Earth's climates. Main and transitional climatic zones of the earth In which climatic zone does precipitation occur in winter?

Climate is decisive for the geographical location of natural areas. Where deserts are dry and hot, where it rains all year round and the sun shines, there is lush vegetation of equatorial forests. But, in one climatic zone there may be boundaries of several natural zones.

Climatic zones and natural zones

First of all, let's look at the table.

Table “Natural zones of climatic zones”

Features of the climate of natural zones of the world

Equatorial forests

It is very hot here all year round and there are tropical rains. The average temperature in winter is +15°, in summer about 30°. More than 2000 mm of precipitation falls annually. There is no clear division into seasons; all months are warm and humid.

Savannah

Winter is tropical, summer is equatorial. There are two distinct periods: drought in winter and rainy season in summer. About 500 mm of precipitation falls annually. The average temperature in winter is +10°, in summer about 26°.

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Rice. 1. Drought in the savannah

Deserts

The climate is arid, with rapid temperature changes observed throughout the day. In winter, it can even be below zero at night. In summer, the sun warms the dry air by 40-45°.

Rice. 2. Frost in the desert

Steppes and forest-steppes

Winters are moderate, summers are dry. Even during the warm period of the year, at night the air temperature can drop to below zero. Precipitation falls mainly in winter - up to 500 mm per year. A special feature of the steppe zone is cold, piercing winds blowing from the north.

Deciduous and mixed forests

They are characterized by pronounced winters (with snow) and hot summers. Precipitation falls evenly throughout the year.

Rice. 3. Winter in a deciduous forest

Taiga

It is characterized by cold, dry winters, but hot summers, which last 4-5 months. Precipitation falls approximately 1000 mm. in year. The average temperature in January is 25°, in summer +16°.

Tundra and forest-tundra

The climate is harsh. Winter is long, cold, dry, about 9 months. Summer is short. Arctic winds often blow.

Arctic and Antarctic deserts

Eternal winter zone. Summer is very short and cold.

Record low temperatures were recorded in Antarctica – 89.2° and -91.2°. In Russia, the lowest temperature was in the city of Verkhoyansk - 67.8°.

What have we learned?

Climatic zones define natural areas. Some zones may contain the boundaries of several natural zones. The flora and fauna largely depend on the weather conditions of the region.

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Climate- This is a long-term weather regime characteristic of a particular area. It manifests itself in the regular change of all types of weather observed in this area.

Climate influences living and inanimate nature. Water bodies, soil, vegetation, and animals are closely dependent on climate. Certain sectors of the economy, primarily agriculture, are also very dependent on climate.

The climate is formed as a result of the interaction of many factors: the amount of solar radiation reaching the earth's surface; atmospheric circulation; the nature of the underlying surface. At the same time, climate-forming factors themselves depend on the geographical conditions of a given area, primarily on geographical latitude.

The geographic latitude of the area determines the angle of incidence of the sun's rays, obtaining a certain amount of heat. However, receiving heat from the Sun also depends on proximity to the ocean. In places far from the oceans, there is little precipitation, and the precipitation regime is uneven (more in the warm period than in the cold), cloudiness is low, winters are cold, summers are warm, and the annual temperature range is large. This climate is called continental, as it is typical for places located in the interior of continents. A maritime climate is formed over the water surface, which is characterized by: a smooth variation in air temperature, with small daily and annual temperature amplitudes, large clouds, and a uniform and fairly large amount of precipitation.

The climate is also greatly influenced by sea ​​currents. Warm currents warm the atmosphere in the areas where they flow. For example, the warm North Atlantic Current creates favorable conditions for the growth of forests in the southern part of the Scandinavian Peninsula, while most of the island of Greenland, which lies at approximately the same latitudes as the Scandinavian Peninsula, but is outside the zone of influence of the warm current, is available all year round covered with a thick layer of ice.

A major role in climate formation belongs to relief. You already know that with every kilometer the terrain rises, the air temperature drops by 5-6 °C. Therefore, on the high mountain slopes of the Pamirs the average annual temperature is 1 ° C, although it is located just north of the tropics.

The location of mountain ranges greatly influences the climate. For example, the Caucasus Mountains trap moist sea winds, and their windward slopes facing the Black Sea receive significantly more precipitation than their leeward slopes. At the same time, the mountains serve as an obstacle to cold northern winds.

There is a dependence of climate on prevailing winds. On the territory of the East European Plain, westerly winds coming from the Atlantic Ocean prevail throughout almost the entire year, so winters in this territory are relatively mild.

Regions of the Far East are under the influence of monsoons. In winter, winds from the interior of the mainland constantly blow here. They are cold and very dry, so there is little precipitation. In summer, on the contrary, winds bring a lot of moisture from the Pacific Ocean. In autumn, when the wind from the ocean subsides, the weather is usually sunny and calm. This is the best time of year in the area.

