Propositional logic: theory and application. Examples of problem solutions. Statement (logic) A statement in which two or more
We compose letters into words, words into sentences, and sentences into texts. In this article we will look at what it is sentence and text.
Modern Russian writing is called letter-sound. This name was given to it because we convey our oral speech in writing using letters.
In the past there was a picture or drawing letter. People from different countries now use this type of writing on road signs and in various signs. (According to A. Moiseev)
During communication, we exchange thoughts, ask each other questions, and answer them. To do this, we use constructions built from words. Such constructions are called sentences.
Offer – this is one or more words related in meaning and grammatically (using prepositions and conjunctions and changing the forms of words).
Sentences express thoughts and feelings; they are characterized by intonation completeness.
Text– these are two or more sentences related in meaning.
What are the offers?
According to the purpose of utterance, sentences can be narrative, interrogative and incentive.
Narrative - these are sentences that contain a message about some event, or phenomenon, or other fact of reality.
Interrogative They call sentences that have the goal of inducing the interlocutor to express a thought that interests the one who utters this sentence. That is, the purpose of such a proposal is educational. Helpers are often used in interrogative sentences, such as: why, why, what, why and so on.
Target incentive sentences are an incentive to action; they express the will of the speaker.
Emotionally charged sentences that are conveyed with an exclamation are called exclamation marks .
Any sentence according to the purpose of the statement can be exclamatory: narrative, motivating and even interrogative:
Dad has come!
Let's be friends!
How many of you are there?!
In colloquial speech, words - sentences Yes - are used to deny or affirm. No.
Often the particle not is used for negation.
Example: You do not know?
Particles not with verbs are written separately.This is a spelling .
Punctuation marks
Each sentence has its own punctuation marks at the end.
A period (.) is placed at the end of a declarative sentence:
The swift flew to us in late spring.
At the end of an interrogative sentence there is a question mark (?):
Why is it dark at night?
An exclamation mark (!) is placed at the end of an exclamation sentence:
Happy Birthday!
So, let's summarize the types of offers in the table:
|
types of offers |
punctuation marks at the end of a sentence |
|
|
according to the purpose of the statement |
by emotional load |
|
|
Narrative |
Non-exclamation Exclamation marks |
Dot (.) Exclamation mark (!) |
|
Incentives |
Non-exclamation Exclamation marks |
Dot (.) Exclamation mark (!) |
|
Interrogative |
Non-exclamation Exclamation marks |
Question mark (?) Question and exclamation marks (?!) |
How are the words in a sentence related to each other?
They are connected in meaning and grammatically.
Two or more words related to each other in meaning are called phrase .
Read more about the phrase.
As stated earlier, words formtext. Each text has its own theme. Subject - this is what the text says.
There are texts narrative, descriptive and texts - reasoning.
What happened is described in narrative texts. To such texts one can ask the question - what happened?
Texts that describe events, people, animals and various objects are called descriptive . You can ask questions about such texts Which? which? which? and so on.
The causes of phenomena and events are discussed in the texts - reasoning . These texts answer the question why?
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Text- is a statement in which there are two or more propositions. Offers in the text are united by a common theme and are connected within the meaning of. The text has its own theme and main idea. The text can be titled. Types of texts
Narration– tells, reports about something (what? where? how? when did it happen?)
Description– describes the appearance of a person, an animal, a picture of nature, an event (which one? which one? which one? which ones?).
Reasoning– explains, proves something; talks about the causes of phenomena and events (why?).
Offer is a word or several words that express a complete thought.
Autumn. Early morning. A fresh breeze is blowing. Cobwebs are flying in the air.
The words in a sentence are related in meaning.
Sentences in which something is reported (narrated) are narrative offers. At the end of declarative sentences there is a period or an exclamation point.
Sentences that contain a question are interrogative offers. At the end of an interrogative sentence there is a question mark.
Sentences that encourage action (ask, order, advise) are incentive sentences. At the end of incentive sentences there is a period or an exclamation mark.
