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Pakistanis are Shia or Sunni. The Shiite Mongols, who had lost their language, were poorer than all their neighbors. The emergence of two major branches of Islam - Sunnis and Shiites

The bulk of them live in Iran (more than 75 million, over 80% of the total population, while Sunnis in Iran are 18%), Iraq (more than 20 million), and Azerbaijan (about 10 million). In these three countries, Shiites dominate numerically, culturally and politically.

In a number of Arab countries (Lebanon, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, etc.) there are numerous Shiite minorities. Shiites inhabit the central, mountainous part of Afghanistan (Hazaras and others - about 4 million) and some areas of Pakistan. There are Shiite communities in India, although there are many more Sunnis here. In the south of India, “black Shiites” live among Hindus.

In the Pamir Mountains (in the Tajik and Afghan parts of the historical region of Badakhshan, in the Sarykol region in the far west of China), several small nations profess Ismailism-Nizarism, a type of Shiism. There are quite a few Nizari Ismailis in Yemen (here, as well as in India, there is another type of Ismailism - Mustalism). The center of Ismaili-Nizarism is located in Mumbai, India, in the Red Palace of their spiritual leader Aga Khan.

Another variety of Ismailism is common in Syria. The most important ethno-confessional group of Shiites in Syria are the Alawites, the peasantry of the mountainous northwestern region. The Shiites also include the Druze - a very distinctive ethno-confessional group inhabiting the Shuf region in Mount Lebanon, the Hauran highlands on the border of Syria and Israel, the mountainous region of Jebel Druz in southeastern Syria and groups of villages along the routes connecting these three regions.

In Turkey, in addition to the majority of Sunni Turks and Sunni Kurds, there are Shiite Turks (a very unique ethnographic community) and Shiite Kurds (some tribes), as well as Alawite Arabs.

In Russia, almost all Shiites are Azerbaijanis and Tats; Of these, only the residents of Derbent in the south of Dagestan and some surrounding villages (including one large Lezgin aul) are the indigenous population.

In the Arab Mashreq (in the East), apart from Iraq, Shiites form a majority only in the small island state of Bahrain, but Sunnis are in power here. In North Yemen, Zaydi Shiites are much more numerous than Sunnis.

Are Shiites the oppressed?

The culture of the Shia part of the ummah is in many ways different from the Sunni one. Its central elements are the especially strict mourning of Ashura on the day of remembrance of Imam Hussein, who died a martyr in 680, a number of other holidays (birthdays and deaths of the Prophet Muhammad, his daughter Fatima, imams - spiritual leaders and descendants of Caliph Ali), pilgrimages in a row holy cities, a curse on the widow of the prophet Aisha and the caliphs who ruled after Ali.

Shiites (except for the clergy) must observe the rule of taqiyya - hiding, if necessary, their faith among people of other faiths, especially Sunnis. Only the Zaydis - a Shiite sect in Yemen (including the Houthis) - do not recognize taqiyya.

Everywhere except Iran and Azerbaijan, Shiites have been poorer and more humiliated than their Sunni neighbors for centuries. The only exception is the urban Nizari Ismailis, subjects of the Aga Khan, one of the richest men in the world. But the Nizari Ismailis of villages and small towns in Syria, Oman, the Pamir mountains, as well as the Mustalit Ismailis of Yemen, Gujarat and Mumbai (in India, where they live next to the rich Nizari Ismailis) are poor.

In Iraq, the Shiites were poorer than the Sunnis; in Lebanon, the Shiite peasants of the Bekaa Valley were the poorest and most numerous in the country in the middle of the 20th century; in Syria, the Alawites were very poor mountaineer peasants until the second half of the 20th century; in Yemen, the Zaidi mountaineers were much poorer Sunnis, in Afghanistan, the Shiite Hazaras (Mongols who had lost their language) were poorer than all their neighbors, and in southern India the “black Shiites” were the poorest of all Muslims in the region.

In recent decades, in various countries (Iraq, Bahrain, Syria, Lebanon, Yemen, Saudi Arabia, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, etc.), Shiites are seeking - including with arms - power and wealth, which they enjoy (or enjoyed in the recent past ) Sunnis (and in Lebanon - Christians).

In all the countries mentioned above, except Iran (where the Shiites are a single multi-ethnic group) and Azerbaijan, the Shiites constitute ethno-confessional groups with the same clear cultural and political self-identification as in Europe - national identification. This phenomenon is historical, rooted in ancient times and consolidated in the mass consciousness by the orders of the Ottoman and other Muslim empires.

The main cult centers of Shiism are located in the Arab world - in addition to Mecca and Medina, which are common to all Muslims - in Iraq; The main ritual language of Shiites, like all Muslims, is Arabic, not Farsi. But for the Iranian and non-Iranian peoples of the vast region within the Islamic civilization, including Iran, Kurdistan, Tajikistan, part of Uzbekistan (with the cities of Bukhara, Samarkand, etc.), Afghanistan, part of Pakistan (west of the Indus Valley), Farsi is the language of the highly developed Persian culture.

The Shiite Arabs who inhabit the Khuzistan region of Iran and some others are more strongly influenced by Persian culture than other Arabs. All this facilitates the spread of many of its elements, including those related to the sphere of cult, among fellow Shiites in Arab countries. Moreover, this process affects not only the Imamis, but also the Ismailis, Alawites, Zaydis, Shia Kurds to the west of the borders of Iran. In recent years, among the Zaidi Houthis of Yemen, as eyewitnesses say, a pan-Shiite (as in Iraq and Iran) version of Ashura mourning, previously unknown here, has been spreading.

Perhaps this is one of the signs of cultural and political integration of various Shiite communities in Arab countries?

Knots of contradictions

In Iraq, the confrontation between the Sunnis of the North and the more numerous Shiites of the South is the main dominant feature of political life. The situation is similar in Bahrain. The indigenous Baharina Arabs, the Imamites (the main branch of Shiism), make up the majority. Arab Sunni minorities, descendants of settlers from the mainland, from Saudi Arabia: Wahhabis are the ruling minority and Sunnis of the Shafi'i and Maliki madhhabs are the other two minorities, with all Sunni Arabs belonging to certain tribes.

In Kuwait, the indigenous Arab Shiite minority, once unprivileged, now, like the Sunni majority, enjoys many advantages over the numerous foreigners. In Syria there are four Shia ethno-confessional groups of Arabs (ruling Alawites, Imami Mutawali, Ismaili Nizari and Druze), two each in Lebanon (Mutawali and Druze), Yemen (Zaydis and Ismaili Mustalis), Saudi Arabia (Imamits and Zaydis, and also foreigners).

In Lebanon, the ratio of the size and influence of ethno-confessional groups changed significantly after it was enshrined in the constitutional acts of first the autonomy in the 1930s and 1940s, and since 1946 - the independent republic. The small state of Greater Lebanon was created by France after the First World War as part of a mandate territory. Greater Lebanon was formed from several regions of the Ottoman Empire with different ethno-religious compositions.

The core of the state was Mount Lebanon, which consisted of the Land of the Maronites (historically, a vassal emirate, headed by the noble Arab family of al-Sheibani, who was secretly baptized, but was officially considered Sunni). The Maronite Church once entered into a union with the Roman Church. Adjacent to the Maronite land is the Chouf region, where the Maronites live together with the Druze - a very unique syncretic community, headed for centuries by the feudal Jumblatt family. From here the Druze migrated to the rain-watered mountain oases of southern Syria: Hauran, Jebel Druz, etc. The Maronites and Druze were mountain warrior-farmers, whose independence all rulers of the region had to reckon with.

To Mount Lebanon, where Christians made up the overwhelming majority of the population, French politicians annexed the adjacent coastal lowlands, river valleys and foothills. Here, in towns and villages, Sunni Muslims (the relative majority), Christians of different Churches (primarily Orthodox and Uniate Catholics), Druze in the South, and Alawites in the North lived in stripes or in separate neighborhoods. The Shia Mutawali lived compactly in the southeast. They were the poorest of all, their level of education was lower than other ethno-confessional groups, and their rural housing was especially archaic. In the 20-40s of the twentieth century, Sunnis showed all-Syrian patriotism, and Maronites and partly other Christians, as well as Druze (not all) were supporters of an independent Lebanon.

In 1926, Greater Lebanon was renamed the Lebanese Republic, whose political structure formally copied the French Republic. But in reality it was based on an agreement between influential clans that headed the main ethno-confessional groups. The first president of the Lebanese Republic was a Christian, Charles Debbas (Orthodox), but since 1934 all presidents have been elected from among the Maronites. Since 1937, prime ministers have been appointed only from Sunni Muslims. Other ethno-confessional groups were represented in parliament and other government bodies in proportion to their numbers and influence. They created their own political and other organizations (for example, the Druze became social democrats) under the leadership of traditional hereditary leaders.

This system has evolved under the influence of internal and external factors. In the first decades of the existence of the Lebanese Republic, there were slightly more Christians than Muslims, and the Druze were incomparably more influential than the Mutawali Shiites. Over time, the relative numbers and political and economic influence of the Maronites, other Catholics, Orthodox Christians, Armenians, and Druze declined. But the Mutawali Shiites, who in the early 1930s made up 17-18% of the Lebanese population and almost did not live in cities, sharply increased in strength. Poverty and a low level of education were combined among the Mutawali with large families, as a result their numbers grew faster than other groups, and they populated the cities.

Like other groups, the Lebanese Mutawali emigrated to South America and West Africa, where they engaged in trade, grew rich, and supported their relatives in Lebanon. The emigration of Christian groups began much earlier, heading to different countries and regions of the world (France, USA, Latin America, etc.) and having similar consequences. But among Christians, Druze and Sunnis, who had long lived in cities, owned estates and received the best education, large families were replaced by small families.

Maronites and other Christian groups were losing their influence, while Muslim groups were gaining strength. Accordingly, the Maronite president gradually ceded his first role to the Sunni prime minister. As the number and political role of Christians decreased, their confrontation with Muslims receded into the background compared to the contradictions between Muslims - Sunnis and Shiites.