Climatic characteristics are statistical inferences from long-term weather observation series (in temperate latitudes 25-50-year series are used; in the tropics their duration may be shorter), primarily on the following basic meteorological elements: atmospheric pressure, wind speed and direction, temperature and air humidity, cloudiness and precipitation. They also take into account the duration of solar radiation, visibility range, temperature of the upper layers of soil and reservoirs, evaporation of water from the earth's surface into the atmosphere, height and condition of snow cover, various atmospheric phenomena and ground hydrometeors (dew, ice, fog, thunderstorms, blizzards, etc.) . In the 20th century The climatic indicators included the characteristics of the elements of the heat balance of the earth's surface, such as total solar radiation, radiation balance, the amount of heat exchange between the earth's surface and the atmosphere, and heat consumption for evaporation. Complex indicators are also used, i.e. functions of several elements: various coefficients, factors, indices (for example, continentality, aridity, moisture), etc.

Climate zones

Long-term average values ​​of meteorological elements (annual, seasonal, monthly, daily, etc.), their sums, frequency, etc. are called climate standards: corresponding values ​​for individual days, months, years, etc. are considered as a deviation from these norms.

Maps with climate indicators are called climatic(temperature distribution map, pressure distribution map, etc.).

Depending on temperature conditions, prevailing air masses and winds, climatic zones.

The main climatic zones are:

• equatorial;
• two tropical;
• two moderate;
• Arctic and Antarctic.

Between the main zones there are transitional climatic zones: subequatorial, subtropical, subarctic, subantarctic. In transitional zones, air masses change seasonally. They come here from neighboring zones, so the climate of the subequatorial zone in summer is similar to the climate of the equatorial zone, and in winter - to the tropical climate; The climate of the subtropical zones in summer is similar to the climate of the tropical zones, and in winter - to the climate of the temperate zones. This is due to the seasonal movement of atmospheric pressure belts over the globe following the Sun: in summer - to the north, in winter - to the south.

Climatic zones are divided into climatic regions. For example, in the tropical zone of Africa, areas of tropical dry and tropical humid climates are distinguished, and in Eurasia, the subtropical zone is divided into areas of Mediterranean, continental and monsoon climates. In mountainous areas, an altitudinal zone is formed due to the fact that the air temperature decreases with height.

Diversity of Earth's climates

The climate classification provides an orderly system for characterizing climate types, their zoning and mapping. Let us give examples of climate types that prevail over vast territories (Table 1).

Arctic and Antarctic climate zones

Antarctic and Arctic climate dominates in Greenland and Antarctica, where average monthly temperatures are below O °C. During the dark winter season, these regions receive absolutely no solar radiation, although there are twilights and auroras. Even in summer, the sun's rays hit the earth's surface at a slight angle, which reduces the efficiency of heating. Most of the incoming solar radiation is reflected by the ice. In both summer and winter, the higher elevations of the Antarctic Ice Sheet experience low temperatures. The climate of the interior of Antarctica is much colder than the climate of the Arctic, since the southern continent is large in size and altitude, and the Arctic Ocean moderates the climate, despite the widespread distribution of pack ice. During short periods of warming in summer, drifting ice sometimes melts. Precipitation on ice sheets falls in the form of snow or small particles of freezing fog. Inland areas receive only 50-125 mm of precipitation annually, but the coast can receive more than 500 mm. Sometimes cyclones bring clouds and snow to these areas. Snowfalls are often accompanied by strong winds that carry significant masses of snow, blowing it off the slope. Strong katabatic winds with snowstorms blow from the cold glacial sheet, carrying snow to the coast.

Subarctic continental climate is formed in the north of the continents (see climate map of the atlas). In winter, arctic air predominates here, which forms in areas of high pressure. Arctic air spreads to the eastern regions of Canada from the Arctic.

Continental subarctic climate in Asia is characterized by the largest annual amplitude of air temperature on the globe (60-65 °C). The continental climate here reaches its maximum value.

The average temperature in January varies across the territory from -28 to -50 °C, and in the lowlands and basins due to stagnation of air, its temperature is even lower. In Oymyakon (Yakutia), a record negative air temperature for the Northern Hemisphere was recorded (-71 °C). The air is very dry.

Summer in subarctic zone although short, it is quite warm. The average monthly temperature in July ranges from 12 to 18 °C (daytime maximum is 20-25 °C). During the summer, more than half of the annual precipitation falls, amounting to 200-300 mm on the flat territory, and up to 500 mm per year on the windward slopes of the hills.

The climate of the subarctic zone of North America is less continental compared to the corresponding climate of Asia. There are less cold winters and colder summers.

Temperate climate zone

Temperate climate of the western coasts of the continents has pronounced features of a marine climate and is characterized by the predominance of marine air masses throughout the year. It is observed on the Atlantic coast of Europe and the Pacific coast of North America. The Cordillera is a natural boundary separating the coast with a maritime climate from inland areas. The European coast, except Scandinavia, is open to free access of temperate sea air.

The constant transport of sea air is accompanied by large clouds and causes long springs, in contrast to the interior of the continental regions of Eurasia.

