Temperate monsoon forests. Natural zone: variably moist forests of Africa and Australia, characteristics, animals, plants, climate, soils Variably moist monsoon forests soil

The continent of South America is located in all geographical zones, with the exception of the sub-Antarctic and Antarctic. The wide northern part of the continent lies at low latitudes, so the equatorial and subequatorial belts are most widespread. A distinctive feature of the continent is the widespread development of forest natural areas (47% of the area). 1/4 of the planet’s forests are concentrated on the “green continent”(Fig. 91, 92).

South America gave humanity many cultivated plants: potatoes, tomatoes, beans, tobacco, pineapple, hevea, cocoa, peanuts, etc.

Natural areas

In the equatorial geographical zone there is a zone equatorial rain forests , occupying Western Amazonia. They are named by A. Humboldt hylea, and by the local population - the village. The equatorial rainforests of South America are the richest forests on Earth in terms of species composition. They are rightfully considered the “gene pool of the planet”: they contain more than 45 thousand plant species, including 4000 woody ones.

Rice. 91. Endemic animals of South America: 1- giant anteater; 2- hoatzin; 3 - lama; 4 - sloth; 5 - capybaras; 6 - battleship

Rice. 92. Typical trees of South America: 1 - Chilean araucaria; 2 - wine palm; 3 - chocolate tree (cocoa)

There are flooded, non-flooded and mountain hylia. In river floodplains, flooded with water for a long period, impoverished forests of low trees (10-15 m) with breathing and stilt roots grow. Cecropia (“ant tree”) predominates; giant Victoria regia swim in the reservoirs.

In elevated areas, rich, dense, multi-tiered (up to 5 tiers) flood-free forests are formed. The solitary ceiba (cotton tree) and the Brazil nut-bearing bertolecia grow to a height of 40-50 m. The upper tiers (20-30 m) are formed by trees with valuable wood (rosewood, pau brazil, mahogany), as well as ficus and hevea, from the milky juice of which rubber is obtained. In the lower tiers, under the canopy of palm trees, chocolate and melon trees grow, as well as the oldest plants on Earth - tree ferns. The trees are densely intertwined with lianas; among the epiphytes there are many brightly colored orchids.

Mangrove vegetation, poor in composition (nipa palm, rhizophora), is developed near the coast. Mangroves- these are thickets of evergreen trees and shrubs of the swampy zone of tidal seas of tropical and equatorial latitudes, adapted to salt water.

Moist equatorial forests form on red-yellow ferrallitic soils, poor in nutrients. Falling leaves in hot and humid climates quickly rot, and the humus is immediately absorbed by plants, without having time to accumulate in the soil.

Hylaea animals are adapted to life in trees. Many have a prehensile tail, such as the sloth, opossum, prehensile-tailed porcupine, and broad-nosed monkeys (howler monkeys, arachnids, marmosets). The ponds are home to peccary pigs and tapirs. There are predators: jaguar, ocelot. There are numerous turtles and snakes, including the longest one - the anaconda (up to 11 m). South America is the “continent of birds”. Hylea is home to macaws, toucans, hoatzins, tree hens and the smallest birds - hummingbirds (up to 2 g).

The rivers are teeming with caimans and alligators. They are home to 2,000 species of fish, including the dangerous predatory piranha and the largest in the world, the arapaima (up to 5 m in length and weighing up to 250 kg). The electric eel and the freshwater inia dolphin are also found.

Zones stretch across three geographical zones variable-humid forests . Subequatorial variable-humid forests occupy the eastern part of the Amazonian lowland and the adjacent slopes of the Brazilian and Guiana plateaus. The presence of a dry period causes the appearance of deciduous trees. Among the evergreens, cinchona, ficus, and balsa, which have the lightest wood, predominate. In tropical latitudes, on the moist eastern edge of the Brazilian Plateau, rich evergreen tropical forests, similar in composition to equatorial ones, grow on mountain red soils. The southeast of the plateau on red soils and yellow soils is occupied by sparse subtropical moist forests. They are formed by Brazilian araucaria with an undergrowth of yerba mate (“Paraguayan tea”) shrubs.

Zone savannas and woodlands distributed in two geographical zones. In subequatorial latitudes it covers the Orinoco Lowland and the interior regions of the Brazilian Plateau, and in tropical latitudes it covers the Gran Chaco plain. Depending on the moisture content, wet, typical and desert savannas are distinguished. Under them, red, brown-red and red-brown soils develop, respectively.

The tall grass wet savanna of the Orinoco River basin is traditionally called Llanos. It is flooded for up to six months, turning into an impassable swamp. Grains and sedges grow; Of the trees, the Mauritius palm dominates, which is why the llanos is called the “palm savanna.”

On the Brazilian plateau, savannas were called campos. Wet shrub-tree savanna occupies the center of the plateau, while typical grassy savanna occupies the south. Low-growing shrubs grow against the background of cereal vegetation (bearded grass, feather grass). The trees are dominated by palms (wax palms, oil palms, vine palms). The arid northeast of the Brazilian Plateau is occupied by desert savanna - caatinga. This is a woodland of thorny bushes and cacti. There is a bottle-shaped tree that stores rainwater - the Bombax cottonweed.

Savannas continue into tropical latitudes, occupying the Gran Chaco plain. Only in tropical woodlands is the quebracho ("break the axe") tree found, with hard and heavy wood that sinks in water. The savannas contain plantations of coffee, cotton, and bananas. Dry savannas are an important area for grazing.

Savannah animals are characterized by a protective brown coloration (spice-horned deer, red nose, maned wolf, rhea ostrich). Rodents are abundantly represented, including the largest in the world, the capybara. Many Hylaea animals (armadillos, anteaters) also live in savannas. Termite mounds are ubiquitous.

In the Laplata Lowland south of 30° S. w. are being formed subtropical steppes . In South America they were called pump. It is characterized by rich forb-grass vegetation (wild lupine, pampas grass, feather grass). The chernozem soils of the pampa are very fertile and therefore heavily plowed. The Argentine pampa is the main growing area for wheat and forage grasses in South America. The fauna of the pampa is rich in rodents (tuco-tuco, viscacha). There are Pampas deer, Pampas cat, puma, and rhea ostrich.

