy first introduced the word “journalism” into use (1825). “Literary Newspaper” by A. A. Delvig and O. M. Somov, edition edited by A. S. Pushkin (1830).

4) 1831-1840: Journal of A.S. Pushkin “Contemporary” (1836). Creation of a magazine triumvirate (“Northern Bee”, “Son of the Fatherland”, “Library for Reading”). “Moscow Observer” (1838-1830) edited by V. G. Belinsky. Publications by N.I. Nadezhdin - the magazine "Telescope" and "Rumor" - a fashion and news newspaper published under the "Telescope". Widespread publication of the Provincial Gazette. “Domestic Notes” by A. A. Kraevsky (since 1839).

5) 1841-1850: Transition to “Contemporary” from “Notes of the Fatherland” by V.G. Belinsky, A.I. Herzen and N.A. Nekrasov (1846). Polemics with the Slavophile “Moskvityanin” - the organ of the official nationality. ON THE. Polevoy - editor of the Russian Messenger (1841-1842), Literary Newspaper (1845-1846).

6) 1851-1860: Creation of the Free Russian Printing House (1853). A. I. Herzen and N. P. Ogarev. "The North Star" (1855-1869) and "The Bell" (1857-1867). N. A. Dobrolyubov, N. G. Chernyshevsky and N. A. Nekrasov in Sovremennik. “Russian Messenger” by M. N. Katkov (1856). Magazine "Russian Word" (1859-1866). The Slavophile press: the magazine “Russian Conversation”, the newspapers of the brothers K.S. and I. S. Aksakov “Rumour”, “Sail”, “Day”. Magazine "Bulletin of Europe" (1866-1918).

7) 1861-1870: D.I. Pisarev in the magazine “Russian Word”. Newspaper "Week" (1866). Journals of the brothers F. M. and M. M. Dostoevsky “Time” (1861-1863) and “Epoch” (1864-1865). The emergence of cheap, mass-market newspapers for the “average” reader (“Son of the Fatherland”, “Russian Newspaper”, “Overtochny Leaflet”, “Moskovsky Courier”, “Moskovsky Vestnik”), folk publications (“Sunday Leisure”, “Mirskoe Slovo”, "People's Newspaper"), the origin of evening newspapers. Organization of the first Russian Telegraph Agency (1866).

8) 1871-1880: M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin in “Notes of the Fatherland”. N.V. Shelgunov in the magazine “Delo”. M. N. Katkov: the magazine “Russian Bulletin” and the newspaper “Moskovskie Vedomosti” about the Russian-Turkish war. N. G. Korolenko in “Russian Wealth” (1876-1918). I. D. Sytin’s newspaper “Russian Word”. “New Time” by A. S. Suvorin. Creation in 1872 of the first “Artel of street sellers of printed works.” The emergence of the International Telegraph Agency (1872).

9) 1881-1890: A.P. Chekhov in “Russian Thought”. Magazine "Northern Herald" (1885-1898) A.M. Evreinova. Organization of the Northern Telegraph Agency (1882).

10) 1891-1900: A. M. Gorky in the Samara Newspaper. A.P. Chekhov in “Fragments”. Marxist press: “Sotsial-Demokrat”, “Worker”, etc.