Sentences that express any strong feelings(delight, joy, resentment, sadness, surprise, fear) - this exclamation marks offers.
Exclamatory sentences are pronounced with exclamatory intonation.
At the end of an exclamation sentence is placed exclamatory sign (!).
Sentences that are pronounced without exclamation intonation are non-exclamatory offers.
Types of offers
According to the purpose of the statement– narrative, interrogative, motivating.
By intonation– non-exclamatory and exclamatory.
Appeal- this is a word or combination of words that names the person (person or object) to whom the speech is addressed. Most often, the address is separated from other words by a comma.
What, Ivanushka, not happy?
Why did you hang your head?
Tell me, good young man,
You are some kind of tribe,
What name do you go by?
M. Lermontov
Goodbye sea, I won't forget
Your solemn beauty.
A. Pushkin
Members of the sentence
Main members of the proposal:
Subject– denotes who or what the sentence is talking about, answers the questions who? or what?
Predicate– indicates what is being said about the subject, answers the questions what does it do? what did you do? What did you do? what will it do? what will he do? and etc.
Subject and predicate make up basis offers.
Secondary members of the sentence– explain the main and other members of the sentence, answer the questions of whom? what? to whom?h? by whom? how? about whom? about what? Which? which? Where? Where? How? where? When? and etc.
Simple offer- this is a sentence in which there is only one grammatical the basis. Basic sentence may consist of:
or from two main members (subject and predicate):
or from only one main member (only subject or only predicate)
Difficult sentence - is a sentence that consists of a few simple proposals. It may contain two And more grammatical basics Simple sentences that are part of a complex sentence are separated comma.
Bor pine in a lonely land costs,
In him Creek between the trees runs .
A. Tolstoy
Words and, a, but- these are unions. A comma is always placed before a conjunction in a complex sentence.
The phrase consists of main And dependent words The connection between words in a phrase is established using questions. The question is posed from the main word to the dependent:
Wheat (what?) thick,
Ripened (where?) in the field.
An x sign is placed above the main word in a phrase, and the connection between the main word and the dependent word is indicated by the sign 
The subject and predicate do not form a phrase. This is an uncommon proposal.
Lexical meaning of the word
What stands for the word is his lexical meaning. The lexical meaning of a word can be determined using an explanatory dictionary.
Synonyms- these are words that sound and are written differently, but the meaning is the same or very close: blizzard, blizzard, blizzard, blizzard.
Antonyms- these are words with opposite meanings: brave - cowardly, tiny - huge.
There are words in a language that are pronounced and written the same, but have completely different lexical meanings. Such words are called homonyms. For example, one word onion means "garden plant", another word onion has the meaning of “an ancient weapon for throwing arrows.”
Collocation- this is a “complex name”, which, more accurately than a word, can name:
item: table - desk;
action: shines - shines brightly;
sign: brave - very brave.
Stable combinations of words are called phraseological units. You cannot replace or omit any word in them, otherwise the meaning will change: before dawn, I bit my tongue.
When we explain the meaning of stable combinations, we mean the meaning of the entire expression as a whole, and not individual words:
neither light nor dawn means “early, before dawn”;
bit my tongue means "silenced".
Prepositions cannot be used independently (for example, without a noun). They are not members of the sentence.
Number words are numerals.
Numeral is a part of speech. Numerals indicate the number of objects or their order when counting. You can ask them questions:
How many? Seven, eight, ten;
which? First second.
Cognates- these are words that have the same root with the same meaning.
Berez A - berz ka, walnut new
Yellow y – yellow yeah, yellow from the inside, yellow OK.
the same.
Vowel sounds[a], [o], [y], [e], [s], [i]
are indicated by letters a, o, y, e, s, i, e, e, yu, i.