Semi-deserts and deserts South America extends across three geographical zones: tropical, subtropical and temperate. In the west of the tropics, tropical deserts and semi-deserts stretch in a narrow strip along the Pacific coast and on the high plateaus of the Central Andes. This is one of the driest areas on Earth: in the Atacama Desert it may not rain for years. On the infertile gray soils of coastal deserts, dry cereals and cacti grow, receiving moisture from dew and fog; on the gravelly soils of high-mountain deserts there are creeping and cushion-shaped grasses and thorny shrubs.

The fauna of tropical deserts is poor. The inhabitants of the highlands are llamas, spectacled bears, and chinchillas with valuable fur. There is the Andean condor - the largest bird in the world with a wingspan of up to 4 m.

To the west of the pampa, subtropical semi-deserts and deserts are common in a continental climate. Light forests of acacias and cacti are developed on gray soils, and solyankas are found on salt marshes. In the harsh temperate latitudes of lowland Patagonia, dry cereals and thorny shrubs grow on brown semi-desert soils.

The southwestern edge of the continent in two zones is occupied by forest natural zones. In the subtropics, under Mediterranean climate conditions, a zone is formed dry hard-leaved forests and shrubs . The coast and slopes of the Chilean-Argentine Andes (between 28° and 36° S) are covered with forests of evergreen southern beech, teak, persea on brown and gray-brown soils.

Located further south wet evergreen And mixed forests . In the northern Patagonian Andes, moist evergreen forests grow on mountain brown forest soils in a subtropical humid climate. With abundant moisture (more than 3000-4000 mm of precipitation), these rain forests are multi-tiered and rich, for which they received the name “subtropical hylea”. They consist of evergreen beeches, magnolias, Chilean araucaria, Chilean cedar, South American larch with a rich understory of tree ferns and bamboos. In the south of the Patagonian Andes, in a temperate maritime climate, mixed forests of deciduous beech and coniferous podocarpus grow. Here you can find puda deer, Magellanic dog, otter, and skunk.

High Andean region occupies a vast territory with a well-defined altitudinal zone, most fully manifested in equatorial latitudes. Up to an altitude of 1500 m, there is a hot zone - hylea with an abundance of palm trees and bananas. Above the 2000 m mark there is a temperate zone with cinchona, balsa, tree ferns and bamboos. A cold belt extends to the 3500 m mark - a high-mountain hylea of ​​low-growing crooked forests. It is replaced by a frost belt with high-mountain meadows of paramos cereals and low-growing shrubs. Above 4700 m there is a belt of eternal snow and ice.

Bibliography

1. Geography 8th grade. Textbook for the 8th grade of general secondary education institutions with Russian as the language of instruction / Edited by Professor P. S. Lopukh - Minsk “People's Asveta” 2014

Introduction

Eurasia is the largest continent on Earth, with an area of ​​53,893 thousand square kilometers, which is 36% of the land area. Population - more than 4.8 billion people.

The continent is located in the Northern Hemisphere between approximately 9° and 169° West longitude, with some of the islands of Eurasia located in the Southern Hemisphere. Most of continental Eurasia lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, although the extreme western and eastern ends of the continent are in the Western Hemisphere. Contains two parts of the world: Europe and Asia.

All climatic zones and natural zones are represented in Eurasia.

A natural zone is part of a geographical zone with homogeneous climatic conditions.

Natural areas take their name from their native vegetation and other geographic features. The zones naturally change from the equator to the poles and from the oceans deep into the continents; have similar temperature and moisture conditions that determine homogeneous soils, vegetation, fauna and other components of the natural environment. Natural zones are one of the stages of physical-geographical zoning.

The main natural zones of the subequatorial and equatorial belts of Eurasia considered in the course work are the zone of variable humid forests, including monsoon forests, the zone of savannas and woodlands, and the zone of equatorial forests.

A zone of variable humid, monsoon forests develops on the plains of Hindustan, Indochina and in the northern half of the Philippine Islands, a zone of savannas and woodlands - on the Deccan Plateau and the interior of the Indochina Peninsula, humid equatorial forests - throughout the Malay Archipelago, the southern half of the Philippine Islands, the southwest the islands of Ceylon and the Malacca Peninsula.

The course work provides a detailed description of these natural zones, reflecting the geographical location, climate, soils, flora and its ecological features, animal population and its environmental features. A current topic is also developed - environmental problems of the equatorial and subequatorial belts of Eurasia. First of all, these include the deforestation of moist equatorial forests and the desertification of savannas under the influence of grazing.

Zone of variable humid, including monsoon forests

Geographical location, natural conditions

In the subequatorial zone, due to seasonal precipitation and uneven distribution of precipitation over the territory, as well as contrasts in the annual course of temperatures, landscapes of subequatorial variable humid forests develop on the plains of Hindustan, Indochina and in the northern half of the Philippine Islands.

Variably humid forests occupy the most humid areas of the lower reaches of the Ganges-Brahmaputra, coastal areas of Indochina and the Philippine archipelago, and are especially well developed in Thailand, Burma, and the Malay Peninsula, where at least 1,500 millimeters of precipitation falls. On drier plains and plateaus, where precipitation does not exceed 1000-800 millimeters, seasonally wet monsoon forests grow, which once covered large areas of the Hindustan Peninsula and southern Indochina (Korat Plateau). With a decrease in precipitation to 800-600 millimeters and a reduction in the rainfall period from 200 to 150-100 days a year, forests are replaced by savannas, woodlands and shrubs.

The soils here are ferralitic, but predominantly red. As the amount of rain decreases, the concentration of humus in them increases. They are formed as a result of ferralite weathering (the process is accompanied by the decomposition of most of the primary minerals, with the exception of quartz, and the accumulation of secondary ones - kaolinite, goethite, gibbsite, etc.) and humus accumulation under the forest vegetation of the humid tropics. They are characterized by low silica content, high aluminum and iron content, low cation exchange and high anion absorption capacity, predominantly red and variegated yellow-red color of the soil profile, and a very acidic reaction. Humus contains mainly fulvic acids. They contain 8-10% humus.