Winter in temperate zone It's warm on the western coasts. The warming influence of the oceans is enhanced by warm sea currents washing the western shores of the continents. The average temperature in January is positive and varies across the territory from north to south from 0 to 6 °C. When arctic air invades, it can drop (on the Scandinavian coast to -25 °C, and on the French coast - to -17 °C). As tropical air spreads northward, the temperature rises sharply (for example, it often reaches 10 °C). In winter, on the western coast of Scandinavia, large positive temperature deviations from the average latitude (by 20 °C) are observed. The temperature anomaly on the Pacific coast of North America is smaller and amounts to no more than 12 °C.

Summer is rarely hot. The average temperature in July is 15-16 °C.

Even during the day, the air temperature rarely exceeds 30 °C. Due to frequent cyclones, all seasons are characterized by cloudy and rainy weather. There are especially many cloudy days on the west coast of North America, where cyclones are forced to slow down their movement in front of the Cordillera mountain systems. In connection with this, great uniformity characterizes the weather regime in southern Alaska, where there are no seasons in our understanding. Eternal autumn reigns there, and only plants remind of the onset of winter or summer. Annual precipitation ranges from 600 to 1000 mm, and on the slopes of mountain ranges - from 2000 to 6000 mm.

In conditions of sufficient moisture, broad-leaved forests develop on the coasts, and in conditions of excess moisture, coniferous forests develop. The lack of summer heat reduces the upper limit of the forest in the mountains to 500-700 m above sea level.

Temperate climate of the eastern coasts of the continents has monsoon features and is accompanied by a seasonal change in winds: in winter, northwestern currents predominate, in summer - southeastern ones. It is well expressed on the eastern coast of Eurasia.

In winter, with the north-west wind, cold continental temperate air spreads to the coast of the mainland, which is the reason for the low average temperature of the winter months (from -20 to -25 ° C). Clear, dry, windy weather prevails. There is little precipitation in the southern coastal areas. The north of the Amur region, Sakhalin and Kamchatka often fall under the influence of cyclones moving over the Pacific Ocean. Therefore, in winter there is a thick snow cover, especially in Kamchatka, where its maximum height reaches 2 m.

In summer, temperate sea air spreads along the Eurasian coast with a southeast wind. Summers are warm, with an average July temperature of 14 to 18 °C. Frequent precipitation is caused by cyclonic activity. Their annual quantity is 600-1000 mm, with most of them falling in summer. Fogs are common at this time of year.

Unlike Eurasia, the eastern coast of North America is characterized by maritime climate, which is expressed in the predominance of winter precipitation and the maritime type of annual variation in air temperature: the minimum occurs in February and the maximum in August, when the ocean is warmest.

The Canadian anticyclone, unlike the Asian one, is unstable. It forms far from the coast and is often interrupted by cyclones. Winter here is mild, snowy, wet and windy. In snowy winters, the height of the snowdrifts reaches 2.5 m. With a southerly wind, there is often black ice. Therefore, some streets in some cities in eastern Canada have iron railings for pedestrians. Summer is cool and rainy. Annual precipitation is 1000 mm.

Temperate continental climate most clearly expressed on the Eurasian continent, especially in the regions of Siberia, Transbaikalia, northern Mongolia, as well as in the Great Plains in North America.

A feature of the temperate continental climate is the large annual amplitude of air temperature, which can reach 50-60 °C. During the winter months, with a negative radiation balance, the earth's surface cools. The cooling effect of the land surface on the surface layers of air is especially great in Asia, where in winter a powerful Asian anticyclone forms and partly cloudy, windless weather prevails. The temperate continental air formed in the area of ​​the anticyclone has a low temperature (-0°...-40 °C). In valleys and basins, due to radiation cooling, the air temperature can drop to -60 °C.

In midwinter, the continental air in the lower layers becomes even colder than the Arctic air. This very cold air of the Asian anticyclone extends to Western Siberia, Kazakhstan, and the southeastern regions of Europe.

The winter Canadian anticyclone is less stable than the Asian anticyclone due to the smaller size of the North American continent. Winters here are less severe, and their severity does not increase towards the center of the continent, as in Asia, but, on the contrary, decreases somewhat due to the frequent passage of cyclones. Continental temperate air in North America has a higher temperature than continental temperate air in Asia.

The formation of a continental temperate climate is significantly influenced by the geographical features of the continents. In North America, the Cordillera mountain ranges are a natural boundary separating the maritime coastline from the continental inland areas. In Eurasia, a temperate continental climate is formed over a vast expanse of land, from approximately 20 to 120° E. d. Unlike North America, Europe is open to the free penetration of sea air from the Atlantic deep into its interior. This is facilitated not only by the westerly transport of air masses, which dominates in temperate latitudes, but also by the flat nature of the relief, highly rugged coastlines and deep penetration of the Baltic and North Seas into the land. Therefore, a temperate climate of a lesser degree of continentality is formed over Europe compared to Asia.

In winter, sea Atlantic air moving over the cold land surface of the temperate latitudes of Europe retains its physical properties for a long time, and its influence extends throughout Europe. In winter, as the Atlantic influence weakens, the air temperature decreases from west to east. In Berlin it is 0 °C in January, in Warsaw -3 °C, in Moscow -11 °C. In this case, the isotherms over Europe have a meridional orientation.