Not only Christians and Druze, who had long cast their lot in with the West, but also the Mutawali and Alawites armed themselves - with the help of their coreligionist Iran. Like the Druze, they created their own political and other organizations; The radical Shiite organization Hezbollah (Party of Allah), armed and supported by Iran, was especially active. Like some other Arab militant organizations, it used terrorist actions against its opponents - Sunnis, Christians and Israel.

After the creation of the State of Israel (1947) and the Arab-Israeli wars (1947-1973), Palestinian refugees, mostly Sunnis, poured into Lebanon, becoming a numerically significant and politically influential part of the population. Syria, Iran, Israel and the great powers (including the USSR, France and the USA) had a variety of influences on Lebanon, including the invasion of troops, the arming of local and Palestinian militias (the Christian Army of South Lebanon, etc., the Shiite Hezbollah, etc. .) As a result, Lebanon was rocked by civil war from 1975 to 1990, in which Hezbollah fought against Christian and Sunni militias.

Sunnis remained a relative majority, but among them, all-Syrian patriotism and political orientation towards Syria gave way to distancing from the Syrian authorities, whom they considered the patrons of Shiites and Christians. Today, Sunnis are the dominant group in Lebanon. The end of the civil war gradually weakened the confrontation between ethno-confessional groups and transferred them to the socio-political sphere, but the events of recent years in Syria and Iraq have once again intensified the rivalry between them. The Mutawali Shiites continue to grow in number, establish themselves in various spheres of life and challenge the power of the Sunnis.

After the First World War, France, establishing a mandate territory regime in Syria, encountered patriotic resistance from some Sunnis. In contrast, the French tried to rely on Christian and Shiite ethno-confessional groups.

Some of the Alawites who inhabited the mountainous region between Lebanon and the lower reaches of the Nahr al-Kalb River received territorial autonomy (Alawite State, L’Etat des Alaouyes); The French granted the same autonomy to the easternmost of the mountainous regions where the Druze lived - Jebel Druze. In addition, they returned to Turkey the northwestern border region of Hatay (as the Turks called it) with the ancient cities of Antioch and Alexandretta, although all together the Arab communities (including Sunnis, Alawites, Christians, etc.) were more numerous here than the Turks and others ( Kurds, Yezidis, etc.) combined. At the same time, part of the Mutawali Shiites moved to Iraq.

It is paradoxical that the creation of political parties of a formally modern type gave a new impetus to the delimitation of ethno-confessional groups. This can be seen in the evolution of the Baath Party in Syria and Iraq.

The United Arab Emirates (UAE) is the youngest of the Arab countries. About a century ago, there was a conglomerate of alliances of Bedouin tribes and principalities (emirates) of the Pirate Coast - a buffer zone between Wahhabi Saudi Arabia and the Ibadi (Kharijite) Imamate of Oman (and the Muscat Sultanate). Having established a protectorate over the Muscat Sultanate and Qatar, the British also made a group of principalities, which they called Treaty Oman, their protectorate. The vast majority of the local population were Sunni Arabs; Only on the border with mountainous Oman did some branches of local tribes profess Ibadism, and on the seashores Shia Baharina lived in separate fishing villages. Now those Baharina who have UAE citizenship enjoy all the benefits of citizens, receive education, enter government service, etc. But many Baharina are foreigners.

In the Bahrain archipelago itself, the Shiite majority is fighting for equal rights. It is associated with the Baharina in other Gulf countries and with Iran, as well as with the Shiite majority Arabs of Iraq. In eastern Saudi Arabia and Kuwait, the Shia minority (mainland Baharina) are in opposition to the dominant Sunnis. Other Shiite Arabs in the UAE are Iraqis. But the majority of Shiites here are Iranians, some Indians and Pakistanis. In cities they form communities, have their own schools (with education in Farsi, Gujarati and other languages), even branches of universities in their homeland.

In Yemen, Shiism in its Zaydi form throughout the 10th-11th centuries was distinguished by relative religious tolerance, but intransigence towards foreign domination. In 1538 and subsequent years, the Turks tried to conquer Yemen, but the areas inhabited by the Zaydis did not submit to them. Zaydis and Sunnis united in the fight against the invaders, and after a century of domination, Turkish troops left Yemen. Following this, the Zaydi imam al-Mutawakkil Ali Ismail extended his power to Aden and a number of Sunni sultanates, and in 1658 to Hadhramaut. Even at the beginning of the 17th century, the Sultan of Hadhramaut was a follower of Zaydism. But at the end of the 17th and beginning of the 17th centuries, Yemen was again divided into a predominantly Zaydi North and a union of Sunni possessions of South Yemen.

In the 19th century, the entire Arabian Peninsula was divided into spheres of domination by the Ottoman Empire and Great Britain. The first went to Northern Yemen, the second to Southern Yemen, as well as the emirates of Eastern Arabia: Kuwait, Muscat, the emirates of Treaty Oman.

The First World War led to the collapse of the Ottoman Empire and caused a new political situation on the Arab Island, which was finally established only in the 1920s and early 1930s. The states of Northern and Central Arabia united into the vast Wahhabi Saudi Kingdom. It also occupied part of the Shiite region on the shores of the Persian Gulf and a small Zaydi region in the north of what was then Yemen. At the same time, the Zaydi Imam Yahya was also proclaimed king and tried to unite all of Yemen, including the sultanates of the South, which were under British protectorate. But Yahya was not successful in this and, according to the 1934 treaty, he recognized the division of Yemen into North - an independent kingdom and South - the British colony of Aden and protectorates. Subsequently, the growth of the city of Aden attracted people from the Zaydi North. The unification of both Yemen into one state took place only in 1990.

Thus, over the vast territory from the Balkans to the Hindustan, ethno-confessional groups are no less important than nations. The Shiite community of Muslim peoples is not a union of (ethnic) nations, but a spiritual and political community of ethno-confessional groups of Shiites within the Islamic world. It serves as an important factor in cultural and political life.

In recent years, the Middle East has not left the top of world news agencies. The region is in a fever, and the events taking place in it largely determine the global geopolitical agenda. The interests of almost all the world's largest players are intertwined here: the USA, Europe, Russia and China.

But in order to better understand the processes taking place today in Iraq and Syria, it is necessary to look a little deeper. Many of the contradictions that led to bloody chaos in the region are related to the characteristics of Islam and the history of the Muslim world, which today is experiencing a real passionary explosion. Every day, events in Syria are beginning to resemble more and more a religious war, uncompromising and merciless. Similar events have already happened in human history: the European Reformation led to several centuries of bloody conflicts between Catholics and Protestants.

And if immediately after the events of the “Arab Spring” the conflict in Syria resembled an ordinary armed uprising of the people against an authoritarian regime, today the warring parties can be clearly divided along religious lines: President Assad in Syria is supported by Alawites and Shiites, and most of his opponents are Sunnis. The units of the Islamic State (ISIS), the main “horror story” of any Westerner, are also made up of Sunnis - and of the most radical kind.

Who are Sunnis and Shiites? What is the difference? And why is it now that the difference between Sunnis and Shiites has led to armed confrontation between these religious groups?
To find answers to these questions, we will have to travel back in time and go back thirteen centuries, to a period when Islam was a young religion and was in its infancy. However, before that, there is some general information that will help the reader understand the issue.

Currents of Islam

Islam is one of the world's largest religions, which is in second place (after Christianity) in terms of the number of followers. The total number of its adherents is 1.5 billion people who live in 120 countries. In 28 countries, Islam has been declared the state religion.

Naturally, such a numerous religious teaching cannot be homogeneous. Islam includes a large number of different movements, some of which are considered marginal even by Muslims themselves. The largest branches of Islam are Sunnism and Shiism. There are other, less numerous movements of this religion: Sufism, Salafism, Ismailism, Jamaat Tabligh and others.

History and essence of the conflict

The split of Islam into Shiites and Sunnis occurred soon after the emergence of this religion, in the second half of the 7th century. Moreover, its reasons concerned not so much the tenets of faith as pure politics, and to be even more precise, a banal struggle for power led to the split.

After the death of Ali, the last of the four Rightly Guided Caliphs, the struggle for his place began. Opinions about the future heir were divided. Some Muslims believed that only a direct descendant of the Prophet’s family could lead the caliphate, to whom all his integrity and spiritual qualities should be passed on.

Another part of the believers believed that any worthy and authoritative person chosen by the community could become a leader.

Caliph Ali was the cousin and son-in-law of the prophet, so a significant part of the believers believed that the future ruler should be chosen from his family. Moreover, Ali was born in the Kaaba, he was the first man and child to convert to Islam.

Believers who believed that Muslims should be ruled by people from the clan of Ali formed a religious movement of Islam called “Shiism”; accordingly, its followers began to be called Shiites. Translated from Arabic, this word means “the power of Ali.” Another part of the believers, who considered the exclusivity of this kind of doubtful, formed the Sunni movement. This name appeared because Sunnis confirmed their position with quotations from the Sunnah, the second most important source in Islam after the Koran.

By the way, Shiites consider the Koran, which the Sunnis use, to be partially falsified. In their opinion, information about the need to appoint Ali as Muhammad's successor was removed from it.

This is the main and main difference between Sunnis and Shiites. It was the cause of the first civil war that occurred in the Arab Caliphate.

However, it should be noted that the further history of relations between the two branches of Islam, although it was not too rosy, Muslims managed to avoid serious conflicts on religious grounds. There have always been more Sunnis, and a similar situation continues today. It was representatives of this branch of Islam that founded such powerful states in the past as the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates, as well as the Ottoman Empire, which in its heyday was a real threat to Europe.

In the Middle Ages, Shiite Persia was constantly at odds with the Sunni Ottoman Empire, which largely prevented the latter from completely conquering Europe. Despite the fact that these conflicts were rather politically motivated, religious differences also played an important role in them.