Vowel
consists of voice
when pronouncing a vowel sound, air passes through the mouth freely, without obstacles (from the lips, teeth, tongue)
forms the syllable: u|rók
Consonant
consists of voice and noise or only noise
when pronouncing a consonant sound, the air encounters a barrier in the mouth (from the lips, teeth, tongue)
together with a vowel sound it forms a syllable:
There are consonant sounds doubles And unpaired according to deafness-voicing and hardness-softness.
voiced: [b], [c], [g], [d], [g], [z], [l], [m], [n], [r]
voiceless: [p], [f], [k], [t], [sh], [s], [x], [ts]
voiced: [b'], [v'], [g'], [d'], [z'], [l'], [m'], [n'], [p'], [th' ]
voiceless: [p’], [f’], [k’], [t]’, [s’], [x’], [ch’], [sch’]
Letters: b, c, d, d, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, f, x, c, h, w, sch
Softness consonant sound in writing is indicated by letters e, e, yu, i, and, and also the letter b(soft sign), hardness– in letters a, o, y, e, s.
Separating soft sign (b) written at the root of the word after the letters denoting consonants, before the letters e, e, yu, Me and.
In this case, the sound is [th’] followed by a vowel sound.
[y'e] [y'o] [y'a] [y'u] [y'i]
Athel b e, rouge b yo, sam b I'm in b south, creek b And.
Root of the word– this is the main significant part of the word. It is fundamentally contained general lexical meaning all cognate words.
To find the root, you need to select words with the same root and highlight the common part in them: birch trees A - birch trees nope, birch trees onka, birch trees new, under birch trees ovik.
The root in words with the same root is usually written the same.
Dove, blue OK, blue other.
Class, class ny, out Class ny.
Osin A, aspen s, aspen e, aspen at- these are forms of the same word aspen. Distinguish them from words with the same root: aspen - aspen forest, aspen.
Ending - this is a changeable significant part of a word, which forms the form of a word and serves to connect words in phrases and sentences.
When? Which?
In October the winds blew and were angry.
To find the ending in a word, it is necessary change shape words:
In some words, the ending may not be expressed by sounds (letters). This ending is called zero.
Console– this is a significant part of the word that comes before the root and serves to form words:
walk - re walk, under walk;
Kind - pre Kind, behind shave.
| before- | o- / ob- | on the- | pre- | You- |
| By- | from- | above- | re- | V- |
| pro- | under- | behind- | at- | y- |
| With- |
To find the console in a word, you need to choose a single-root word without a prefix or with another prefix. The part of the word that comes before the root will be the prefix.
Under fry (fry, re fry).
Suffix- this is a significant part of a word that comes after the root and serves to form words.
Forest - forest OK, forest n oh, forest Nick, forest ist y.
To find a suffix in a word, you need to select the same root words without a suffix or with other suffixes. The part of the word that comes after the root before the ending will be the suffix.
Herbs To a (grass, grass inc. ah, herbs ear A).
The part of a word without ending is called basis words. The basis of a word is its lexical meaning.
To find the stem of the word, you need to separate the ending.
Room s color s glaze ut warm Ouch water Ouch.
The letter denoting an unstressed vowel sound can be in any significant part of the word:
in prefix: pr And walked;
at the root: d A to rip;
in suffix: small e nky;
at the end: from strawberries And.
in the prefix: With do;
at the root: four G;
in suffix: pirozho To;
at the end: no sound V.
in significant parts of words
| Unstressed vowel sound or paired according to deafness-voicing consonant sound is |
|
| IN console or suffix | V root |
| Remember how this prefix or suffix is written: WITH do, small e nky, birch O Nya, p e R e write, behold I t. Check spelling in dictionary: vaz O chka, ra With say. Most prefixes and suffixes are written the same. | Choose a test word: (h And styy, h And hundred) h And hundred; (gru h it) gr h, gru h chick Check spelling in dictionary: sev e R, O troubles, in OK hall. The root in words with the same root is usually written the same. |
To find a test word for a letter to denote an unstressed vowel sound in the root, you need to:
a) or change the word: dvO ry - yard, pche la – bees;
b) or choose a word with the same root so that the unstressed vowel sound becomes percussion: dvO ry - yard, pche la – bees.