The fact that Eurasia and North America face the Arctic basin as a broad front contributes to the deep penetration of cold air masses onto the continents throughout the year. Intense meridional transport of air masses is especially characteristic of North America, where arctic and tropical air often replace each other.

Tropical air entering the plains of North America with southern cyclones is also slowly transformed due to the high speed of its movement, high moisture content and continuous low clouds.

In winter, the consequence of intense meridional circulation of air masses is the so-called “jumps” of temperatures, their large inter-day amplitude, especially in areas where cyclones are frequent: in northern Europe and Western Siberia, the Great Plains of North America.

During the cold period, they fall in the form of snow, a snow cover is formed, which protects the soil from deep freezing and creates a supply of moisture in the spring. The depth of the snow cover depends on the duration of its occurrence and the amount of precipitation. In Europe, stable snow cover on flat areas forms east of Warsaw, its maximum height reaches 90 cm in the northeastern regions of Europe and Western Siberia. In the center of the Russian Plain, the height of snow cover is 30-35 cm, and in Transbaikalia - less than 20 cm. On the plains of Mongolia, in the center of the anticyclonic region, snow cover forms only in some years. The lack of snow, along with low winter air temperatures, causes the presence of permafrost, which is not observed anywhere else on the globe at these latitudes.

In North America, snow cover is negligible on the Great Plains. To the east of the plains, tropical air increasingly begins to take part in frontal processes; it aggravates frontal processes, which causes heavy snowfalls. In the Montreal area, snow cover lasts up to four months, and its height reaches 90 cm.

Summer in the continental regions of Eurasia is warm. The average July temperature is 18-22 °C. In the arid regions of southeastern Europe and Central Asia, the average air temperature in July reaches 24-28 °C.

In North America, continental air in summer is somewhat colder than in Asia and Europe. This is due to the smaller latitudinal extent of the continent, the large ruggedness of its northern part with bays and fjords, the abundance of large lakes, and the more intense development of cyclonic activity compared to the interior regions of Eurasia.

In the temperate zone, the annual precipitation on the flat continental areas varies from 300 to 800 mm; on the windward slopes of the Alps more than 2000 mm falls. Most of the precipitation falls in summer, which is primarily due to an increase in the moisture content of the air. In Eurasia, there is a decrease in precipitation across the territory from west to east. In addition, the amount of precipitation decreases from north to south due to a decrease in the frequency of cyclones and an increase in dry air in this direction. In North America, a decrease in precipitation across the territory is observed, on the contrary, towards the west. Why do you think?

Most of the land in the continental temperate climate zone is occupied by mountain systems. These are the Alps, Carpathians, Altai, Sayans, Cordillera, Rocky Mountains, etc. In mountainous areas, climatic conditions differ significantly from the climate of the plains. In summer, the air temperature in the mountains drops quickly with altitude. In winter, when cold air masses invade, the air temperature on the plains is often lower than in the mountains.

The influence of mountains on precipitation is great. Precipitation increases on windward slopes and at some distance in front of them, and decreases on leeward slopes. For example, differences in annual precipitation between the western and eastern slopes of the Ural Mountains in some places reach 300 mm. In mountains, precipitation increases with altitude to a certain critical level. In the Alps, the highest precipitation occurs at altitudes of about 2000 m, in the Caucasus - 2500 m.

Subtropical climate zone

Continental subtropical climate determined by the seasonal change of temperate and tropical air. The average temperature of the coldest month in Central Asia is below zero in some places, in the northeast of China -5...-10°C. The average temperature of the warmest month ranges from 25-30 °C, with daily maximums exceeding 40-45 °C.

The most strongly continental climate in the air temperature regime is manifested in the southern regions of Mongolia and northern China, where the center of the Asian anticyclone is located in the winter season. Here the annual air temperature range is 35-40 °C.

Sharply continental climate in the subtropical zone for the high mountain regions of the Pamirs and Tibet, the altitude of which is 3.5-4 km. The climate of the Pamirs and Tibet is characterized by cold winters, cool summers and low rainfall.

In North America, the continental arid subtropical climate is formed in closed plateaus and in intermountain basins located between the Coast and Rocky Ranges. Summers are hot and dry, especially in the south, where the average July temperature is above 30 °C. The absolute maximum temperature can reach 50 °C and above. A temperature of +56.7 °C was recorded in Death Valley!

Humid subtropical climate characteristic of the eastern coasts of continents north and south of the tropics. The main areas of distribution are the southeastern United States, some southeastern parts of Europe, northern India and Myanmar, eastern China and southern Japan, northeastern Argentina, Uruguay and southern Brazil, the coast of Natal in South Africa and the eastern coast of Australia. Summer in the humid subtropics is long and hot, with temperatures similar to those in the tropics. The average temperature of the warmest month exceeds +27 °C, and the maximum is +38 °C. Winters are mild, with average monthly temperatures above 0 °C, but occasional frosts have a detrimental effect on vegetable and citrus plantations. In the humid subtropics, average annual precipitation amounts range from 750 to 2000 mm, and the distribution of precipitation across seasons is quite uniform. In winter, rain and rare snowfalls are brought mainly by cyclones. In summer, precipitation falls mainly in the form of thunderstorms associated with powerful inflows of warm and humid oceanic air, characteristic of the monsoon circulation of East Asia. Hurricanes (or typhoons) occur in late summer and fall, especially in the Northern Hemisphere.