The contradictions between Sunnis and Shiites reached a new level after the Islamic Revolution in Iran (1979), after which a theocratic regime came to power in the country. These events put an end to Iran's normal relations with the West and its neighboring states, where mostly Sunnis were in power. The new Iranian government began to pursue an active foreign policy, which was regarded by the countries of the region as the beginning of Shiite expansion. In 1980, a war began with Iraq, the vast majority of whose leadership was occupied by Sunnis.

Sunnis and Shiites reached a new level of confrontation after a series of revolutions (“Arab Spring”) that swept across the region. The conflict in Syria has clearly divided the warring parties along religious lines: the Syrian Alawite president is protected by the Iranian Islamic Guard Corps and the Shiite Hezbollah from Lebanon, and is opposed by detachments of Sunni militants supported by various states in the region.

How else do Sunnis and Shiites differ?

Sunnis and Shiites have other differences, but they are less fundamental. So, for example, the shahada, which is a verbal expression of the first pillar of Islam (“I testify that there is no God but Allah, and I testify that Muhammad is the Prophet of Allah”), sounds somewhat different among the Shiites: at the end of this phrase they add “... and Ali - friend of Allah."

There are other differences between the Sunni and Shia branches of Islam:

Sunnis exclusively revere the Prophet Muhammad, while Shiites, in addition, glorify his cousin Ali. Sunnis revere the entire text of the Sunnah (their second name is “people of the Sunnah”), while Shiites only respect the part that concerns the Prophet and his family members. Sunnis believe that strictly following the Sunnah is one of the main duties of a Muslim. In this regard, they can be called dogmatists: among the Taliban in Afghanistan, even the details of a person’s appearance and his behavior are strictly regulated.

If the largest Muslim holidays - Eid al-Adha and Kurban Bayram - are celebrated equally by both branches of Islam, then the tradition of celebrating the day of Ashura among Sunnis and Shiites has a significant difference. For Shiites, this day is a memorial day.

Sunnis and Shiites have different attitudes towards such a norm of Islam as temporary marriage. The latter consider this a normal phenomenon and do not limit the number of such marriages. Sunnis consider such an institution illegal, since Muhammad himself abolished it.

There are differences in the places of traditional pilgrimage: Sunnis visit Mecca and Medina in Saudi Arabia, and Shiites visit Najaf or Karbala in Iraq.

Sunnis are required to perform five namaz (prayers) a day, while Shiites can limit themselves to three.
However, the main thing in which these two directions of Islam differ is the method of electing power and the attitude towards it. Among Sunnis, an imam is simply a clergyman who presides over a mosque. The Shiites have a completely different attitude to this issue. The head of the Shiites, the imam, is a spiritual leader who governs not only matters of faith, but also politics. He seems to stand above government structures. Moreover, the imam must come from the family of the Prophet Muhammad.

A typical example of this form of governance is today's Iran. The head of Iran's Shiites, the Rahbar, is higher than the president or the head of the national parliament. It completely determines the policy of the state.

Sunnis do not at all believe in the infallibility of people, and Shiites believe that their imams are completely sinless.

Shiites believe in twelve righteous imams (descendants of Ali), the fate of the latter - his name was Muhammad al-Mahdi - of whom is unknown. He simply disappeared without a trace at the end of the 9th century. Shiites believe that al-Mahdi will return to the people on the eve of the Last Judgment to restore order in the world.

Sunnis believe that after death a person’s soul can meet with God, while Shiites consider such a meeting impossible both in a person’s earthly life and after it. Communication with God can only be maintained through an imam.

It should also be noted that Shiites practice the principle of taqiyya, which means pious concealment of one's faith.

Number and places of residence

How many Sunnis and Shiites are there in the world? The majority of Muslims living on the planet today belong to the Sunni branch of Islam. According to various estimates, they make up from 85 to 90% of the followers of this religion.

Most Shiites live in Iran, Iraq (more than half the population), Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Yemen and Lebanon. In Saudi Arabia, Shiism is practiced by approximately 10% of the population.

Sunnis are in the majority in Turkey, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Afghanistan and the rest of Central Asia, Indonesia and the North African countries of Egypt, Morocco and Tunisia. In addition, the majority of Muslims in India and China belong to the Sunni branch of Islam. Russian Muslims are also Sunnis.

As a rule, there are no conflicts between adherents of these movements of Islam when living together in the same territory. Sunnis and Shiites often attend the same mosques, and this also does not cause conflicts.

The current situation in Iraq and Syria is rather an exception caused by political reasons. This conflict is rather related to the confrontation between the Persians and Arabs, which has its roots in the dark depths of centuries.

Alawites

In conclusion, I would like to say a few words about the Alawite religious group, to which Russia’s current ally in the Middle East belongs - Syrian President Bashar al-Assad.

Alawites are a movement (sect) of Shiite Islam, with which it is united by the veneration of the Prophet’s cousin, Caliph Ali. Alawism originated in the 9th century in the Middle East. This religious movement absorbed the features of Ismailism and Gnostic Christianity, and the result was an “explosive mixture” of Islam, Christianity and various pre-Muslim beliefs that existed in these territories.

Today, Alawites make up 10-15% of the Syrian population, their total number is 2-2.5 million people.

Despite the fact that Alawism arose on the basis of Shiism, it is very different from it. Alawites celebrate some Christian holidays such as Easter and Christmas, perform only two prayers a day (although, according to Islamic norms, there should be five), don't attend mosques and may drink alcohol. Alawites revere Jesus Christ (Isa), the Christian apostles, read the Gospel at their services, they do not recognize Sharia.

And if radical Sunnis from among the fighters of the Islamic State (ISIS) do not have a very good attitude towards Shiites, considering them “wrong” Muslims, then they generally call Alawites dangerous heretics who must be destroyed. The attitude towards Alawites is much worse than towards Christians or Jews; Sunnis believe that Alawites insult Islam by the mere fact of their existence.
Not much is known about the religious traditions of the Alawites, as this group actively uses the practice of taqiya, which allows believers to perform the rituals of other religions while maintaining their faith.

In recent years, the Middle East has not left the headlines of news agencies around the world. The region is in a fever; the events taking place here largely determine the global geopolitical agenda. In this place, the interests of the largest players on the world stage are intertwined: the USA, Europe, Russia and China.

To better understand the processes taking place today in Iraq and Syria, it is necessary to look into the past. The contradictions that led to bloody chaos in the region are associated with the characteristics of Islam and the history of the Muslim world, which today is experiencing a real passionary explosion. Every day, events in Syria more and more clearly resemble a religious war, uncompromising and merciless. This has happened before in history: the European Reformation led to centuries of bloody conflicts between Catholics and Protestants.

And if immediately after the events of the “Arab Spring” the conflict in Syria resembled an ordinary armed uprising of the people against an authoritarian regime, today the warring parties can be clearly divided along religious lines: President Assad in Syria is supported by Alawites and Shiites, and the majority of his opponents are Sunnis. The units of the Islamic State (ISIS), the main “horror story” of any Westerner, are also made up of Sunnis - and of the most radical kind.

Who are Sunnis and Shiites? What is the difference? And why is it now that the difference between Sunnis and Shiites has led to armed confrontation between these religious groups?

To find answers to these questions, we will have to travel back in time and go back thirteen centuries, to a period when Islam was a young religion in its infancy. However, before that, a little general information that will help you better understand the issue.

Currents of Islam

Islam is one of the world's largest religions, which is in second place (after Christianity) in terms of the number of followers. The total number of its adherents is 1.5 billion people living in 120 countries. In 28 countries, Islam has been declared the state religion.

Naturally, such a massive religious teaching cannot be homogeneous. Islam includes many different movements, some of which are considered marginal even by Muslims themselves. The two largest sects of Islam are Sunnism and Shiism. There are other, less numerous movements of this religion: Sufism, Salafism, Ismailism, Jamaat Tabligh and others.

History and essence of the conflict

The split of Islam into Shiites and Sunnis occurred soon after the emergence of this religion, in the second half of the 7th century. Moreover, its reasons concerned not so much the tenets of faith as pure politics, and to be even more precise, a banal struggle for power led to the split.

Another part of the believers believed that any worthy and authoritative person chosen by the community could become a leader.

Believers who believed that Muslims should be ruled by people from the clan of Ali formed a religious movement of Islam called “Shiism”; accordingly, its followers began to be called Shiites. Translated from Arabic, this word means “adherents, followers (Ali).” Another part of the believers, who considered the exclusivity of this kind of doubtful, formed the Sunni movement. This name appeared because Sunnis confirmed their position with quotations from the Sunnah, the second most important source in Islam after the Koran.

By the way, Shiites consider the Koran, recognized by Sunnis, to be partially falsified. In their opinion, information about the need to appoint Ali as Muhammad's successor was removed from it.

This is the main and fundamental difference between Sunnis and Shiites. It became the cause of the first civil war that occurred in the Arab Caliphate.

In the Middle Ages, Shiite Persia was constantly at odds with the Sunni Ottoman Empire, which largely prevented the latter from completely conquering Europe. Despite the fact that these conflicts were rather politically motivated, religious differences also played an important role in them.

Sunnis and Shiites reached a new level of confrontation after a series of revolutions (known as the “Arab Spring”) that swept across the region. The conflict in Syria has clearly divided the warring parties along religious lines: the Syrian Alawite president is protected by the Iranian Islamic Guard Corps and the Shiite Hezbollah from Lebanon, and is opposed by detachments of Sunni militants supported by various states in the region.

How else do Sunnis and Shiites differ?