Stressed and unstressed vowel sounds in the forms of the same word and in the roots of words with the same root are denoted by the same letter.
To find a test word for a letter paired in deafness - voicedness consonant sound at the end of a word or before a consonant at the root, it is necessary change word or pick up a cognate word so that the paired consonant sound stands before the vowel sound or sounds [l], [m], [n], [r], [v]:
take G– take GA Morco V ka – morko Vn th
surgeon G– surgeon GAnd dream and ki - sne andn th
When three or four solas occur in a word at once, one of them may not to be pronounced. So, the sounds are not pronounced:
[l]- in a word Sun;
[T] - in words stairs, surroundings;
[d]- in words heart, holiday;
[f]- in words feeling, hello.
However, these sounds are indicated by a letter.
The letter representing an unpronounceable consonant sound is spelling.
To correctly designate with a letter unpronounceable consonant at the root of the word, you need to choose a cognate word in which this consonant is pronounced clearly:
(months T o) month T ness, (opos d at) pos d ny.
A doubled consonant in a word is spelling. Writing words with double consonants is fundamentally necessary check in the dictionary.
Double consonants occur:
at the root of words of foreign origin: pe pp He;
at the junction of prefix and root: at dd erzhka;
at the junction of root and suffix: mali nn ik.
Spelling of suffixes - IK / - EK
In the suffix - IR saved:
In the suffix - ek when changing the form of a word, a vowel letter disappears:
Spelling of the suffix –OK
After sibilants under stress in the suffix - OK letter is written O: pyro and ok, I wish h ok, boron sch ok, pu w OK.
SCH -OKSh
Crewe hO To
Writing prefixes does not depend from pronunciation.
Spelling of prefixes and prepositions
Console– this is the significant part of the word, written together: By ran. You cannot insert a word between a prefix and a root.
Pretext is an independent part of speech, written apart with other words.
You can insert another word or question between the preposition and the next word.
Walked By path - walked By forest path; came in behind comrade - came (for whom?) behind comrade.
Prepositions never not used with verbs: run By path, close behind a door.
The separating solid character is written only after consoles, which end with a consonant sound, before letters e, e, yu, I:
WITH ъe bldg, under ъe m, before ъ anniversary, about ъI dream
The separating character in a word is spelling scale:
once ъ cleared up e hal, oh ъ phenomenon.
Dividing hard and soft signs indicate, that the letter following them (e, e, yu, i) denotes two sounds: the sound [й́’] and the subsequent vowel sound.
Bel b e – white b[ yo], under ъ eat - under ъ[ y'ó]m.
When moving a word from one line to another letter ъ(hard sign) cannot be separated from the letter in front of it:
pod - drive, about - go.
Types of statements
Logical statements are usually divided into two types: elementary logical statements and compound logical statements.
Compound logical statement is a statement formed from other statements using logical connectives.
Logical connective is any logical operation on a statement. For example, words and phrases used in ordinary speech “not”, “and”, “or”, “if... then”, “then and only then” are logical connectives.
Elementary logical statements- these are statements that are not related to compounds.
Examples: “Petrov is a doctor”, “Petrov is a chess player” - elementary logical statements. “Petrov is a doctor and a chess player” is a compound logical statement consisting of two elementary statements connected to each other using the connective “and”.
Connection with mathematical logic
Ordinary logic is two-valued, that is, it assigns only two possible meanings to statements: true or false.
Let it be a statement. If it is true, then write , if false, then .
Basic operations on logical statements
Negation logical statement - a logical statement that takes the value “true” if the original statement is false, and vice versa.
Conjunction two logical statements - a logical statement that is true only if they are simultaneously true.
Disjunction two logical statements - a logical statement that is true only if at least one of them is true.
Implication two logical statements A and B - a logical statement that is false only if B is false and A is true.
Equivalence(equivalence of) two logical statements - a logical statement that is true only if they are both true or false.