The hydrothermal regime of seasonally wet tropical communities is characterized by constantly high temperatures and a sharp change in wet and dry seasons, which determines the specific features of the structure and dynamics of their fauna and animal population, which significantly distinguish them from communities of tropical rainforests. First of all, the presence of a dry season, lasting from two to five months, determines the seasonal rhythm of life processes in almost all animal species. This rhythm is expressed in the timing of the breeding season mainly to the wet season, in the complete or partial cessation of activity during drought, in the migratory movements of animals both within the biome in question and outside it during the unfavorable dry season. Falling into complete or partial suspended animation is characteristic of many terrestrial and soil invertebrates, amphibians, and migration is characteristic of some flight-capable insects (for example, locusts), birds, chiropterans and large ungulates.

Africa is an amazing continent that combines a large number of geographical zones. In no other place are these distinctions so noticeable.

The natural areas of Africa are very clearly visible on the map. They are distributed symmetrically relative to the equator and depend on uneven precipitation.

Characteristics of natural areas of Africa

Africa is the second largest continent on Earth. It is surrounded by two seas and two oceans. But the most important feature is its symmetry in position in relation to the equator, which divides Africa into two parts along the horizon.

In the north and south of the continent there are hard-leaved evergreen moist forests and shrubs. Next come deserts and semi-deserts, then savannas.

In the very center of the continent there are zones of variable-humid and permanently humid forests. Each zone is characterized by its own climate, flora and fauna.

Zone of variable-humid and moist evergreen equatorial forests of Africa

The evergreen forest zone is located in the Congo Basin and runs along the Gulf of Guinea. More than 1000 plants can be found here. These zones have predominantly red-yellow soils. Many types of palm trees grow here, including oil palms, tree ferns, bananas, and vines.

Animals are placed in tiers. In these places the fauna is very diverse. The soil is home to a huge number of shrews, lizards and snakes.

The humid forest zone is home to a huge number of monkeys. In addition to monkeys, gorillas and chimpanzees, more than 10 species of individuals can be found here.

Dog-headed baboons cause a lot of concern to local residents. They are destroying plantations. This species is distinguished by its intelligence. They can only be frightened by weapons; they are not afraid of a person with a stick.

African gorillas in these places grow up to two meters and weigh up to 250 kilograms. The forests are inhabited by elephants, leopards, small ungulates, and forest pigs.

Good to know: The tsetse fly lives in the eucalyptus zones of Africa. It is very dangerous for humans. Its bite infects the deadly sleeping sickness. The person begins to experience severe pain and fever.

Savannah zone

About 40% of the entire territory of Africa is occupied by savannas. The vegetation is represented by tall grasses and umbrella trees towering above them. The main one is baobab.

This is a tree of life that is of great significance to the people of Africa. , leaves, seeds - everything is eaten. The ash of the burnt fruit is used to make soap.

In dry savannas, aloe grows with fleshy and prickly leaves. During the rainy season, the savannah has very abundant vegetation, but during the dry season it turns yellow and fires often occur.

The red soils of the savannah are much more fertile than those in the rainforest zone. This is due to the active accumulation of humus during the dry period.

The African savannah is home to large herbivores. Giraffes, elephants, rhinoceroses, and buffalos live here. The savannah area is home to predators, cheetahs, lions, and leopards.

Tropical desert and semi-desert zones

Savannas give way to zones of tropical deserts and semi-deserts. Rainfall in these places is very irregular. Certain areas may not experience rain for several years.

The climatic features of the zone are characterized by excessive dryness. Sandstorms often occur, and strong temperature differences are observed throughout the day.

The relief of deserts consists of scattered rocks and salt marshes in places where there once were seas. There are practically no plants here. There are rare spines. There are types of vegetation with a short lifespan. They grow only after rains.

Zones of evergreen hard-leaved forests and shrubs

The outermost zone of the continent is the territory of evergreen hard-leaved leaves and shrubs. These places are characterized by wet winters and hot, dry summers.

This climate has a beneficial effect on the condition of the soil. In these places it is very fertile. Lebanese cedar, beech and oak grow here.

The highest points of the continent are located in this zone. On the peaks of Kenya and Kilimanjaro, even in the hottest period, there is constant snow.

Table of natural zones of Africa

The presentation and description of all natural zones in Africa can be clearly presented in the table.

The position of the continent's climatic zones is very clearly demarcated. This applies not only to the territory itself, but also to the definition of fauna, flora and climate types.

Variably wet forests, in contrast to constantly wet forests, grow in areas of the planet where precipitation does not occur all year round, but only during the rainy season. At the same time, with the dry season, they have to shed their leaves in order to protect themselves from excess evaporation in conditions of moisture deficiency. Variably humid forests grow mainly in the subequatorial climate zone. They occupy the northern tip of South America, the countries of the American Isthmus, large areas of Brazil, where they are called caatinga, in Africa - south and north of the equator, the central part of Madagascar, the northeast of Hindustan, the eastern coast of Indochina and the north of Australia. They are also often called deciduous moist forests or monsoon forests, as they often grow in areas with a monsoon climate. Biodiversity here is also very high, however, much less than in the equatorial rainforests. Animals and plants here have to adapt to highly variable weather conditions throughout the year. Precipitation falls here during the summer, reaching an average of 1000 to 2000 mm per year, but at the end of the rainy season, drought sets in sharply, and there is practically no rain during the winter. The variable wet forests are home to significantly more mammals, deer, many rodents, monkeys and felines. Many birds live in the trees. The soils here are also ferralitic, but predominantly red. As the amount of rain decreases, the concentration of humus in them increases. Variably humid forests, like equatorial forests, are threatened by humans. Restoring these forests is possible, however, it will take a lot of time, so it is necessary to think about their rational use.

Variably wet forests, in contrast to constantly wet forests, grow in areas of the planet where precipitation does not occur all year round, but only during the rainy season. At the same time, with the dry season, they have to shed their leaves in order to protect themselves from excess evaporation in conditions of moisture deficiency. Variably humid forests grow mainly in the subequatorial climate zone.

They occupy the northern tip of South America, the countries of the American Isthmus, large areas of Brazil, where they are called caatinga, in Africa - south and north of the equator, the central part of Madagascar, the northeast of Hindustan, the eastern coast of Indochina and the north of Australia. They are also often called deciduous moist forests or monsoon forests, as they often grow in areas with a monsoon climate.

Biodiversity here is also very high, however, much less than in the equatorial rainforests.

Animals and plants here have to adapt to highly variable weather conditions throughout the year.