There are other differences between the Sunni and Shia branches of Islam:

Sunnis exclusively revere the Prophet Muhammad, while Shiites, in addition, glorify his cousin Ali. Sunnis revere the entire text of the Sunnah (their second name is “people of the Sunnah”), while Shiites only respect the part that concerns the Prophet and his family members. Sunnis believe that strictly following the Sunnah is one of the main duties of a Muslim. In this regard, they can be called dogmatists: the Taliban in Afghanistan strictly regulate even the details of a person’s appearance and behavior.
If the largest Muslim holidays - Eid al-Adha and Kurban Bayram - are celebrated equally by both branches of Islam, then the tradition of celebrating the day of Ashura among Sunnis and Shiites has a significant difference. For Shiites, this day is a memorial day.
Sunnis and Shiites have different attitudes towards such a norm of Islam as temporary marriage. The latter consider this a normal phenomenon and do not limit the number of such marriages. Sunnis consider such an institution illegal, since Muhammad himself abolished it.
There are differences in the places of traditional pilgrimage: Sunnis visit Mecca and Medina in Saudi Arabia, and Shiites visit Najaf or Karbala in Iraq.
Sunnis are required to perform five namaz (prayers) a day, while Shiites can limit themselves to three.

However, the main thing in which these two directions of Islam differ is the method of electing power and the attitude towards it. Among Sunnis, an imam is simply a clergyman who presides over a mosque. The Shiites have a completely different attitude to this issue. The head of the Shiites, the imam, is a spiritual leader who governs not only matters of faith, but also politics. He seems to stand above government structures. Moreover, the imam must come from the family of the Prophet Muhammad.

Sunnis do not at all believe in the infallibility of people, and Shiites believe that their imams are completely sinless.

Shiites believe in twelve righteous imams (descendants of Ali), the fate of the last of whom (his name was Muhammad al-Mahdi) is unknown. He simply disappeared without a trace at the end of the 9th century. Shiites believe that al-Mahdi will return to the people on the eve of the Last Judgment to restore order in the world.

It should also be noted that Shiites practice the principle of taqiyya, which means pious concealment of one's faith.

Number and places of residence of Sunnis and Shiites

Most Shiites live in Iran, Iraq (more than half the population), Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Yemen and Lebanon. In Saudi Arabia, Shiism is practiced by approximately 10% of the population.

Sunnis are in the majority in Turkey, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Afghanistan and the rest of Central Asia, Indonesia and the North African countries of Egypt, Morocco and Tunisia. In addition, the majority of Muslims in India and China belong to the Sunni branch of Islam. Russian Muslims are also Sunnis.

As a rule, there are no conflicts between adherents of these movements of Islam when living together in the same territory. Sunnis and Shiites often attend the same mosques, and this also does not cause conflicts.

The current situation in Iraq and Syria is rather an exception caused by political reasons. This conflict is associated with the confrontation between the Persians and Arabs, which has its roots in the dark depths of centuries.

Alawites

In conclusion, I would like to say a few words about the Alawite religious group, to which Russia’s current ally in the Middle East, Syrian President Bashar al-Assad, belongs.

Today, Alawites make up 10-15% of the Syrian population, their total number is 2-2.5 million people.

Despite the fact that Alawism arose on the basis of Shiism, it is very different from it. Alawites celebrate some Christian holidays, such as Easter and Christmas, perform only two prayers a day, do not attend mosques, and may drink alcohol. Alawites revere Jesus Christ (Isa), the Christian apostles, the Gospel is read at their services, they do not recognize Sharia.

Not much is known about the religious traditions of the Alawites, since this group actively uses the practice of taqiya, which allows believers to perform the rituals of other religions while maintaining their faith.

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, Iraq and Bahrain. According to various estimates, from 27% to 35% of the Lebanese population adhere to the Shia faith; up to 30% in Kuwait.

Shiism is professed by the Balti people living in Northern India and Pakistan, as well as Burishi (Ismailis) and some Pashtun tribes: Turi (English), most bangash (English) and some Orakzais (English). The majority of the inhabitants of the Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region of Tajikistan - the Pamir peoples (except for some of the Yazgulem people) belong to the Ismaili current of Shiism.

The number of Shiites in Russia is insignificant. The Tats living in the Republic of Dagestan, the Lezgins of the village of Miskindzha, as well as the Azerbaijani communities of Dagestan belong to this direction of Islam. In addition, the majority of Azerbaijanis living in Russia are Shiites (in Azerbaijan itself, Shiites make up about 85% of the Muslim population).

Islam arose in the 7th century and already in the first century of its existence, the single Muslim community (ummah) split into three directions - Sunnism, Shiism and Kharijism. The main criterion that became the impetus for the split in the Islamic religion initially lay in the question of the nature and nature of the supreme power in a Muslim state. Some Muslims formulated the concept according to which power is transferred by decision of the community (ummah) to the most respected Muslim from the Quraysh tribe, to which the Prophet Muhammad belonged. Another part of Muslims recognized the family and direct descendants of the prophet (Ahl al-Bayt) as his only legitimate heirs and spiritual successors.

During the intense struggle for power that unfolded in the caliphate at the beginning of the second half of the 7th century between the cousin, son-in-law and sahab of the prophet Muhammad - Ali and his opponents in the person of the Umayyads, a religious and political group was formed ( ash-shia) supporters of the rights of Ali and his children. This group became the core of a movement that would later lead to the split of the Muslim community into two main parts - Sunnis and Shiites. The schism went beyond dynastic rivalries within the caliphate, having a profound impact on the fate of the Muslim world. According to legend, the prophet Muhammad reported about the split in the Islamic community. According to one hadith, the prophet said: “The Jews split into 71 sects. And the people of Nazareth were split asunder(that is, Christians - approx.) for 72 sects. And my ummah will split(that is, the community of believers - approx.) for 73 sects". There are different versions of this hadith, but they all report the split of the Muslim community into 73 sects.

There is no generally accepted opinion about the emergence of the Shiite movement. Some believe that it arose during the time of the prophet, others - after his death, others attribute the origin of Shiism to the reign of Ali, others - to the period after his assassination. As S. M. Prozorov notes,. I.P. Petrushevsky believes that Shiism developed into a religious movement in the period of time from the death of Hussein in 680 until the establishment of the Abbasid dynasty in 749/750, and during the same period, splits began in it. During the lifetime of the prophet himself, the first to be called "shiya"(i.e. "Shiite"), were Salman al-Farisi and Abu Dharr al-Ghifari, al-Miqdad ibn al-Aswad and Ammar ibn Yasir.

“these discrepancies are due to the fact that the authors, calling the followers of “Ali” Shiites, do not give a clear definition of this term and do not take into account the change in its content”

Returning from his last pilgrimage, the Prophet Muhammad, in the town of Ghadir Khumm, located between Mecca and Medina, made a statement to Ali. Muhammad declared that Ali was his heir and brother, and those who accepted the prophet as mawla should accept Ali as his mawla. Shia Muslims believe that in this way the Prophet Muhammad declared Ali as his successor. The Sunni tradition recognizes this fact, but does not attach much importance to it, while the Shiites solemnly celebrate this day as a holiday. In addition, according to the hadith, the prophet said: “I leave among you two valuable things, if you stick to them, you will never get lost: the Koran and my family; they will never separate until the day of judgment". As proof of the imamate of Ali, the Shiites cite another hadith about how Muhammad, calling on his closest relatives and fellow tribesmen, pointed to Ali, who was then still a boy, saying: .

“This is my brother, my successor (wasi) and my deputy (califa) after me. Listen to him and obey him!

Prophet Muhammad died on June 8, 632 at his home in Medina. Almost immediately after his death, a group of Ansars gathered in one of the city's quarters to resolve the issue of a successor. They were later joined by the prophet's companions Abu Bakr and Umar. At the meeting, several people (sahaba Abu Dharr al-Gifari, al-Miqdad ibn al-Aswad and Persian Salman al-Farisi) spoke out as supporters of Ali’s rights to the caliphate, but they were not listened to. Ali himself and Muhammad's family were at this time busy preparing the funeral of the prophet. The result of the meeting was the election of Abu Bakr as “deputy messenger of Allah” - Caliph Rasuli-l-lahi, or simply caliph. Upon his death, Abu Bakr recommended Umar as his successor, and the community unanimously swore allegiance to him. Dying, Umar named the six most respected veterans of Islam (Ali, Uthman ibn Affan, Saad ibn Abu Waqqas, Abd ar-Rahman ibn Auf, Talha and az-Zubayr) and ordered them to choose a new caliph from among them. Uthman was elected the new caliph.

Shiites consider the first three caliphs to be usurpers who deprived of power the only legitimate owner - Ali, and the Kharijites, on the contrary, consider only Abu Bakr and Umar to be righteous caliphs. When the Abbasid dynasty, descended from the uncle of the prophet al-Abbas, came to power in the caliphate in the middle of the 8th century, its representatives began to make claims to legitimate power in the Muslim community, thus becoming competitors to the descendants of Ali. The Abbasid caliph al-Mahdi officially called all four caliphs usurpers and declared that the caliphate and imamate after the death of the Prophet Muhammad belonged to his uncle al-Abbas and his descendants. Sometimes they tried to present the first caliphs, starting with Abu Bakr, as “presidents” elected democratically. The English researcher B. Lewis noticed that not only the second, but already.

“The first caliph... Abu Bakr was elected in a way that, according to our point of view, can be called a coup d'etat (that is, a coup d'etat - approx.). The second, Umar, simply assumed power de facto, probably on the instructions of his predecessor."

In June 656, Muslims dissatisfied with Uthman's policies besieged his house, and forty days later they burst inside and killed the caliph. Three days after the assassination of Uthman, Ali was elected the new caliph. However, the governor of Syria and Uthman's second cousin, Muawiyah from the Umayyad family, refused to swear allegiance to the new caliph, as a person (as he believed) who had stained himself with connections with the murderers of Caliph Uthman. In addition to him, the closest companions of the prophet, brother-in-law Talha ibn Ubaydullah and cousin al-Zubayr, as well as the prophet’s wife Aisha, also opposed Ali. The rivalry between Ali and his opponents that arose in the caliphate caused the first civil war (fitnah). Talha, al-Zubayr and Aisha were defeated by Ali in the "Battle of the Camel".