Quantifier universality() is a logical statement that is true only if for each object x from a given population the statement A(x) is true.
Quantifier logical statement with quantifier existence() is a logical statement that is true only if in a given set there is an object x such that the statement A(x) is true.
see also
- Statement
Notes
Literature
- Karpenko, A. S. Modern research in philosophical logic // Logical Research. Vol. 10. - M.: Nauka, 2003. ISBN 5-02-006257-X - P. 61-93.
- Kripke, S. A. Wittgenstein on rules and individual language / Trans. V. A. Ladova, V. A. Surovtseva. Under general ed. V. A. Surovtseva. - Tomsk: Publishing house Tom. University, 2005. - 152 p. - (Library of Analytical Philosophy). ISBN 5-7511-1906-1
- Kurbatov, V. I. Logics. Systematic course. - Rostov n/d: Phoenix, 2001. - 512 p. ISBN 5-222-01850-4
- Schumann, A. N. Modern logic: theory and practice. - Minsk: Econompress, 2004. - 416 p. ISBN 985-6479-35-5
- Makarova, N.V. Computer Science and ICT. - St. Petersburg: Peter Press, 2007 ISBN 978-5-91180-198-4 - P. 343-345.
- Kondakov N. I. Logical dictionary / Gorsky D. P. - M.: Nauka, 1971. - 656 p.
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5. Read it.
No other country in the world has so many birch trees, like we have. The birch tree is dear to the Russian people. It is in songs, and in riddles, and in fairy tales. And how many rivers and villages are named after our green beauty! Loves our people birch tree both for its beauty and for benefit which she brings.
- Prove that the sentences make up the text. What does it say? Determine the topic of the text.
- Write it off. Underline the studied spellings in the highlighted words.
6. Read it.
- Write it off. Test yourself.
Take care of Russia -
There is no other Russia.
Take care of her peace and quiet,
This is the sky and the sun
This bread is on the table
And the dear window
In a forgotten village...
(E. Sinitsyn)
Remember! A text is a statement in which two or more sentences are related in meaning and united by a common theme. The text has a theme and main idea. The text can be titled.
7. Read it.
Father and sons
The father ordered his sons to live in harmony. The sons did not listen.
So the father ordered to bring a broom and said: “Break it!” No matter how much the sons fought, they could not break it. Then the father untied the broom and ordered them to break one rod at a time. They easily broke the bars one by one.
The father says: “If you live in harmony, no one will defeat you. If you quarrel and keep everything apart, everyone will easily destroy you.”
(L. Tolstoy)
- Determine the topic and main idea of the text.
- What does the title reflect: the topic or the main idea of the text?
- Why are three parts highlighted in the text? What is said in the introductory, main and final parts of the text?
- Make a plan for the text. To do this, come up with a title for each part of the text. Write down the plan.
- Orally convey the content of each part.
Page for the curious
About the word "vacation"
In ancient times, the brightest and most important star in the constellation Canis Major - Sirius - was called vacation. Every year she appeared in the sky at the height of summer, on July 26 according to our calendar. In June, the hot season began, when schoolchildren were given a break. In honor of the star, these days were called vacation days. At first, only summer vacations were called vacations, then the word vacation began to refer to any break in study.
(G. Yurmin)
8 . Read it.
First watch
Sasha spent his holidays on a large ship. The cruiser was commanded by Vasily Vasilyevich. He adopted the orphan Sasha and sent him to the Nakhimov school.
The sailors loved the little sailor. They doted on him. Sasha did not mess around on the ship. He handed flags to the signalmen, helped wash the deck and peel potatoes.
The sailors began to think about how best to reward Sasha for his diligent service. He was allowed to stand the first watch of his life on the ship.
The Nakhimov man froze on his watch. He wants to be strict, but he can’t. The eyes give it away - they shine with joy.
And how can one not be happy when Sasha is entrusted with an important task - protecting the ship’s flag. Not everyone has such happiness!