Precipitation falls here during the summer, reaching an average of 1000 to 2000 mm per year, but at the end of the rainy season, drought sets in sharply, and there is practically no rain during the winter. The variable wet forests are home to significantly more mammals, deer, many rodents, monkeys and felines. Many birds live in the trees. The soils here are also ferralitic, but predominantly red. As the amount of rain decreases, the concentration of humus in them increases.

Variably humid forests, like equatorial forests, are threatened by humans. Restoring these forests is possible, however, it will take a lot of time, so it is necessary to think about their rational use.

Variably moist forests Wikipedia
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Permanently humid equatorial forests. There are 3 arrays along the equator:

Amazon forests (South America), the northern coast of the Gulf of Guinea and about. Madagascar (Africa), Southeast Asia, New Guinea, Malay Peninsula, southern Philippines.

Also, permanently humid forests can be found in the subtropical and tropical zones, due to the fact that there are high temperatures throughout the year and are constantly under the influence of trade winds.

These territories: Northern coast of Australia, Eastern coast of Brazil, Western part of India.

Climate characteristics:

Amount of precipitation – 1500-2000

Evaporation – 700-1200

Vysokogo-Ivanov coefficient 1.5-3 (excessive moisture - more precipitation than evaporation)

Vegetation:

Phytomass – 650T/Ha, Productivity – 40T/Ha per year

There are 50-100 plant species per 1 hectare.

Forests are layered and are polydominant - several plant species dominate each layer. The upper tier is trees 50-60m (characterized by diversity), the middle tier is 20-30m (well developed and closed), the lower tier is rather poorly expressed due to low radiation. There is significant shade under the forest canopy.

Soils: Greyolithic (yellow) soils are formed on powerful weathering ridges (20m or more), have excessive moisture and leaching regime throughout the year.

The soils are poor in bases and humus (5.7 cm), because There is a rapid decomposition of plant residues, but they are rich in iron and aluminum oxides.

Variably humid equatorial forests. They are located between the zone of permanently humid forests and the savannah. This is the wettest part of the subequatorial climate. Summer rains and a dry period are typical. The zone in Africa is presented from the north and south of the equator, the forests of the South.

America on the periphery of the Amazonian permanently moist forests, for the forests of Central America, in the east of the island. Java, Bali, Also in the Hindustan region (Bombay).

Climate characteristics:

Amount of precipitation – 1200-1600

Evaporation – 1200-1400

Vysokogo-Ivanov coefficient 1-1.2

The dry period can last up to 5 months, then evaporation is greater than the amount of precipitation, during rains precipitation>evaporation.

Vegetation:

Phytomass – 500T/Ha, Productivity – 16T/Ha per year

The tallest trees are 25-30m, the layering is less pronounced than in permanently humid forests.

During the dry season, leaf fall is observed.

The shrub layer is better expressed than in variable-humid forests. Grasses appear in the herbaceous layer.

Soils: red ferramid soils are formed. In the dry season, there is no soil leaching regime + deciduousness + less decomposition = humus horizon 10-15 cm. Humus is formed under conditions when the leaching regime is replaced by a non-leaching one.

Savannah landscapes.

Savannas are areas with a predominance of cereals in the subequatorial and tropical zones.

They are characterized by free-standing trees.

There are 3 subzones of savannas: wet savannas, typical savannas, deserted savannas.

Savannas are very widespread. In Africa there are deserts and variable-humid subequatorial forests, as well as in the east and south. South America - south of the Amazon, on the Caribbean coast (turning into woodlands), in the Orinoco River delta.

North America is in the “rain shadow” of Central America and Mexico (Pacific Coast). Asia - Hindustan Peninsula, in the interior of Thailand, Cambodia. Extensive savannah belts in Australia.

Climate characteristics:

Amount of precipitation – 1000-1500 (for humid), 500-1000 (typical), 200-500 (desert)

Evaporation – 1500-2400 (for humid), 2400-3800 (typical), 3500-4200 (desert)

Vysokogo-Ivanov coefficient 0.4-1; 02,-0.4; 0.02-0.2

Savannahs are characterized by alternating wet and dry seasons.

The maximum duration of the dry season is 10 months (in desertified savannas). The minimum dry season is 3 months. Evaporation > amount of precipitation.

Vegetation:

Phytomass - 40T/Ha (typical); 15T/Ha (in deserted areas),

Productivity – 12T/ha per year; 4T/Ha per year

Characteristic: sparse woody vegetation. This is due to the fact that plants compete for soil moisture.

There are areas of forests along the banks of rivers and lakes. Savannas have a developed fauna with a large number of herbivores.

Soils: Red feralite soils are common in wet savannas. In typical and desertified soils there are red-brown soils. All soils are formed in the process of non-percolative water regime. In humid savannas, the humus horizon reaches 15 cm; in desertified savannas, the humus horizon decreases.

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1) Variable rain forests grow to the south and north of the equatorial rain forests: in tropical Africa, America, Hindustan, Sri Lanka, Indochina, China, Northern and North-Eastern Australia.
3) They differ from their colder and drier counterparts in their red or reddish color and strong weathering of minerals.

In these areas, more than 1000 mm of precipitation falls in the form of rain per year (in some places more than 10 thousand mm), i.e. a layer of water more than one meter thick.

Heat and moisture are the basis of lush vegetation, which injects organic acids into the soil all year round, and warm soil waters carry them to great depths, dissolving rock minerals. It is very important that the age of the surface layers of soil in the tropics and subtropics reaches hundreds of thousands and millions of years. With such strong and long weathering, most minerals and chemical elements are washed out and the most stable minerals remain in the soil - kaolinite, quartz, as well as a large amount of iron and aluminum oxides, for which they are called ferrallitic soils (from “ferrum” - “iron, aluminum” and “litos” – “stone”).

The most important iron oxides that give color to the soil are red hematite, as well as yellow limonite and brown goethite, which contain impurities of crystalline water. Differences in the color of soils in the tropics and subtropics are also associated with climate humidity and the degree of weathering of minerals.

The most humid soils of the equatorial zone are red-yellow soils (in the subtropical zone they are called red soils and yellow soils). In these forest soils, the litter and small humus horizon are replaced by weathering horizons with red and yellow colors. The highly weathered but variably moist soils of subequatorial tall-grass savannas are called red soils.

They have a much thicker humus horizon than forest equatorial soils. In savannas and hard-leaved forests, where it is even drier, the soils are less weathered, they have less red hematite and more brown goethite, which is why they are called red-brown and brown-red. Here the humus horizon is less dark in color and less thick, and calcium carbonates may appear in the soil profile.