The apogee of the confrontation with Muawiya was the Battle of Siffin. The battle was not going well for Muawiyah, and Ali was favored to win. The situation was saved by the governor of Egypt, Amr al-As, who proposed pinning scrolls of the Koran on spears. The battle was stopped. During these clashes, Ali lost 25 thousand, and Muawiya 45 thousand people. Among those who fought on Ali's side and died in the Battle of Siffin was one of the most famous companions of the Prophet Muhammad, Ammar ibn Yasir. Ali agreed to arbitration, but it ended in vain. Dissatisfied with his indecisiveness, part of Ali's supporters moved away from him and formed a third Muslim movement - the Kharijites, who opposed both Ali and Mu'awiya. J. Wellhausen called the Shiite and Kharijite parties “religious and political parties of opposition” to the Umayyads.

In 660, Muawiyah was proclaimed caliph in Jerusalem. In January 661, Ali was killed by a Kharijite in the mosque of Kufa. In the years following his assassination, Mu'awiya's successors cursed Ali's memory in mosques and ceremonial gatherings, and Ali's followers retaliated against the first three caliphs as usurpers and the "dog of Mu'awiya."

Truly, what prompted me to write this letter to you was my innocence before Allah, the Great and Glorious, in my dealings with you. And you should do a great deed, in which it would be good for Muslims: give up your stubbornness in a false cause and enter into what people have entered, and swear allegiance to me. After all, you know that I have more rights to this matter than you, in the eyes of Allah and all the repentant, the preserved and those who turn their hearts to Allah. Fear Allah and leave the outrage, stop shedding the blood of Muslims, because, I swear by Allah, it is no good for you if you appear before Allah with this abundantly shed of their blood. Enter into peace and humility and do not dispute the matter with the people to whom it belongs, and with the one who has more rights to it than you, and may Allah extinguish the anger with this, and unite the speeches, and settle civil strife. And if in your delusion you want nothing more than humiliation, then I will come to you with the Muslims and will sue you until Allah judges us - and he is the best judge...You mention the disputes of Muslims over this matter after him (Muhammad) and bring charges against Abu Bakr the Truthful, and Umar the Discerning, and Abu Ubaydah the Reliable, and Talha and az-Zubayr, and the blameless Muhajirs, whose decision is unpleasant to you, Abu Muhammad. But when the community argued about this matter after its prophet Muhammad - may Allah bless him and grant him peace - it knew that the Quraish had more rights in this regard, because its prophet was one of them. Then the Quraish and the Ansars, and the worthy Muslims, and the believers decided to entrust this matter to the most knowledgeable of Allah and the most God-fearing of them, the very first of them in Islam, and chose Abu Bakr the Most Truthful, although they knew the position of a person who is more worthy than Abu Bakr, who took it place and protecting the heritage of Islam, but they refused him this.Now the situation between you and me is the same as it was with him. If I knew that you are firmer in the affairs of your subjects, and more caring towards this community, and better at governing, and more cunning with the enemy, and stronger in all matters, then I would hand over this matter to you after your father, because I know that you claim the same thing that your father claimed. You know that your father came out against us and fought with us, and then things turned out in such a way that he chose a man and we chose a man, so that the two of them would make a decision that would settle the matter of this community, and with his help, friendliness would return and unity. And we obliged both judges to follow the covenants of Allah and loyalty to him in this matter, and they obliged us to do the same so that we would agree with what they decide. Then they agreed on your father’s abdication and abdicated him. And since you call me to this matter, seeking the right of your father, and your father has lost it, then take care, O Abu Muhammad, of yourself and your religion. And peace.

The confrontation between the house of Ali and the Umayyads broke out again. Hassan was forced to sign an agreement with Muawiya, according to the terms of which, after the death of Muawiya, power over the Muslim community was to pass back to Hassan.

The motive for the death of Usman was one of the reasons why Hassan was not buried next to his grandfather, the Prophet Muhammad. Hassan wanted to be buried next to the grave of his grandfather, but the governor of Medina, Marwan bin al-Hakam, stood in the way of the funeral procession, forbidding him to be buried next to the prophet as punishment for the undignified funeral of Uthman, to which Hassan himself had nothing to do. In the resulting skirmish, which threatened to develop into bloodshed, Muhammad bin Ali persuaded Ali's youngest son, Hussein, to bury his brother next to his mother in the al-Baki cemetery.

The agreement between Hasan and Mu'awiyah was decisively rejected by Hussein. He refused to swear allegiance to Muawiyah, but he, on the advice of Hasan, did not force him. After Muawiyah's death, power passed to his son Yazid I, to whom Hussein also refused to swear allegiance. The Kufis immediately swore an oath of allegiance to Hussein and called him to them. Surrounded by his relatives and closest people, Hussein moved from Mecca to Kufa. On the way, he received news that the action in Iraq had been suppressed, but nevertheless Hussein continued on his way. In the town of Ninewa, Hussein’s detachment of 72 people clashed with the 40,000-strong army of the caliph. In a stubborn battle they were killed (many of those killed were members of the family of the Prophet Muhammad), including Hussein himself, the rest were taken prisoner. Among the dead, more than twenty people were Hussein’s closest relatives and, accordingly, members of the prophet’s family, of whom two were Hussein’s sons (Ali al-Akbar (English) and Ali al-Askar (English)), six paternal brothers of Hussein, three sons of Imam Hassan and three sons of Abdullah ibn Jafar (English)(nephew and son-in-law of Ali), and three sons and three grandsons of Aqeel ibn Abu Talib (English)(Ali's brother, cousin and sahab of the prophet). The head of the prophet's grandson was sent to Caliph Yazid I in Damascus.

The death of Hussein contributed to the religious and political unification of adherents of the Ali clan, and he himself became not only a symbol of the Shiite movement, but also a significant figure in the entire Muslim world. Among Shiites, Hussein is considered the third imam. The day of his death is celebrated with the deepest mourning (shahsey-vahsey). It is noteworthy that commemoration on the day of Ashura occurs not only among Shiites, but in some places also among Sunnis. For example, in Central Asia, in particular in Fergana and Samarkand, among Sunnis, especially women, muridoks of local ishans, special rituals took place with the reading of religious poems about the death of Hussein, which were called Ashuri. The cult of Hassan and Husayn also exists among Sunni Muslims of the Shafi'i school, particularly in the Deccan (India) and Indonesia. Among Indonesian Muslims.

“The holiday is called the “Feast of Hasan-Hussein” because in Indonesia the predominant form of Islam (Shafiites) dates back to the influence of the Deccan. And in the southern part of India, Hussein’s brother Hassan is considered a saint.”

In the middle of the 8th century, a rebellion broke out in Khorasan against the Umayyads, which led to their overthrow and the establishment of the Abbasid dynasty, descended from the uncle of the Prophet Muhammad. At first, the Abbasids did not take a firm position regarding the descendants of Ali and Fatima (Alids), but soon not only a political, but also a religious and ideological struggle for power developed between these groups. The first of the Abbasids to systematically exterminate the Alids was Caliph al-Mansur. After his death, many corpses of executed Alids were discovered in the caliph’s secret cellars. Labels were tied to their ears, indicating the identity of the executed person. According to the information of Muhammad al-Mughniyya, during the period of his reign, al-Mansur destroyed over a thousand descendants of Ali and Fatima.

In a number of individual regions, which under the Abbasids began to gradually fall away from the caliphate, the Alids came to power. Thus, in 788, the great-grandson of Imam Hassan, Idris, who took part in the Alid uprising against the Abbasids in 786, created the Idrisid state in the north of Morocco. The Idrisids became the first dynasty formed by adherents of the Zaydi sect of Shiism. However, it was not the only North African state with a Shiite twist. Elements of Shiism were also present in the religious beliefs of the Berber tribal confederation of Bharghawat (English) .

Caliph Al-Mamun, who came to power in 813, began a policy of rapprochement with the Alids. By his order, in 816, the eighth Shia imam, Ali ibn Musa, was brought from Medina to Khorasan. Upon the latter's arrival, al-Ma'mun gave him laqab ar-Riza and on March 24, 817, proclaimed him his heir (vali'ahd). The caliph married his daughter Umm Habib to Imam Reza and sealed the union between Reza's son, Muhammad, who was then six years old, and his other daughter, Umm al-Fazl. Moreover, al-Mamun ordered the official black color of the Abbasids to be replaced with green, the color of the Shiites, and also ordered the name of Ali ar-Riza to be minted on coins after him: “ar-Riza, Imam of the Muslims.” Al-Mamun made attempts to achieve ideological unanimity among Muslims - for the first time to formulate an official dogma of faith that would satisfy both Sunnis and Shiites. In 827, the Shia slogan "Ali is the best of men" was officially adopted - with the qualification "after Muhammad", and Mu'awiyah I was censured. The policies pursued by Caliph al-Ma'mun met with opposition among members of the Abbasid dynasty. They proclaimed his uncle, Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi, caliph in Baghdad.

At the beginning of the 9th century, the name probably appears Imamites(al-imamiya), another name for which isna'asharites(al-isna'ashariyya). The first to be called Imami were the Shia theologians Ali ibn Ismail al-Tammar and Muhammad ibn Khalil al-Saqqaq. By that time, the Shiite teaching had noticeably spread throughout Arab Iraq and its neighboring regions. At the end of the 10th century, al-Khwarizmi cites Babylonia as a classic example of a Shia region. Already in the 10th century, the inhabitants of Qom were Shiites. During the same period, Basra became Shiite, about which even in the 9th century they could say: “Basra - for Osman, Kufa - for Ali.”

The territory of the Fatimid Caliphate against the backdrop of the modern borders of Asia and Africa.

At the beginning of the 10th century, an uprising of Ismailis (“extreme Shiites”) broke out on the territory of Ifriqiya (modern Tunisia), led by Ubeydallah, who declared himself a descendant of Ali and Fatima. In January 910, in Raqqada (near Kairouan), Ubeydallah was proclaimed caliph and mahdi. A few years later in 929, the Emir of Cordoba, Abd ar-Rahman III, also assumed the title of Caliph and “Head of the Faithful.” Thus, as L.A. Semyonova rightly notes. The Fatimids not only established their power along the entire African coast, also subjugating the Idrisids, but also extended it to Sicily. During the Fatimid reign, the al-Azhar mosque was built in Cairo and the university of the same name was founded, which later became the largest theological school in Egypt.