Subtropical climate with dry summers, typical for the western coasts of continents north and south of the tropics. In Southern Europe and North Africa, such climatic conditions are typical for the coasts of the Mediterranean Sea, which is the reason for calling this climate also Mediterranean. The climate is similar in southern California, central Chile, extreme southern Africa and parts of southern Australia. All these areas have hot summers and mild winters. As in the humid subtropics, there are occasional frosts in winter. In inland areas, summer temperatures are significantly higher than on the coasts, and are often the same as in tropical deserts. In general, clear weather prevails. In summer, there are often fogs on the coasts near which ocean currents pass. For example, in San Francisco, summers are cool and foggy, and the warmest month is September. The maximum precipitation is associated with the passage of cyclones in winter, when the prevailing air currents mix towards the equator. The influence of anticyclones and downdrafts of air over the oceans cause the dry summer season. The average annual precipitation in a subtropical climate ranges from 380 to 900 mm and reaches maximum values ​​on the coasts and mountain slopes. In summer there is usually not enough rainfall for normal tree growth, and therefore a specific type of evergreen shrubby vegetation develops there, known as maquis, chaparral, mali, macchia and fynbos.

Equatorial climate zone

Equatorial climate type distributed in equatorial latitudes in the Amazon basin in South America and the Congo in Africa, on the Malacca Peninsula and on the islands of Southeast Asia. Usually the average annual temperature is about +26 °C. Due to the high midday position of the Sun above the horizon and the same length of day throughout the year, seasonal temperature fluctuations are small. Moist air, cloud cover and dense vegetation prevent night cooling and keep maximum daytime temperatures below 37°C, lower than at higher latitudes. The average annual precipitation in the humid tropics ranges from 1500 to 3000 mm and is usually evenly distributed over the seasons. Precipitation is mainly associated with the Intertropical Convergence Zone, which is located slightly north of the equator. Seasonal shifts of this zone to the north and south in some areas lead to the formation of two maximum precipitation during the year, separated by drier periods. Every day, thousands of thunderstorms roll over the humid tropics. In between, the sun shines in full force.

Definition 1

Climate zone is a latitudinal strip on the Earth’s surface with a relatively uniform climate.

Climate zones differ from each other air temperature And dominant air masses. In accordance with their properties, the main features of the climate are determined. Climate zones on the planet are changing zonally, i.e. from equator to poles. The classification of climate zones, which is used in Russia and in most countries of the world, was created by a Soviet climatologist B.P. Alisov in $1956$ He highlights basic and transitional climatic zones.

There are seven main climatic zones:

• Equatorial belt;
• Two tropical zones;
• Two temperate zones;
• Two polar belts - Arctic and Antarctic.

In these climatic zones, only air masses with the same names dominate throughout the year.

Equatorial climate zone located on both sides of the equator. The territory and water area of ​​the belt receives a large amount of heat throughout the year, and average monthly temperatures are $24$-$28$ degrees. On land, the radiation balance reaches $90$ kcal/cm2. in year. Annual precipitation is up to $3000$ mm per year, and on the windward slopes - up to $10,000$ mm. There is excessive moisture here because the amount of precipitation is much greater than evaporation.

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Tropical climate zones. One tropical zone is located in Northern hemisphere of the planet, the second - in South hemispheres. Tropical zones cross all continents except Antarctica and are well expressed in the oceans between the $20$ and $30$ parallels of both hemispheres. The formation of the tropical climate is influenced by tropical air masses, with their characteristic high atmospheric pressure and anticyclonic circulation. Throughout the year there is very little cloud cover, relative humidity and annual rainfall. The prevailing winds are trade winds. Summer average monthly air temperatures are +$30$-$35$ degrees, winter temperatures are not lower than +$10$ degrees. The daily and annual amplitudes are quite high. Annual precipitation ranges from $50$-$200$ mm. The exception is the eastern outskirts of the continents, and on the islands the windward slopes of the mountains receive up to $2000$ mm or more. For example, about $13,000 mm falls in the Hawaiian Islands. On the western coasts of the continents, the climate will be cooler, which is associated with cold ocean currents. There will be higher air humidity, an even temperature change and frequent fogs.

Temperate climate zones. One temperate zone is located in Northern hemisphere, between $40$ and $65$ parallel, the other - in South between $42$ and $58$ parallel. These are the largest climatic zones in terms of area. One of the differences between these belts is that in the Northern Hemisphere the belt occupies more than half sushi, while in the Southern Hemisphere it is the opposite. There $98\%$ comes from ocean. In temperate zones there is a clear seasonality of climate. It is expressed in the large difference between summer and winter temperatures. Moreover, in the Northern Hemisphere, the annual and daily amplitude is significantly higher than in the Southern Hemisphere. The western transport of air masses of temperate latitudes dominates here, and intense cyclonic activity is observed. Towards the outskirts of the continents, the amount of precipitation increases, and the annual amount is $800$-$2000$mm. On windward oceanic slopes their number increases and reaches $5000$-$8000$ mm.