(E. Permyak)
- Determine the topic and main idea of the text.
- Write out words that are difficult to spell from each part of the text.
- Prepare to write a presentation of this text according to your own plan. Use Memo 2 “How to prepare for presentation.”
To A Nikuli
Text
Text.
What types of texts are there?
Types of texts
Let's test ourselves!
Text is a statement containing two or more sentences.
Text
The sentences in the text are united by a common theme and are connected in meaning.
The text has its own theme and main idea. The text can be titled.
To main
Types of texts
It is told or reported about something.
Narration
I got dressed and went out into the garden. A sharp wind washed my face with cold water, and the dream immediately passed.
TO. Paustovsky
What? Where? How? When did it happen?
Types of texts
The appearance of a person, an animal, a picture of nature, an event are described.
Description
It's a gray, tearful morning outside. Raindrops drum on the windows. The wind cries in the chimneys and howls like a dog that has lost its owner.
A. P. Chekhov
Which? Which? Which? Which?
Types of texts
Something is explained or proven; talks about the causes of phenomena and events.
Reasoning
Parents, when giving a name to their child, always wished him well and happiness. A name is the most beloved and pleasant word for a person. More than once you have felt joy and tenderness in your soul when you were called affectionately by name. Do you agree?
incentive
What types of texts are there?
Exclamation, non-exclamation
interrogative
Narration, reasoning, description
Determine the speech type of the text
Reasoning
Snowdrop. First spring flower. Clean, fresh, smelling of spring, he appeared in a thawed patch among the snow soaked in moisture. His porcelain cup glowed with dazzling whiteness. He seemed fragile and defenseless. But how much life, courage, bravery there is in him. He was not afraid, he was the first to crawl out of the frozen ground. A real hero.
Description
Narration
What is said in the topic
What is the topic of the text?
Things to remember
Something you can argue about
Wrong
The text consists of sentences related to each other by one topic. Is this statement true?
Right
It doesn't always happen like this
There must be a big story
The river is far from home
Determine which sentence will be superfluous if you write a story?
Early in the morning we decided to go to the dacha.
We spent the whole day doing housework.
We got from the station to the dacha very quickly.
Determine the speech type of the text
Description
Why do sparrows choose the most illuminated places to roost at night? Here's why. By winter, eagle owls and owls move from forests to the outskirts of cities and attack birds. On bare trees in the dark they easily find prey. This forces birds to hide from predators in the city center in winter. Predators won't come here. The bright light blinds them.
Reasoning
Narration
Oral and printed
Is speech spoken, printed and written?
Printed and written
Oral and written
What should be the order of sentences to make a text?
5, 3, 1, 2, 4
- The snow will cover the seeds and leave the birds without food.
- The guys hung a feeder with seeds near the window.
- We need to prepare bird food for the long winter.
- Birds chirp merrily at the feeder.
- Winter is coming soon.
5, 1, 3, 2, 4
1, 5, 2, 3, 4
several sentences in the text
What is a paragraph?
sentences written on the red line
several semantic parts of the text;
first line indented
The title indicates what is said in the first sentence.
What does the title of the text indicate?
The title has nothing to do with the text. It doesn't indicate anything
The title indicates what the text will be about.
The title indicates what is said at the end of the text.
Read the text. How many sentences does it have?
The streams are ringing, the trees are swollen, the boys have seen the first starlings, the boys have seen the first starlings, slender schools of geese have reached from the south, high in the sky, a caravan of cranes has appeared, running along the paths, busy ants have run out to the edge of the forest, a white hare is sitting on a stump, looking around, a large elk with a beard and antlers has come out, a joyful feeling fills soul.
exit
http:// img-fotki.yandex.ru/get/4800/200418627.3/0_106174_24f61044_orig.png book
Information sources
http:// detcad6alenyshka.caduk.ru/images/83e6d734402b.png boy
https:// img-fotki.yandex.ru/get/4115/200418627.d1/0_14a514_b9161d24_orig.png student