“The formation of a Shiite state in North Africa meant the split of the Muslim world into three caliphates hostile to each other: the Fatimids, the Abbasids and the Umayyads of Cordoba”

In the middle of the 11th century, the power of the Ismaili Sulayhid dynasty was established in Yemen. In the 11th-12th centuries, Ismailism established itself in Gorno-Badakhshan, and from the very beginning its followers were persecuted by representatives of the orthodox Sunni clergy.

In the 10th century, the Daylemite dynasty of the Buyids (Buwaikhids) rose in Western Asia, making the Abbasids dependent on them. The Buyids belonged to the Isna'Shari (Twelver) direction of Shiism. In their era, a certain systematization and intellectualization of Shiite theology took place. At the same time, the Buyids showed hostility towards the political opponents of the Abbasids - the Ismaili Fatimids. The Kara Koyunlu state, which existed in the XIV-XV centuries in Western Asia, belonged to the Shiites.

“so that in the squares [people] would loosen their tongues to mock and curse Abu Bakr, Umar and Usman, and cut off the head of anyone who would resist”

In 1943, Lebanon's Muslim and Christian communities entered into an oral agreement known as the National Pact, laying the foundation for Lebanon as a multi-religious state. In accordance with the National Pact, a Shiite Muslim is assigned one of the three main posts in the state - the chairman of parliament, while the Maronite Christian and Sunni Muslim are assigned the positions of president and head of government, respectively. In 1949, the Progressive Socialist Party of Lebanon was founded, with Druze as its core.

In the second half of the 20th century, a new political alignment on a religious basis emerged in the Islamic world. In the 1970s The Alawite minority came to power in Syria. In 1979, during the Islamic revolution in Iran, the Shah's regime was overthrown and a new form of government was established. The constitution adopted after the victory of the Islamic revolution in Iran declared that (Article 12). The establishment of a Shiite Islamic regime in Iran, equally distant from both the USA and the USSR and the secular and Sunni regimes in the region, became a completely new factor in the political situation in that period. The revolution in Iran became one of the key events of the 20th century and had enormous historical significance for the whole world.

The Iranian revolution was greeted with enthusiasm among Bahraini Shiites. Some Shiite politicians formed the Islamic Front for the Liberation of Bahrain (English), came up with the idea of declaring an “Islamic republic” in the country, while others demanded that the monarch agree to form a new, “Islamic” government. Some even began to raise the issue of Bahrain joining Iran. The response to these sentiments was the government’s campaign against opposition forces, which was anti-Shiite in nature. Many Shia activists were imprisoned. On December 14, 1981, the foiled coup attempt was announced. (English), in the organization of which the authorities accused Bahraini Shiites from among the members of the Islamic Liberation Front, as well as “Khomeinists” from Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Oman.

The Islamic revolution caused no less uprising of the Shiite masses in neighboring Iraq. Back in 1968, the underground political movement “ad-Daawa al-Islamiyya” (“Islamic call”) was founded in Iraq, which expanded in the 1970s. armed struggle against the Baathist regime. The leader of the Iranian revolution, Ayatollah Khomeini, openly called on Iraqi Shiites to overthrow the ruling regime. The Iraqi authorities launched brutal repressions against the Dawa party. Even membership in this party was punishable by death. Ayatollah Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr and his sister Amina al-Sadr were arrested and then executed. In 1991, after Iraq's defeat in the Gulf War, a Shiite uprising broke out in the south of the country. (English)(“Shaabani intifada”), brutally suppressed by parts of the Iraqi army.

The Lebanese Shia Amal militia was active in the resistance during the 1982 Israeli invasion. During the Civil War in Lebanon, another paramilitary group arose among the Lebanese Shiites - Hezbollah, which advocated the creation of an Islamic state in Lebanon modeled on Iran.

“the possibility of broad and comprehensive development in areas inhabited by professing Hazaras, be it in Hazarajat, Kabul or other cities”

In 2002, in Yemen, Zaydis from the Al-Houthi group launched an armed struggle against the central government in the country's northwestern province of Saada. The government accused the rebels of intending to overthrow the ruling government and establish their own power led by the Imam. The rebels, in turn, argued that they were only protecting their community from discrimination by the authorities.

To strengthen mutual understanding and formalize dialogue between followers of the two branches of Islam (Shiism and Sunniism), the Sunni-Shiite Theological Council was established in May 2011 in Jakarta with the support of the Indonesian government.

The predominant trend in Shiism is the Imami, among whom a split occurred into Twelver Shiites (Isna'Sharites) and Ismailis. Al-Shahrastani names the following sects of the Imami: Bakirites, Navusites, Aftahites, Shumayris, Ismailis-Waqifites, Musawites and Isnaasharis, while other heresiographers (al-Ashari, Naubakhti) identify three main sects: Qatites (later becoming Isnaasharites), Shukkarites and vaqifites.

(English) Russian , most bangash (English) Russian and some Orakzais (English) Russian . The majority of the inhabitants of the Gorno-Badakhshan region of Tajikistan - the Pamir peoples (except for some of the Yazgulem people) belong to the Ismaili current of Shiism.

Branches of Shiism

The predominant trend in Shiism is the Imami, among whom a split occurred into Twelver Shiites (Isna'Sharites) and Ismailis. Al-Shahrastani names the following sects of the Imamis (Bakiris, Navusites, Aftahites, Shumayris, Ismailis-Waqifites, Musawites and Isnaasharis), while other heresiographers (al-Ashari, Naubakhti) identify three main sects: Qatites (later becoming Isnaasharites), Shukkarites and Waqifites.

Currently, relations between the Twelvers (as well as the Zaydis) and other Shiite movements sometimes take on tense forms. Despite the similarities in doctrine, in fact these are different communities. Shiites are traditionally divided into two large groups: moderate (Twelver Shiites, Zaydis) and extreme (Ismailis, Alawites, Alevis, etc.). At the same time, since the 70s of the 20th century, a reverse gradual process of rapprochement between moderate Shiites and Alawites and Ismailis began.

Twelver Shiites (Isna'asharis)

Twelver Shiites or isna'asharites are the predominant trend within Shia Islam, predominantly widespread in Iran, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Iraq and Lebanon, and also represented in other countries. This term denotes the Shia Imami, recognizing 12 successive imams from the Ali clan.

Twelve Imams

Ali ibn Abu Talib (died 661) - cousin, son-in-law and sahab of the prophet Muhammad, husband of his daughter Fatima, fourth and last righteous caliph.
Hassan ibn Ali (died 669) - eldest son of Ali and Fatima.
Hussein ibn Ali (died 680) - the youngest son of Ali and Fatima, who died a martyr's death in the Battle of Karbala against the army of Caliph Yazid I.
Zain al-Abidin (died 713)
Muhammad al-Baqir (died 733)
Jafar al-Sadiq (died 765) - founder of one of the Islamic legal schools - the Jafarite madhhab.
Musa al-Kazim (died 799)
Ali ar-Rida (or Imam Reza), (died 818)
Muhammad at-Taqi (died 835)
Ali an-Naqi (died 865)
al-Hasan al-Askari (died 873)
Muhammad al-Mahdi (Mahdi) is the name of the last of the 12 Imams. The Mahdi in Islam is like the Messiah, who went into hiding at the age of five. This cover-up, according to the Imami Shiites, continues to this day.

Five Basic Pillars of Faith

The Shia faith is based on five main pillars:

Ismailism

Ismailis are adherents of the Shia Muslim sect. Unlike the Isnaasharites (Twelvers), they successively recognize seven imams before Jafar al-Sadiq, but after him they erect the imamate not to Musa al-Kazim, but to Jafar’s other son, Ismail, who died before his father.

In the 9th century, the Ismailis split into the Fatimid Ismailis, who recognized hidden imams, and the Qarmatians, who believed that there should be seven imams. At the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th centuries, the Qarmatians ceased to exist.

The territory of the Fatimid Caliphate against the backdrop of the modern borders of Asia and Africa.

In the 10th century, a vast Ismaili Fatimid state emerged in North Africa.

After the fall of the Fatimids, the spiritual center of another Ismaili branch, the Mustalites, moved to Yemen, and in the 17th century to the Indian city of Gujarat, where most of them settled. At the same time, they were divided into the Daudites (most of the Mustalites), who moved to India, and the Sulaimanis, who remained in Yemen.

In the 18th century, the Shah of Persia officially recognized Ismailism as a movement of Shiism.

Druze

The Druze are an ethno-confessional group of Muslims (although some Islamic authorities believed that the Druze had moved so far away from other Islamic movements that they had lost the right to be considered Muslims), an offshoot of the Ismailis. The sect arose at the beginning of the 11th century under the influence of the preaching of a number of preachers and supporters of the Egyptian Ismaili ruler Hakem among the Ismailis of Egypt, Syria and Lebanon.

The name of the sect goes back to the name of the missionary Darazi (d. 1017), whom the Druze themselves consider an apostate, preferring to be called al-muwahhidun(Unitarians, or professing monotheism). There were dynasties of ruling emirs among the Druze, such as Maans, Shihabs, etc. In 1949, the Progressive Socialist Party of Lebanon was founded, with Druze as its core.

Alawites

Map of Alawite settlement in Syria, Lebanon and Turkey.

At the heart of their dogmas one can find the spiritual traditions of many teachings and beliefs: Ismailism, Gnostic Christianity, Shiism, pre-Islamic astral cults, Greek philosophy. All Alawites are divided into a privileged group of “hassa” (“initiated”), who are the owners of sacred books and special knowledge, and the bulk - “amma” (“uninitiated”), who are assigned the role of novices-performers.

They were the main population of the Alawite State. The Assad family, Syrian presidents Hafez al-Assad and his son Bashar al-Assad, belong to the Alawites.

Zaydis

Zaydis represent a branch of "moderate" Shiites found in northeastern Yemen; also one of the branches is nukvatites, common in Iran.