Polar climate zones(Arctic and Antarctic). In the Northern Hemisphere arctic the belt begins north of the $70$ parallel, and Antarctic south of the $65$ parallel. Both zones are characterized by polar nights and polar days. Perpetual ice and snow emit enormous amounts of solar heat, which causes the air to become very cool. Atmospheric pressure is high all year round and easterly winds prevail. Located in Antarctica pole of cold planets. In summer, the average air temperature is $30$ degrees, and in winter -$70$. At the Russian polar station " East"The temperature drops to -$88.3 degrees. On the Antarctic coast, average monthly summer temperatures range from -$1$ to -$5$ degrees, and winter temperatures from -$18$ to -$20$ degrees. Above the Greenland ice sheet in Arctic climatic conditions are similar, but milder. In the Atlantic regions Arctic and to the pole, the summer temperature is about $0$ degrees, and with warm air invasion it rises to +$5$. Average winter temperatures are around -$20$ degrees. American The Arctic sector is more severe with temperatures of -$50$ degrees in winter and -$10$ degrees in summer. The greatest amount of precipitation occurs in European sector of the Arctic, where $300$-$350$ mm falls, and in Asian and American sector from $160$-$250$ mm.

Transitional climatic zones.

Between the main climatic zones there are zones transition zones. There are $6$ and they are characterized by seasonal changes in the prevailing air masses, i.e. In summer, one air mass dominates there, and in winter, another. The names of all transition zones are appended with the prefix “ sub", which translated from Latin means " under", i.e., a belt located under main.

Transitional belts include:

• Two subequatorial belts;
• Two subtropical zones;
• Subarctic belt;
• Subantarctic belt.

Subequatorial climate zone. These belts are located south and north of the equatorial one. As a result of the shift in climate zones according to the seasons of the year, humid equatorial air comes here in the summer, and dry tropical air comes here in the winter. Summer for subequatorial belts it will be wet, A winter is dry. Despite this, the average annual precipitation is excessive and reaches $1500$ mm per year. On the slopes of the mountains, precipitation falls even more - $6000$-$10000$ mm per year. The difference between summer and winter temperatures is small, but the difference with the equatorial belt is noticeable. Summer temperatures range from $22$-$30$ degrees. In addition to the oceans, the subequatorial belt passes through South America, Central Africa, Hindustan, Indochina, and Northern Australia.

Subtropical climate zones. They are located within $30$-$40$ degrees of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. In the south, the subtropics border on the tropical zone, and in the north on the temperate zone in the Northern Hemisphere. In the Southern Hemisphere, there is a tropical zone to the north of the subtropics, and a temperate zone to the south. Thermal regimes alternate by half of the year - in winter there is a moderate regime, and in summer - tropical. For the subtropics, frosts are already possible. Within the ocean, the belts are characterized by high temperatures and high salinity of water.

Subarctic climate zone. This transitional belt is closest to North Pole Earth. Temperate and arctic air masses replace each other throughout the year. The belt occupies Northern Canada, Alaska, the southern tip of Greenland, northern Iceland and the Scandinavian Peninsula. Within Russia, it passes through the northern part of Western and Central Siberia, as well as the Far East.

Subantarctic climate zone. Located in the Southern Hemisphere, this belt occupies a number of Antarctic islands and the northern tip of the Antarctic Peninsula. The belt is characterized by short summers with temperatures below + $20$ degrees. Cold air masses in winter reduce temperatures to negative values. And it stays below zero for most of the year. The same is typical for the subarctic zone. There is little precipitation and it decreases from $500$-$250$ mm and below.

Climate-forming factors

The formation of the planet's climate is greatly influenced by external and internal factors. Most external factors influence the total amount of incoming solar radiation and its distribution across seasons, hemispheres and continents.

External factors include the parameters of the earth’s orbit and the earth’s axis:

• Distance between the Sun and Earth. It determines the amount of solar energy received;
• The inclination of the rotation of the earth's axis to the orbital plane, which determines seasonal changes;
• Earth's orbital eccentricity. Affects heat distribution and seasonal changes.

Internal factors include:

• Configuration of oceans and continents and their relative positions;
• The presence of active volcanoes that can change the climate until a volcanic winter;
• Albedo of the Earth's atmosphere and its surface;
• Air masses;
• The proximity of oceans and seas that moderate the climate, with the exception of cold currents;
• The nature of the underlying surface;
• Human economic activity;
• Heat flows of the planet.

The air temperature here is constant (+24° -26°C); at sea, temperature fluctuations can be less than 1°. The annual amount of precipitation is up to 3000 mm, and in the mountains of the equatorial belt, precipitation can fall up to 6000 mm. More water falls from the sky than evaporates, so there are many wetlands and dense rain forests - jungles. Remember the adventure films about Indiana Jones - how difficult it is for the main characters to make their way through the dense vegetation of the jungle and escape from crocodiles who adore the muddy waters of small forest rivers. All this is the equatorial belt. Its climate is greatly influenced by the trade winds, which bring heavy rainfall from the ocean.