Soils of the subtropical zone often represent a transition between the red soils of low latitudes and the soils of the temperate zone. The wettest red soils and yellow soils are closest to the soil
4) Among the plants of variable-humid forests, evergreen, coniferous and deciduous trees are distinguished. Evergreens include palm trees, ficus, bamboo, all kinds of magnolia, cypress, camphor tree, tulip tree. Deciduous trees are represented by linden, ash, walnut, oak, and maple. Among the evergreens, fir and spruce are often found.
5)
Among the plants of variable-humid forests, evergreen, coniferous and deciduous trees are distinguished.

Evergreens include palm trees, ficus, bamboo, all kinds of magnolia, cypress, camphor tree, tulip tree.

Deciduous trees are represented by linden, ash, walnut, oak, and maple. Among the evergreens, fir and spruce are often found. Other inhabitants of such a forest are prehensile-tailed monkeys, who live mainly in trees. They are small in size and black and white in color. As the name of the species suggests, these monkeys are distinguished by a particularly prehensile tail. There are also many bats, fish and reptiles. Note that about 2,000 species of fish live here, which is equal to the freshwater fauna of the whole world.
2) The climate there is very difficult, since the sun can shine and then pouring rain begins.

It can rain very heavily, with large amounts of precipitation falling. For these forests, the most testing month is May. May is very hot, small rivers and small reservoirs dry up.

Landscapes of subtropical variable-moist forests and landscapes of temperate deciduous forests.

Landscapes of subtropical variable-moist (monsoon) forests found on the eastern coasts of continents. In Eurasia - eastern China, southern Japan (to Tokyo), southern South Korea. Monsoon forests are pronounced here. North

America - southeastern USA. South America - southern Brazil, upper reaches of the Uruguay River. Africa - in South Africa (south-eastern part, at the foot of the Drakensberg Mountains). Australia – bordered by the coast of the Tosman Sea and the Great Dividing Range; in the north of New Zealand.

Climate characteristics:

Amount of precipitation – 1000-1600

Evaporation – 750-1200

Vysokogo-Ivanov coefficient 1-1.5

Throughout the year, the amount of precipitation exceeds evaporation.

It rains in summer, but there is little precipitation in winter. But in accordance with this, the decrease in evaporation occurs in proportion to the decrease in the amount of precipitation. Excessive moisture all year round. This zone is analogous to the humid equatorial forests, only with a different thermal and radiation background.

Vegetation:

The character is polydominant - there are different species, cat.

represent arboreal forests. These forests are forever green. The layering is developed, the lianas are characteristic, and the herbaceous cover is developed. The fauna of Asia is diverse (a relic is the panda), many animals do not correspond to this zone. In eastern Asia, from the equator to the north, one natural zone replaces another: equatorial rain forests - subequatorial rain forests - subtropical forests - deciduous forests - taiga. This is due to the fact that the monsoon type of climate dominates here.

There is a mixing of zone types, some penetrating into others.

All in. America has coniferous forests, different. species of oak trees, rich fauna.

South America - araucaria forests, deciduous trees.

Soils: yellow soils and red soils are formed. Constant decomposition of litter throughout the year, constant leaching regime. Small humus horizon.

Temperate broadleaf forest zone in the West Europe occupies vast spaces (France, Ireland, Germany, etc.).

In Eurasia there are 2 large tracts of broad-leaved forests - Western. Europe (up to Scandinavia) and the Far East (Northern Japan, Korea). All in. America - Ohio River basin, o. Michigan, in the upper reaches of the Missouri River. in South America - south of the hard-leaved forest zone. Australia - o. Tasmania, south Part of New Zealand.

Climate characteristics:

Amount of precipitation – 600-1000

Evaporation – 500-1000

The coefficient between Vysoky and Ivanov is 1-1.2.

Throughout the year there is more precipitation than evaporation.

Vegetation:

Deciduous forests are formed, this is due to neg. temperatures in winter when photosynthesis is not possible.

Under these conditions, in the north of the zone, a subtaiga zone is distinguished, where coniferous species are present in the upper tier, and broad-leaved species in the lower tier. Beeches, oaks, and hornbeams grow in such forests.

Soils: In coastal areas, brown sandy soils are formed, in continental areas - sulfur sandy soils.

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Natural areas of the Earth

A comprehensive scientific study of nature allowed V.V. Dokuchaev in 1898 to formulate the law of geographical zoning, according to which climate, water, soil, relief, vegetation and fauna in a certain territory are closely interconnected and must be studied as a whole. He proposed dividing the Earth's surface into zones that naturally repeat in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.

Different geographical (natural) zones Earth are characterized by a certain combination of heat and moisture, soils, flora and fauna and, as a consequence, the characteristics of the economic activities of their population. These are zones of forests, steppes, deserts, tundra, savanna, as well as transitional zones of forest-tundra, semi-deserts, forest-tundra. Natural areas are traditionally named according to the predominant type of vegetation, reflecting the most important features of the landscape.

A regular change in vegetation is an indicator of a general increase in heat. In the tundra, the average temperature of the warmest month of the year - July - does not exceed + 10°C, in the taiga it fluctuates between + 10... + 18°C ​​in the strip of deciduous and mixed forests + 18... + 20°C, in the steppe and forest-steppe +22...+24°С, in semi-deserts and deserts - above +30°С.

Most animal organisms remain active at temperatures from 0 to +30°C. However, temperatures from + 10°C and above are considered the best for growth and development. Obviously, such a thermal regime is typical for the equatorial, subequatorial, tropical, subtropical, and temperate climatic zones of the Earth. The intensity of vegetation development in natural areas also depends on the amount of precipitation. Compare, for example, their number in the forest and desert zones (see atlas map).

So, natural areas- these are natural complexes that occupy large areas and are characterized by the dominance of one zonal type of landscape. They are formed mainly under the influence of climate - the distribution of heat and moisture, their ratio. Each natural zone has its own type of soil, vegetation and animal life.

The appearance of a natural area is determined by the type of vegetation cover. But the nature of vegetation depends on climatic conditions - thermal conditions, moisture, light, soil, etc.