The Zaydis formed in the 8th century. Zaydis accept the legitimacy of the caliphs Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman, which distinguishes them from the Isna'asharites (Twelvers) and the Ismailis. They also differ from other Shiites in that they deny the doctrine of the “hidden imam”, the practice of “taqiyya”, etc.

The Zaydis formed the states of the Idrisids, Alavids, etc., and also established power in part of the territory of Yemen, where their imams ruled until the revolution on September 26, 1962.

Other movements

Ahl-e Haqq or Yarsan is an extreme Shia esoteric teaching, rooted in the Mesopotamian currents of Ghulat, and widespread in the west of Iran and the east of Iraq mainly among the Kurds.

Among the Shiites there is another movement - the Navusites, who believe that Imam Jafar al-Sadiq did not die, but went to ghaibah.

Kaysanites

Main article: Kaysanites

The disappeared branch - the Kaysanites, formed at the end of the 7th century. They proclaimed Ali's son, Muhammad ibn al-Hanafi, as the imam, but since he was not the son of the prophet's daughter, most Shiites rejected this choice. According to one version, they got their name from the nickname of al-Mukhtar ibn Abi Ubaid al-Sakafi - Kaysan, who led the uprising in Kufa under the slogan of protecting the rights of al-Hanafiyya and avenging the blood of Imam Hussein, according to another version - on behalf of the head of the guard al-Mukhtar Abu Amr Kaysan. The Kaysanites split into a number of sects: Mukhtarites, Hashemites, Bayanites and Rizamites. The Kaysanite communities ceased to exist in the middle of the 9th century.

Origins of Shiism

There is no generally accepted opinion about the emergence of the Shiite movement. Some believe that it arose during the time of the prophet, others - after his death, others attribute the origin of Shiism to the reign of Ali, others - to the period after his assassination. As S.M. notes Prozorov “these discrepancies are due to the fact that the authors, calling the followers of “Ali” Shiites, do not give a clear definition of this term and do not take into account the change in its content”. I.P. Petrushevsky believes that Shiism developed into a religious movement in the period of time from the death of Hussein in 680 until the establishment of the Abbasid dynasty in 749/750, and during the same period, splits began within it. During the lifetime of the prophet himself, the first to be called Shiites were Salman and Abu Dharr, Migdad and Ammar.

Ali's succession

Investiture of Ali in Ghadir Khumm.

Returning from his last pilgrimage, the Prophet Muhammad, in the town of Ghadir Khumm, located between Mecca and Medina, made a statement to Ali. Muhammad declared that Ali was his heir and brother and those who accepted the prophet as mawla (English) Russian , must accept Ali as his mawla. Shia Muslims believe that by doing so, the Prophet Muhammad declared Ali as his successor. The Sunni tradition recognizes this fact, but does not attach much importance to it, while the Shiites solemnly celebrate this day as a holiday. Moreover, according to the hadith thaqalayn, the prophet said: “I leave among you two valuable things, if you stick to them, you will never get lost: the Koran and my family; they will never separate until the day of judgment". As evidence of the imamate of Ali, the Shiites cite another hadith about how Muhammad, calling on his closest relatives and fellow tribesmen, pointed to Ali, who was then still a boy, saying: “This is my brother, my successor (wasi) and my deputy (califa) after me. Listen to him and obey him! .

Prophet Muhammad died on June 8, 632 at his home in Medina. After his death, a group of Ansars gathered to resolve the issue of a successor. When the new head of the community was elected, a number of people (sahaba Abu Zarr al-Gifari, Miqdad ibn al-Aswad and Persian Salman al-Farisi) came out as supporters of Ali’s rights to the caliphate, but they were not listened to. Ali himself and Muhammad's family were at this time busy preparing the funeral of the prophet. The result of the meeting was the election of “deputy Messenger of Allah” - Caliph Rasuli-l-lahi, or simply caliph one of the prophet's companions - Abu Bakr. Upon his death, Abu Bakr recommended Umar as his successor, and the community unanimously swore allegiance to him. Dying, Omar named the six most respected veterans of Islam and ordered them to choose a new caliph from among them. Among those named by him were Ali and Uthman; the latter became the new caliph. The Shiites consider the first three caliphs to be usurpers who deprived of power the only legitimate owner - Ali, and the Kharijites, on the contrary, consider only Abu Bakr and Umar to be righteous caliphs. Sometimes they tried to present the first caliphs, starting with Abu Bakr, as “presidents” elected democratically. The English researcher B. Lewis noticed that not only the second, but also “the first caliph... Abu Bakr was elected in a way that, according to our point of view, can be called a coup d'etat (i.e. coup d'etat - approx.). The second, Omar, simply assumed power de facto , probably on the instructions of his predecessor" .

Caliphate Ali

Territories under the control of Caliph Ali Territories under the control of Mu'awiyah I Territory under the control of Amr ibn al-As

The apogee of the confrontation with Muawiya was the Battle of Siffin. The battle was not going well for Muawiyah, and Ali was favored to win. The situation was saved by the governor of Egypt, Amr al-As, who proposed pinning scrolls of the Koran on spears. The battle was stopped. Ali agreed to arbitration, but it ended in vain. Dissatisfied with his indecisiveness, some of Ali's supporters moved away from him and formed a third Muslim movement - the Kharijites, who opposed both Ali and Muawiyah. J. Wellhausen called the Shiite and Kharijite parties “religious and political parties of opposition” to the Umayyads.

In 660, Muawiyah was proclaimed caliph in Jerusalem. In January 661, Ali was killed by a Kharijite in the mosque of Kufa. Over the following years after Ali's assassination, Mu'awiyah's successors cursed Ali's memory in mosques and at ceremonial gatherings, and Ali's followers retaliated in kind to the first three caliphs as usurpers and to "Muawiyah's dog."

Hassan

Hussein: tragedy in Karbala

The agreement between Hassan and Muawiyah was decisively rejected by Hussein. He refused to swear allegiance to Muawiyah, but he, on the advice of Hasan, did not force him. After Mu'awiya's death, power passed to his son Yazid I, to whom Hussein also refused to swear allegiance. The Kufis immediately swore an oath of allegiance to Hussein and called him to them. Surrounded by his relatives and closest people, Hussein moved from Mecca to Kufa. On the way, he received news that the action in Iraq had been suppressed, but nevertheless Husayn continued on his way. In the town of Ninewa, Hussein's detachment of 72 people clashed with the Caliph's 4,000-strong army. In a stubborn battle they were killed (many of those killed were members of the family of the Prophet Muhammad), including Hussein himself, the rest were taken prisoner. Among the dead, more than twenty people were Hussein’s closest relatives and, accordingly, members of the prophet’s family, of which two were Hussein’s sons (Ali al-Akbar (English) Russian and Ali al-Askar (English) Russian ), six paternal brothers of Hussein, three sons of Imam Hassan and three sons of Abdullah ibn Jafar (English) Russian (nephew and son-in-law of Ali), and three sons and three grandsons of Aqeel ibn Abu Talib (English) Russian (Ali's brother, cousin and sahab of the prophet). The head of the prophet's grandson was sent to Caliph Yazid in Damascus.

Story

Abbasid era

New time

XX century

Major unrest between Shiites and Sunnis occurred in January 1910 in Bukhara. The head of the government of the Bukhara Emirate, Kushbegi Astanakula, whose mother came from Iran, granted permission to openly celebrate in the city of Ashura, which was previously allowed only within the borders of the Iranian quarter. However, the Sunni crowd began to mock Shiite rituals and showered ridicule on the Shiite procession as they passed through the main streets of Bukhara. The result was an attack by embittered Iranians on the crowd, which resulted in the death of one Bukharian. Following this, a pogrom began against the Shiites, who had to flee to New Bukhara under the protection of Russian troops. With the help of the tsarist troops, they managed to stop the pogrom, but clashes between Sunnis and Shiites continued outside the city for some time. This Sunni-Shiite massacre killed approximately 500 Bukharans and Iranians.

Jafarite madhhab

Jafarite madhhab is a school of Islamic law (fiqh) followed by Twelver Shiites. The founder of the Jafarite persuasion is Imam Jafar ibn Muhammad al-Sadiq, revered by Twelver Shiites as the sixth immaculate imam from among the twelve sinless bearers of wilayat (leadership conditioned by closeness to God).

In the 18th century, the Jafarites received a separate place for prayer (makam or musalla) in the al-Ka'ba fence, along with followers of other Sunni theological and legal schools.

Society

Holidays

Shia Muslims, like Sunnis, celebrate

Birthday of the Prophet Muhammad (12 Rabi al-Awwal)
The night of his ascension to heaven and the beginning of his prophetic mission (from 26 to 27 Rajab)
Feast of the Sacrifice Eid al-Fitr (10 Dhu-l-Hijjah).
Like all Muslims, they also observe the Ramadan fast.

In addition to common holidays, Shiites also have their own holidays:

Imam Ali's birthday (13th Rajab)
Birthday of Imam Hussein (3rd Shaban)
Imam Reza's birthday (11th Dhu'l-Qaadah)
Imam Mahdi's birthday (15th of Shaban)
The holiday of Ghadir Khumm, associated with the event in the town of Ghadir Khumm during the last pilgrimage of the Prophet Muhammad.

Shiites attach no less importance to the mourning dates associated with the death of the prophet (28 Safar) and the death of Shiite imams: the days of Ashura (from 1 to 10 Muharram), associated with the death of Imam Hussein, the day of the wounding of Imam Ali (19 Ramadan) and the day of his death (21 Ramadan), day of death of Imam Jafar al-Sadiq (1 Shawwal).

Holy places

The holy places for Shia Muslims, as well as for all other Muslims, are Mecca and Medina. At the same time, the mosques of Imam Hussein and al-Abbas in Karbala and the mosque of Imam Ali in Najaf are widely revered.

Other revered sites include the Wadi us Salaam Cemetery in Najaf, the Jannat al-Baqi Cemetery in Medina, the Imam Reza Mosque in Mashhad (Iran), the Qazimiyya Mosque in Qazimiyah and the Al-Askari Mosque in Samarra (Iraq), etc.