Northern: Africa (Sahara), Asia (Arabia, southern Iranian Plateau), North America (Mexico, Western Cuba).

Southern: South America (Peru, Bolivia, Northern Chile, Paraguay), Africa (Angola, Kalahari Desert), Australia (central part of the continent).

In the tropics, the state of the atmosphere over the continent (earth) and the ocean is different, therefore a continental tropical climate and an oceanic tropical climate are distinguished.

The oceanic climate is similar to the equatorial climate, but differs from it in less cloudiness and stable winds. Summers over the oceans are warm (+20-27°C), and winters are cool (+10-15°C).

Over the tropical land (mainland tropical climate), a high pressure area prevails, so rain is a rare guest here (from 100 to 250 mm). This type of climate is characterized by very hot summers (up to +40°C) and cool winters (+15°C). The air temperature can change dramatically during the day - up to 40°C! That is, a person can languish from the heat during the day and shiver from the cold at night. Such changes lead to the destruction of rocks, creating a mass of sand and dust, which is why dust storms are frequent here.

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This type of climate, like the tropical one, forms two zones in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, which form over areas of temperate latitudes (from 40-45° North and South latitudes to the Arctic Circles).

There are many cyclones in the temperate zone, causing the weather to become capricious and produce either snow or rain. In addition, westerly winds blow here, which bring precipitation all year round. Summers in this climate zone are warm (up to +25°-28°C), winters are cold (from +4°C to -50°C). Annual precipitation ranges from 1000 mm to 3000 mm, and in the center of the continents it is only up to 100 mm.

In the temperate climate zone, unlike the equatorial and tropical ones, the seasons are clearly defined (that is, you can build snowmen in winter and swim in a river in summer).

Temperate climate is also divided into two subtypes - marine and continental.

Marine dominates the western parts of North America, South America and Eurasia. It is formed by westerly winds blowing from the ocean to the mainland, so it has fairly cool summers (+15 -20°C) and warm winters (from +5°C). Precipitation brought by westerly winds falls all year round (from 500 to 1000 mm, in the mountains up to 6000 mm).

Continental predominates in the central regions of the continents. Cyclones penetrate here less frequently, so there are warmer and drier summers (up to +26°C) and colder winters (up to -24°C), and the snow lasts a very long time and melts reluctantly.

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Polar belt

It dominates the territory above 65°-70° latitude in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, therefore it forms two zones: Arctic and Antarctic. The Polar Belt has a unique feature - the Sun does not appear here at all for several months (polar night) and does not go below the horizon for several months (polar day). Snow and ice reflect more heat than they receive, so the air is very cool and the snow does not melt for most of the year. Since a high pressure area is forming here, there are almost no clouds, the winds are weak, and the air is saturated with small ice needles. The average summer temperature does not exceed 0°C, and in winter it ranges from -20° to -40°C. Rain falls only in the summer in the form of tiny droplets - drizzle.

Between the main climatic zones there are transitional zones, which have the prefix “sub” in their names (translated from Latin as “under”). Here, air masses change seasonally, coming from neighboring belts under the influence of the Earth's rotation.

a) Subequatorial climate. In summer, all climatic zones shift to the north, so equatorial air masses begin to dominate here. They shape the weather: a lot of precipitation (1000-3000 mm), average air temperature +30°C. Even in the spring the sun reaches its zenith and burns mercilessly. In winter, all climatic zones shift to the south, and tropical air masses begin to dominate in the subequatorial zone; winter is cooler than summer (+14°C). There is little precipitation. Soils dry out after summer rains, so in the subequatorial zone, unlike the equatorial zone, there are few swamps. The territory of this climatic zone is favorable for human life, which is why many centers of civilization are located here.

The subequatorial climate forms two zones. The northern ones include: the Isthmus of Panama (Latin America), Venezuela, Guinea, the Sahel desert belt in Africa, India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, all of Indochina, Southern China, part of Asia. The southern zone includes: the Amazonian lowland, Brazil (South America), central and eastern Africa and the northern coast of Australia.

b) Subtropical climate. Here tropical air masses predominate in summer, and in winter - air masses of temperate latitudes, which determines the weather: hot, dry summers (from +30°C to +50°C) and relatively cold winters with precipitation, and no stable snow cover is formed.

c) Subpolar climate. This climate zone is located only on the northern edges of Eurasia and North America. In summer, humid air masses come here from temperate latitudes, so summers here are cool (from +5°C to +10°C). Despite the small amount of precipitation, evaporation is low, since the angle of incidence of the sun's rays is small and the earth does not warm up well. Therefore, in the subpolar climate in northern Eurasia and North America there are many lakes and swamps. In winter, cold arctic air masses come here, so winters are long and cold, temperatures can drop to -50°C.

On Earth, it determines the nature of many features of nature. Climatic conditions also greatly influence people’s lives, economic activities, their health and even their biological characteristics. At the same time, the climates of individual territories do not exist in isolation. They are parts of a single atmospheric process for the entire planet.