As a rule, natural zones are extended in the form of wide stripes from west to east. There are no clear boundaries between them; they gradually transform into one another. The latitudinal location of natural zones is disrupted by the unequal distribution of land and ocean, relief, distance from the ocean.

General characteristics of the main natural zones of the Earth

Let us characterize the main natural zones of the Earth, starting from the equator and moving towards the poles.

There are forests on all continents of the Earth, except Antarctica. Forest zones have both common features and special ones, characteristic only of taiga, mixed and broad-leaved forests or tropical forests.

The general features of the forest zone include: warm or hot summers, a fairly large amount of precipitation (from 600 to 1000 or more mm per year), large deep rivers, and the predominance of woody vegetation. Equatorial forests, occupying 6% of the land, receive the greatest amount of heat and moisture. They rightfully hold first place among the forest zones of the Earth in terms of the diversity of plants and animals. 4/5 of all plant species grow here and 1/2 of all land animal species live here.

The climate of the equatorial forests is hot and humid. Average annual temperatures are +24... + 28°C. The annual precipitation is more than 1000 mm. It is in the equatorial forest that you can find the largest number of ancient animal species, such as amphibians: frogs, newts, salamanders, toads or marsupials: possums in America, possums in Australia, tenrecs in Africa, lemurs in Madagascar, lorises in Asia; Ancient animals include such inhabitants of equatorial forests as armadillos, anteaters, and lizards.

In equatorial forests, the richest vegetation is located in several tiers. The treetops are home to many species of birds: hummingbirds, hornbills, birds of paradise, crowned pigeons, numerous species of parrots: cockatoos, macaws, Amazons, African Grays. These birds have tenacious legs and strong beaks: they not only fly, but also climb trees very well. Animals that live in treetops also have prehensile paws and tails: sloths, monkeys, howler monkeys, flying foxes, tree kangaroos. The largest animal that lives in the treetops is the gorilla. Such forests are home to many beautiful butterflies and other insects: termites, ants, etc. There are various types of snakes. Anaconda is the largest snake in the world, reaching a length of 10 m or more. The high-water rivers of the equatorial forests are rich in fish.

The largest areas of equatorial forests occupy in South America, in the Amazon River basin, and in Africa - in the Congo River basin. The Amazon is the deepest river on Earth. Every second it carries 220 thousand m3 of water into the Atlantic Ocean. The Congo is the second most water-rich river in the world. Equatorial forests are also common on the islands of the Malaysian archipelago and Oceania, in the southeastern regions of Asia, and in northeastern Australia (see map in the atlas).

Valuable tree species: mahogany, black, yellow - the wealth of equatorial forests. Harvesting valuable timber threatens the conservation of the Earth's unique forests. Satellite images have shown that in a number of areas of the Amazon, forest destruction is proceeding at a catastrophic pace, many times faster than their restoration. At the same time, many species of unique plants and animals are disappearing.

Variably wet monsoon forests

Variably humid monsoon forests can also be found on all continents of the Earth except Antarctica. If in the equatorial forests it is summer all the time, then three seasons are clearly defined here: dry cool (November-February) - winter monsoon; dry hot (March-May) - transitional season; humid hot (June-October) - summer monsoon. The hottest month is May, when the sun is almost at its zenith, rivers dry up, trees shed their leaves, and the grass turns yellow.

The summer monsoon arrives at the end of May with hurricane winds, thunderstorms, and torrential rains. Nature comes to life. Due to the alternation of dry and wet seasons, monsoon forests are called variable-wet.

India's monsoon forests are located in the tropical climatic zone. Valuable tree species grow here, characterized by the strength and durability of the wood: teak, sal, sandalwood, satin and ironwood. Teak wood is not afraid of fire and water, it is widely used for the construction of ships. Sal also has a durable and strong wood. Sandalwood and satin trees are used in the manufacture of varnishes and paints.

The fauna of the Indian jungle is rich and diverse: elephants, bulls, rhinoceroses, monkeys. Lots of birds and reptiles.

Monsoon forests in tropical and subtropical regions are also characteristic of Southeast Asia, Central and South America, and the northern and northeastern regions of Australia (see map in the atlas).

Temperate monsoon forests

Temperate monsoon forests are found only in Eurasia. The Ussuri taiga is a special place in the Far East. This is a real thicket: multi-tiered, dense forests, intertwined with vines and wild grapes. Cedar, walnut, linden, ash, and oak grow here. The lush vegetation is the result of abundant seasonal rainfall and a fairly mild climate. Here you can meet the Ussuri tiger - the largest representative of its species.
The rivers of the monsoon forests are fed by rain and overflow during the summer monsoon rains. The largest of them are the Ganges, Indus, and Amur.

Monsoon forests have been heavily cut down. According to experts, in Eurasia Only 5% of the former forest areas have survived. Monsoon forests have suffered not only from forestry, but also from agriculture. It is known that the largest agricultural civilizations appeared on fertile soils in the valleys of the Ganges, Irrawaddy, Indus rivers and their tributaries. The development of agriculture required new territories - forests were cut down. Agriculture has adapted for centuries to alternating wet and dry seasons. The main agricultural season is the wet monsoon period. The most important crops are planted here - rice, jute, sugar cane. In the dry, cool season, barley, legumes, and potatoes are planted. During the dry hot season, farming is possible only with artificial irrigation. The monsoon is capricious, its delay leads to severe droughts and destruction of crops. Therefore, artificial irrigation is necessary.

Temperate forests

Temperate forests occupy significant areas in Eurasia and North America (see map in the atlas).

In the northern regions it is taiga, to the south - mixed and deciduous forests. In the forest zone of the temperate zone, the seasons of the year are clearly defined. Average temperatures in January are negative throughout, in some places down to - 40°C, in July + 10... + 20°C; the amount of precipitation is 300-1000 mm per year. The vegetation of plants stops in winter, and there is snow cover for several months.

Spruce, fir, pine, and larch grow both in the taiga of North America and in the taiga of Eurasia. The animal world also has a lot in common. The bear is the owner of the taiga. True, in the Siberian taiga it is called a brown bear, and in the Canadian taiga it is called a grizzly bear. You can meet red lynx, elk, wolf, as well as marten, ermine, wolverine, and sable. The largest rivers of Siberia flow through the taiga zone - the Ob, Irtysh, Yenisei, Lena, which in terms of flow are second only to the rivers of the equatorial forest zone.