Attacks on Shiite holy sites

Shiite holy places were often targeted or destroyed. The Abbasid caliph al-Mutawakkil in 850/851 ordered the destruction of the tomb of Imam Hussein and the surrounding buildings, and also banned visits to them. He also ordered that the area be irrigated and sown. However, after his death, the tomb of Imam Hussein was restored. At the end of the 10th century, the founder of the Ghaznavid dynasty, Emir Sebuktegin, who was hostile to the Shiites, destroyed the mausoleum of the eighth Imam Reza and the adjacent mosque, but in 1009 the mausoleum was restored by his son Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni. On April 20, 1802, the Wahhabis raided Karbala, desecrating, destroying and looting the tomb of Imam Hussein, slaughtering thousands of Shiites, including old people, women and children. In 1925, the Ikhwan (the military militia of the first ruler and founder of Saudi Arabia, Ibn Saud) destroyed the graves of the imams in the Jannat al-Baqi cemetery in Medina.

During the Shia uprising in southern Iraq in 1991 against the regime of President Saddam Hussein, which broke out as a result of the defeat of the Iraqi army in the Gulf War, the shrine of Imam Hussein in Karbala was damaged, where the president's son-in-law Hussein Kamel participated in the suppression of the uprising. Standing on a tank near the tomb of Imam Hussein, he shouted: “Your name is Hussein and mine too. Let’s see which of us is stronger now,” ordering then to open fire on her. It is noteworthy that in the same year, being stricken with a brain tumor, he returned to Karbala to ask for forgiveness from the saint. In February 2006, an explosion was carried out at the Golden Mosque (Al-Askari Mosque) in Samarra, as a result of which the golden dome of the shrine collapsed

Notes

Islam. Encyclopedic Dictionary. M.: “Science”, Main Editorial Board of Oriental Literature, 1991. - 315 p. - ISBN 5-02-016941-2 - p.298.
Shīʿite. Encyclopædia Britannica Online (2010). Archived
. Pew Research Center (October 7, 2009). Archived from the original on May 28, 2012. Retrieved August 25, 2010.
Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population. - Pew Research Center, 2009.
Religions. CIA. The World Factbook (2010). Retrieved August 25, 2010.
Quick guide: Sunnis and Shias (English) , BBC(6 December 2011).
International Religious Freedom Report 2010: Lebanon, U.S. Department of state(November 17, 2010).
Original text(English)

However, the most recent demographic study conducted by Statistics Lebanon, a Beirut-based research firm, indicate 27 percent of the population is Sunni Muslim, 27 percent Shi"a Muslim, 21 percent Maronite Christian, eight percent Greek Orthodox, five percent Druze, and five percent Greek Catholic, with the remaining seven percent belonging to smaller Christian denominations.
Major Attacks in Lebanon, Israel and the Gaza Strip (English), The New York Times.
FIELD LISTING:: RELIGIONSA . Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). The World Factbook on Afghanistan.
Original text(English)

Afghanistan: Sunni Muslim 80%, Shia Muslim 19%, other 1%
Kuwait: Muslim (official) 85% (Sunni 70%, Shia 30%), other (includes Christian, Hindu, Parsi) 15%)
Country Profile: Afghanistan, August 2008 (English) , Library of Congress – Federal Research Division.
Original text(English)

Virtually the entire population is Muslim. Between 80 and 85 percent of Muslims are Sunni and 15 to 19 percent, Shia. The minority Shia are economically disadvantaged and frequently subject to discrimination.
A.V. Loginov The national question in Afghanistan // Races and Peoples. Vol. 20.. - M.: Nauka, 1990. - P. 172.
Anees al-Qudaihi. Saudi Arabia's Shia press for rights (English) , BBC(24 March 2009).
Religion. Administrative Department of the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan - Presidential Library. Archived from the original on August 22, 2011. Religion. Administration of the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan - Presidential Library
Imamites (Russian) .
Ideological currents and differences in Islam
John Malcolm Wagstaff. The evolution of middle eastern landscapes: an outline to A.D. 1840. - Taylor & Francis, 1985. - T. 50. - P. 205. - ISBN 0856648124, 9780856648120
Original text(English)

After several false starts and the virtual elimination of the Safavid family itself, the Safavids were able to defeat the Ak-Koyünlu in 1501, take over their capital of Tabriz and dominate Azerbaijan. One of the first acts of the victor, Shah Ismail I (1501-24), was to declare the "Twelver" form of Shiism to be the state religion, despite the predominance of Sunni Muslims in the newly acquired territory. A conversion campaign was launched.
N.V. Pigulevskaya, A.Yu. Yakubovsky, I.P. Petrushevsky, L.V. Stroeva, A.M. Belenitsky. History of Iran from ancient times to the end of the 18th century. - L.: Leningrad University Publishing House, 1958. - P. 252.
Constitutions of Asian states: in 3 volumes - Institute of Legislation and Comparative Law under the Government of the Russian Federation: Norma, 2010. - T. 1: Western Asia. - P. 243. - ISBN 978-5-91768-124-5, 978-5-91768-125-2
“Ideology issues from the point of view of Shiism” p.12 by Muhammad-Riza Muzaffar
“Fundamentals of Belief” Makarim Shirazi, “Basic Principles of Religion for Everyone” Lesson one. Reza Ostadi
Ismailis (Russian) Islamic Encyclopedic Dictionary.
Gordon Newby. Concise Encyclopedia of Islam. - FAIR PRESS, 2007. - P. 200. - ISBN 978-5-8183-1080-0
Islam: Encyclopedic Dictionary. - Science, 1991. - P. 111. - ISBN 5-02-016941-2
Heneghan, Tom. Syria's Alawites are secretive, unorthodox sect, Reuters(23 December 2011).
Gordon Newby. Concise Encyclopedia of Islam. - FAIR PRESS, 2007. - P. 39. - ISBN 978-5-8183-1080-0
Gordon Newby. Concise Encyclopedia of Islam. - FAIR PRESS, 2007. - P. 95. - ISBN 978-5-8183-1080-0
Concise Encyclopedia of Islam. - M.: FAIR PRESS, 2007. - P. 86. - ISBN 978-5-8183-1080-0, 1-85168-295-3
Islam: Encyclopedic Dictionary. - Science, 1991. - P. 298. - ISBN 5-02-016941-2
Alexander Ignatenko The divided ummah awaiting the Day of Judgment // Domestic notes. - 2003. - V. 5 (13). - pp. 31-33.
al-Hasan ibn Musa an-Nawbakhti Shiite sects / Transl. from Arabic, research and comm. CM. Prozorova. - M.: Nauka, 1973. - P. 18.
I.P. Petrushevsky Islam in Iran in the 7th-15th centuries (course of lectures). - Leningrad University Publishing House, 1966. - P. 242.
Muhammad Husayn Tabatabai Shi"ite Islam. - State University of New York Press, 1975. - P. 57, note 1. - ISBN 0-87395-390-8
Original text(English)

The first designation to have appeared during the lifetime of the Holy Prophet of God was shi’ah, and Salman, Abu Dharr. Miqdad and 'Ammar were known by this name. See Hadir al'alam al-islami, Cairo, 1352, vol. I, p.188.
ʿAlī (Muslim caliph) (English) , Encyclopædia Britannica.
Concise Encyclopedia of Islam. - M.: FAIR PRESS, 2007. - P. 74. - ISBN 978-5-8183-1080-0, 1-85168-295-3
Muhammad Husayn Tabatabai Shi"ite Islam. - State University of New York Press, 1975. - P. 60, note 15. - ISBN 0-87395-390-8
Original text(English)

In the famous hadith of thaqalayn the Prophet says, "I leave two things of value amidst you in trust which if you hold on to you will never go astray: the Quran and the members of my household; these will never he separated until the Day ofjudgment." This hadith has been transmitted through more than a hundred channels by over thirty-five of the companions of the Holy Prophet. ('Abaqat, volume on hadith-i thaqalayn; Ghayat al-maram, p.211.)
CM. Prozorov Shiite (Imami) doctrine of supreme power // Islam. Religion, society, state. - M.: Nauka, 1984. - P. 206.
I.P. Petrushevsky Islam in Iran in the 7th-15th centuries (course of lectures). - Leningrad University Publishing House, 1966. - P. 39.
Islam: Encyclopedic Dictionary. - Science, 1991. - P. 241. - ISBN 5-02-016941-2
Islam: Encyclopedic Dictionary. - Science, 1991. - P. 268. - ISBN 5-02-016941-2
L. I. Klimovich. Islam. - Science, 1965. - P. 113.
I.P. Petrushevsky Islam in Iran in the 7th-15th centuries (course of lectures). - Leningrad University Publishing House, 1966. - P. 44.
Encyclopedic lexicon. - St. Petersburg, 1835. - T. 1. - P. 515.
The Encyclopaedia of Islam. - Brill, 1986. - T. 3. - P. 607. - ISBN 90-04-08118-6
Original text(English)

A number of hadiths mention the affectionate Phrases which Muhammad is said to have used of his grandsons, e.g., “whoever loves them loves me and whoever hates them hates me” and “al-Hasan and al-Husayn are the sayyids of the youth of Paradise" (this statement is very important in the eyes of the Shl"is, who have made of it one of the basic justifications for the right of the Prophet"s descendants to the imamate; sayyid shabab al-dianna is one of the epithets which the Shi"is given to each of the two brothers); other traditions present Muhammad with his grandsons on his knees, on his shoulders, or even on his back during the prayer at the moment of prostrating himself (Ibn Kathir, viii, 205 -7, has collected a fair number of these accounts, drawn mainly from the collections of Ibn Hanbal and of al-Tirmidhi).
Bolshakov O.G. History of the Caliphate. - Science, 1989. - T. 3. - P. 90-97.
Bolshakov O.G. History of the Caliphate. - Science, 1989. - T. 3. - P. 145.
Bolshakov O.G. History of the Caliphate. - Science, 1989. - T. 3. - P. 103.

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