Climate classification

Earth's climates, which have similar features, are combined into certain types, which replace each other in the direction from the equator to the poles. In each hemisphere there are 7 climatic zones, of which 4 are main and 3 are transitional. This division is based on the distribution of air masses around the globe with different properties and characteristics of air movement in them.

In the main belts, one air mass is formed throughout the year. In the equatorial zone - equatorial, in the tropical - tropical, in the temperate - air of temperate latitudes, in the Arctic (Antarctic) - arctic (Antarctic). The transitional zones located between the main ones are alternately entered in different seasons of the year from the adjacent main belts. Here, conditions change seasonally: in summer they are the same as in the neighboring warmer zone, in winter they are the same as in the neighboring colder zone. Along with the change in air masses in the transition zones, the weather also changes. For example, in the subequatorial zone, hot and rainy weather prevails in summer, and cooler and drier weather in winter.

The climate within the belts is heterogeneous. Therefore, the belts are divided into climatic regions. Above the oceans, where sea air masses are formed, there are areas of oceanic climates, and above the continents - continental climates. In many climatic zones on the western and eastern coasts of the continents, special types of climate are formed, differing from both continental and oceanic. The reason for this is the interaction of marine and continental air masses, as well as the presence of ocean currents.

Hot ones include and. These areas constantly receive a significant amount of heat due to the high angle of incidence of the sun's rays.

In the equatorial belt, the equatorial air mass dominates throughout the year. The heated air constantly rises in conditions, which leads to the formation of rain clouds. There is heavy rainfall here every day, often with . The amount of precipitation is 1000-3000 mm per year. This is more than the amount of moisture that can evaporate. The equatorial zone has one season of the year: always hot and humid.

In tropical zones, a tropical air mass dominates throughout the year. In it, air descends from the upper layers of the troposphere to the earth's surface. As it descends, it heats up, and even over the oceans no clouds form. Clear weather prevails, in which the sun's rays strongly heat the surface. Therefore, on land the average in summer is higher than in the equatorial zone (up to +35 ° WITH). Winter temperatures are lower than summer temperatures due to a decrease in the angle of incidence of sunlight. Due to the lack of clouds, there is very little rainfall throughout the year, so tropical deserts are common on land. These are the hottest areas of the Earth, where temperature records are recorded. The exception is the eastern shores of the continents, which are washed by warm currents and are influenced by trade winds blowing from the oceans. Therefore, there is a lot of rainfall here.

The territory of subequatorial (transitional) belts is occupied by a humid equatorial air mass in summer, and dry tropical air in winter. Therefore, there are hot and rainy summers and dry and also hot - due to the high position of the Sun - winter.

Temperate climate zones

They occupy about 1/4 of the Earth's surface. They have sharper seasonal differences in temperature and precipitation than hot zones. This is due to a significant decrease in the angle of incidence of sunlight and increased complexity of circulation. They contain air of temperate latitudes all year round, but there are frequent intrusions of arctic and tropical air.

The Southern Hemisphere is dominated by an oceanic temperate climate with cool summers (from +12 to +14 °C), mild winters (from +4 to +6 °C) and heavy precipitation (about 1000 mm per year). In the Northern Hemisphere, large areas are occupied by continental temperate and. Its main feature is pronounced temperature changes across the seasons.

The western shores of the continents receive moist air from the oceans all year round, brought from the western temperate latitudes; there is a lot of precipitation here (1000 mm per year). Summers are cool (up to + 16 °C) and humid, and winters are wet and warm (from 0 to +5 °C). Moving from west to east into the interior of the continents, the climate becomes more continental: the amount of precipitation decreases, summer temperatures increase, and winter temperatures decrease.

A monsoon climate is formed on the eastern shores of the continents: summer monsoons bring heavy precipitation from the oceans, and winter monsoons, blowing from the continents to the oceans, are associated with frosty and drier weather.

The subtropical transition zones receive air from temperate latitudes in winter, and tropical air in summer. The continental subtropical climate is characterized by hot (up to +30 °C) dry summers and cool (0 to +5 °C) and somewhat wetter winters. There is less precipitation per year than can evaporate, so deserts and deserts predominate. There is a lot of precipitation on the coasts of the continents, and on the western shores it is rainy in winter due to westerly winds from the oceans, and on the eastern shores it is rainy in summer due to the monsoons.

Cold climate zones

During the polar day, the earth's surface receives little solar heat, and during the polar night it does not heat up at all. Therefore, the Arctic and Antarctic air masses are very cold and contain little. The Antarctic continental climate is the most severe: exceptionally frosty winters and cold summers with sub-zero temperatures. Therefore, it is covered by a powerful glacier. In the Northern Hemisphere, the climate is similar, and above it is Arctic. It is warmer than Antarctic waters, since ocean waters, even covered with ice, provide additional heat.

In the subarctic and subantarctic zones, the Arctic (Antarctic) air mass dominates in winter, and air of temperate latitudes in summer. Summers are cool, short and humid, winters are long, harsh and with little snow.