To the south, the climate becomes milder: mixed and broad-leaved forests grow here, consisting of species such as birch, oak, maple, linden, among which there are also conifers. Characteristic of the forests of North America are: white oak, sugar maple, yellow birch. Red deer, elk, wild boar, hare; Among the predators, the wolf and the fox are representatives of the animal world of this zone known to us.

If the northern taiga is considered by geographers to be a zone slightly modified by humans, then mixed and broad-leaved forests have been cut down almost everywhere. Their place was taken by agricultural areas, for example, the “corn belt” in the United States; many cities and transport routes are concentrated in this zone. In Europe and North America, the natural landscapes of these forests have been preserved only in mountainous areas.

Savannah

Savannah is a natural zone of low latitudes in the subequatorial, tropical and subtropical zones of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. Occupies about 40% of the territory of Africa (sub-Saharan Africa), distributed in South and Central America, Southeast Asia, Australia (see map in the atlas). The savanna is dominated by herbaceous vegetation with isolated trees or groups of trees (acacia, eucalyptus, baobab) and bushes.

The fauna of African savannas is surprisingly diverse. To adapt to the conditions of endless dry spaces, nature endowed animals with unique properties. For example, the giraffe is considered the tallest animal on Earth. Its height exceeds 5 m, it has a long tongue (about 50 cm). The giraffe needs all this in order to reach the high branches of the acacia trees. The crowns of acacias begin at a height of 5 m, and giraffes have practically no competitors, calmly eating tree branches. Typical savannah animals are zebras, elephants, and ostriches.

Steppes

Steppes are found on all continents of the Earth, except Antarctica (in the temperate and subtropical zones of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres). They are characterized by an abundance of solar heat, low precipitation (up to 400 mm per year), and warm or hot summers. The main vegetation of the steppes is grass. Steppes are called differently. In South America, the tropical steppes are called pampa, which in the Indian language means “a large area without forest.” Animals characteristic of the pampa are the llama, the armadillo, and the viscacha, a rodent similar to a rabbit.

In North America, steppes are called prairies. They are located in both temperate and subtropical climate zones. The bison have long been the “kings” of the American prairies. By the end of the 19th century they were almost completely exterminated. Currently, through the efforts of the state and the public, the number of bison is being restored. Another resident of the prairies is the coyote - the steppe wolf. Along the banks of rivers in the bushes you can find a large spotted cat - a jaguar. Peccaries are a small boar-like animal also typical of the prairies.

The steppes of Eurasia are located in the temperate zone. They are very different from the American prairies and African savannas. It has a drier, sharply continental climate. In winter it is very cold (average temperature - 20°C), and in summer it is very hot (average temperature + 25°C), with strong winds. In summer, the vegetation of the steppes is sparse, but in spring the steppe is transformed: it blooms with many varieties of lilies, poppies, and tulips.

The flowering time does not last long, about 10 days. Then drought sets in, the steppe dries out, the colors fade, and by autumn everything turns yellow-gray.

The steppes contain the most fertile soils on Earth, so they are almost completely plowed. The treeless spaces of the temperate steppes are characterized by strong winds. Wind erosion of soils occurs very intensively here - dust storms are frequent. To preserve soil fertility, forest belts are planted, organic fertilizers and light agricultural machinery are used.

Deserts

Deserts occupy vast areas - up to 10% of the Earth's land area. They are located on all continents and in different climatic zones: temperate, subtropical, tropical and even polar.

The desert climates of the tropical and temperate zones have common features. Firstly, an abundance of solar heat, secondly, a large amplitude of temperatures between winter and summer, day and night, and thirdly, a small amount of precipitation (up to 150 mm per year). However, the latter feature is also characteristic of polar deserts.

In the deserts of the tropical zone, the average summer temperature is +30°C, winter + 10°C. The greatest tropical deserts on Earth are located in Africa: the Sahara, Kalahari, Namib.

Plants and animals of deserts adapt to dry and hot climates. For example, a giant cactus can store up to 3000 liters of water and “not drink” for up to two years; and the Welwitschia plant, found in the Namib Desert, is capable of absorbing water from the air. The camel is an indispensable helper for humans in the desert. It can be without food and water for a long time, storing it in its humps.

The largest desert in Asia, the Rub al-Khali, located on the Arabian Peninsula, is also located in the tropical zone. The desert regions of North and South America and Australia are located in the tropical and subtropical climate zones.

The temperate deserts of Eurasia are also characterized by low precipitation and a large temperature range, both annual and daily. However, they are characterized by lower winter temperatures and a pronounced flowering period in the spring. Such deserts are located in Central Asia east of the Caspian Sea. The fauna here is represented by various species of snakes, rodents, scorpions, turtles, and lizards. A typical plant is saxaul.

Polar deserts

Polar deserts are located in the polar regions of the Earth. The absolute minimum temperature recorded in Antarctica is 89.2 °C.

On average, winter temperatures are -30 °C, summer temperatures are 0 °C. Just like in the deserts of the tropical and temperate zones, the polar desert receives little precipitation, mainly in the form of snow. The polar night lasts almost half a year here, and the polar day lasts almost half a year. Antarctica is considered the highest continent on Earth, given the thickness of its ice shell at 4 km.

The indigenous inhabitants of the polar deserts of Antarctica are emperor penguins. They cannot fly, but they swim perfectly. They can dive to great depths and swim vast distances to escape their enemies - seals.

The northern polar region of the Earth - the Arctic - got its name from the ancient Greek arcticos - northern. The southern, as if opposite, polar region is Antarctica (anti - against). The Arctic occupies the island of Greenland, the islands of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, as well as the islands and waters of the Arctic Ocean. This area is covered with snow and ice all year round. The polar bear is rightfully considered the owner of these places.

Tundra

Tundra is a treeless natural area with vegetation of mosses, lichens and creeping shrubs. The tundra is distributed in the subarctic climate zone only in North America and Eurasia, which are characterized by harsh climatic conditions (little solar heat, low temperatures, short cold summers, low precipitation).

The moss lichen was called “reindeer moss” because it is the main food of reindeer. Arctic foxes and lemmings - small rodents - also live in the tundra. Among the sparse vegetation there are berry bushes: blueberries, lingonberries, blueberries, as well as dwarf trees: birch, willow.

Permafrost in the soil is a phenomenon characteristic of the tundra, as well as the Siberian taiga. As soon as you start digging a hole, at a depth of about 1 m you will encounter a frozen layer of earth several tens of meters thick. This phenomenon must be taken into account during construction, industrial and agricultural development of the territory.

Everything grows very slowly in the tundra. This is precisely why the need for careful attention to its nature is connected. For example, pastures overrun by deer are restored only after 15-20 years.

Altitudinal zone

Unlike flat areas, climatic zones and natural zones in the mountains change according to the law of vertical zonation, i.e. from bottom to top. This is due to the fact that the air temperature decreases with altitude. Consider, as an example, the greatest mountain system in the world - the Himalayas. Almost all natural zones of the Earth are represented here: tropical forest grows at the foot, at an altitude of 1500 m it is replaced by broad-leaved forests, which in turn turn into mixed forests at an altitude of 2000 m. Further, as you climb the mountains, coniferous forests of Himalayan pine begin to predominate, fir and juniper. In winter, there is snow here for a long time and frosts persist.

Above 3500 m, shrubs and alpine meadows begin; they are called “alpine”. In summer, the meadows are covered with a carpet of brightly blooming herbs - poppies, primroses, gentians. Gradually the grasses become shorter. From approximately 4500 m altitude there is eternal snow and ice. The climatic conditions here are very harsh. Rare species of animals live in the mountains: mountain goat, chamois, argali, snow leopard.

Latitudinal zonation in the ocean

The world's oceans occupy more than 2/3 of the planet's surface. The physical properties and chemical composition of ocean waters are relatively constant and create an environment favorable for life. It is especially important for the life of plants and animals that oxygen and carbon dioxide coming from the air dissolve in water. Photosynthesis of algae occurs mainly in the upper layer of water (up to 100 m).

Marine organisms live mainly in the surface layer of water illuminated by the Sun. These are the smallest plant and animal organisms - plankton (bacteria, algae, small animals), various fish and marine mammals (dolphins, whales, seals, etc.), squid, sea snakes and turtles.

There is life on the seabed too. These are bottom algae, corals, crustaceans, and mollusks. They are called benthos (from the Greek benthos - deep). The biomass of the World Ocean is 1000 times less than the biomass of the Earth's land.

Distribution of life in world ocean unevenly and depends on the amount of solar energy received on its surface. Polar waters are poor in plankton due to low temperatures and the long polar night. The largest amount of plankton develops in the waters of the temperate zone in summer. The abundance of plankton attracts fish here. The temperate zones of the Earth are the most fishy areas of the World Ocean. In the tropical zone, the amount of plankton decreases again due to the high salinity of the water and high temperatures.

Formation of natural areas

From today's topic, we learned how diverse the natural complexes of our planet are. The natural zones of the Earth are replete with evergreen forests, endless steppes, various mountain ranges, hot and icy deserts.

Each corner of our planet is distinguished by its uniqueness, varied climate, relief, flora and fauna, and therefore different natural zones are formed on the territories of each continent.

Let's try to figure out what natural areas are, how they were formed, and what was the impetus for their formation.

Natural zones include those complexes that have similar soils, vegetation, fauna and similar temperature conditions. Natural zones received their names based on the type of vegetation, and are called such as taiga zone or deciduous forests, etc.

Natural zones are diverse due to the uneven redistribution of solar energy on the Earth's surface. This is the main reason for the heterogeneity of the geographical envelope.

After all, if we consider one of the climatic zones, we will notice that those parts of the belt that are located closer to the ocean are more humidified than its continental parts. And this reason lies not so much in the amount of precipitation, but rather in the ratio of heat and moisture. Because of this, on some continents we experience a more humid climate, while on others we experience a drier climate.

And with the help of the redistribution of solar heat, we see how the same amount of moisture in some climate zones leads to excess moisture, and in others to a lack of moisture.

For example, in a hot tropical zone, a lack of moisture can cause drought and the formation of desert areas, while in the subtropics, excess moisture contributes to the formation of swamps.

So you learned that due to the difference in the amount of solar heat and moisture, different natural zones were formed.

Patterns of natural zones location

Natural zones of the Earth have clear patterns of their location, extending in the latitudinal direction and changing from north to south. Most often, a change in natural zones is observed in the direction from the coast making its way inland.

In mountainous areas there is an altitudinal zone, which changes from one zone to another, starting from the foot and moving towards the mountain peaks.

In the World Ocean, zones change from the equator to the poles. Here, changes in natural areas are reflected in the surface composition of waters, as well as differences in vegetation and fauna.

Features of the natural zones of the continents

Since planet Earth has a spherical surface, the Sun heats it unevenly. Those areas of the surface above which the Sun is high receive the most heat. And where the sun's rays only glide over the Earth, a more severe climate prevails.

And although on different continents the vegetation and animals have similar features, they are influenced by climate, topography, geology and people. Therefore, historically, due to changes in relief and climate, different species of plants and animals live on different continents.

There are continents where endemics are found, where only a certain type of living beings and plants live, which are peculiar to these continents. For example, polar bears can only be found in nature in the Arctic, and kangaroos can only be found in Australia. But in African and South American shrouds there are similar species, although they have certain differences.

But human activity contributes to changes that occur in the geographical environment, and under such influence natural areas also change.

Questions and tasks to prepare for the exam

1. Draw up a diagram of the interaction of natural components in a natural complex and explain it.
2. How do the concepts “natural complex”, “geographical envelope”, “biosphere”, “natural zone” relate to each other? Show with a diagram.
3. Name the zonal type of soil for tundra, taiga, mixed and deciduous forest zones.
4. Where is the soil cover more difficult to restore: in the steppes of Southern Russia or in the tundra? Why?
5. What is the reason for the difference in the thickness of the fertile soil layer in different natural zones? What does soil fertility depend on?
6. What types of plants and animals are characteristic of the tundra and why?
7. What organisms live on the surface of the waters of the World Ocean?
8. Which of the following animals can be found in the African savanna: rhinoceros, lion, giraffe, tiger, tapir, baboon, llama, hedgehog, zebra, hyena?
9. In what forests is it impossible to determine its age from the cut of a cut tree?
10. What measures, in your opinion, will help preserve the human habitat?

Maksakovsky V.P., Petrova N.N., Physical and economic geography of the world. - M.: Iris-press, 2010. - 368 pp.: ill.