Periods of development of the Russian language. How did the Russian language develop? Formation of the Russian language

1. PERIODIZATION OF THE HISTORY OF THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE

It is quite difficult to identify periods in the history of the development of the Russian language, because Each level of language (phonetic, morphological, syntactic, etc.) has its own periodization, which does not coincide with the periodization of other levels. In addition, changes in the language system usually occur over a long period of time, which often makes it difficult to determine the boundaries of periods.

It seems most convenient to periodize the history of language as a means of communication. Its beginning is the separation, as a result of the collapse of the Proto-Slavic language, of the East Slavic (Old Russian) language along with South Slavic and West Slavic.

I period–East Slavic (6-9 centuries). Slavic speech spread throughout the territory Eastern Europe, began to interact with non-Slavic language systems (Baltic, Finno-Ugric), which led to the separation of East Slavic dialects from West and South Slavic. The end of this period is characterized by the formation of territorial dialects based on tribal ones.

II period– Old Russian (9-14 centuries). It covers the time of formation and development of the Old Russian people (the common ancestor of Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians). In this period, 2 stages are distinguished: early Old Russian and late Old Russian.

The early Old Russian period (from the 9th to the end - beginning of the 12th century) is the period of language formation Ancient Rus' (Kievan Rus) - a state common to the Slavs of Eastern Europe. It is characterized by the emergence of a single language of the Old Russian people. During this period, those linguistic features that are now called East Slavic developed. At the same time, the book and written language on the Old Slavonic basis spread as the language of the state and the official church

The late Old Russian period (from the late 11th - early 12th centuries to the 14th century) is associated with the feudal fragmentation of Rus', which led to the identification of large dialect zones. This process was intensified by the Mongol-Tatar invasion. At this time, the formation of the Novgorod-Pskov, Rostov-Suzdal, Ryazan, Smolensk dialects began, on the basis of which a single Great Russian language would later be created. From this moment, a separate study of each of the East Slavic languages ​​begins: Great Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian.

III period– Old Russian (Great Russian) (14-17 centuries). This period of formation and development of the language of the Great Russian people. The consolidation of the Eastern Slavs takes place around Moscow. Some Central Russian dialects are being formed, including the Moscow dialect as official language Moscow Rus'.

IV– the initial period of the formation of the national Russian language (mid-17th-18th centuries). It is associated with the process of formation of the Russian nation, characterized, as is known, by the unity of language. As a result of the struggle between the official Church Slavonic language and the living native speech By the end of the period, a fundamentally new literary language had emerged, emerging from the colloquial speech of the nation.

V period– the period of development of the national Russian language (19-20 centuries). It began from the time of the activities of A.S. Pushkin, when it basically ended with the formation of the norms of the modern Russian literary language. As a result of the rapprochement of urban Koine with the literary language, a colloquial, everyday variety of the literary language appears.

In the 20th century The Russian language functions as a national language, a language of interethnic communication (it is spoken by about 240 million people - according to the 1971 census), one of the world languages ​​(i.e., one of the six official and working languages ​​of the UN)

How often do we, Russian speakers, think about this? important point What is the history of the emergence of the Russian language? After all, how many secrets are hidden in it, how many interesting things can be learned if you dig deeper. How did the Russian language develop? After all, our speech is not only everyday conversations, it is a rich history.

History of the development of the Russian language: briefly about the main thing

Where did ours come from? native language? There are several theories. Some scientists (for example, linguist N. Guseva) believe that Sanskrit is the Russian language. However, Sanskrit was used by Indian scholars and priests. This was what Latin was like for the inhabitants of ancient Europe - “something very smart and incomprehensible.” But how did the speech that was used by Indian scientists suddenly end up in our favor? Is it really true that the formation of the Russian language began with the Indians?

The Legend of the Seven White Teachers

Each scientist understands the stages of the history of the Russian language differently: these are the origin, development, alienation of the book language from the folk language, the development of syntax and punctuation, etc. All of them may differ in order (it is still unknown when exactly the book language separated from the folk language) or interpretation. But, according to the following legend, seven white teachers can be considered the “fathers” of the Russian language.

There is a legend in India that is even studied in Indian universities. In ancient times, seven white teachers appeared from the cold North (the Himalaya region). It was they who gave Sanskrit to people and laid the foundation of Brahmanism, from which Buddhism was later born. Many believe that this North was one of the regions of Russia, which is why modern Hindus often go there on pilgrimage.

A legend today

It turns out that many Sanskrit words completely coincide with - this is the theory of the famous ethnographer Natalya Guseva, who wrote more than 150 scientific works on history and religion of India. Most of them, by the way, have been refuted by other scientists.

This theory was not taken out of thin air by her. Her appearance was caused by most interesting case. Once Natalya accompanied a respected scientist from India, who decided to arrange a tourist trip around northern rivers Russia. While communicating with residents of local villages, the Indian suddenly burst into tears and refused the services of an interpreter, saying that he was happy to hear his native Sanskrit. Then Guseva decided to devote her life to studying the mysterious phenomenon, and at the same time to establish how the Russian language developed.

This is truly amazing! According to this story, beyond the Himalayas live representatives Negroid race, speaking a language so similar to our native one. Mysticism, and that’s all. Nevertheless, the hypothesis that our dialect originated from Indian Sanskrit is valid. Here it is - the history of the Russian language in brief.

Dragunkin's theory

And here is another scientist who decided that this story of the emergence of the Russian language is true. The famous philologist Alexander Dragunkin argued that truly great language comes from a simpler one, in which there are fewer word forms and shorter words. Supposedly Sanskrit is much simpler than Russian. And the Sanskrit writing is nothing more than slightly modified by the Hindus Slavic runes. But this theory is just where is the origin of language?

Scientific version

And here is the version that most scientists approve and accept. She argues that 40,000 years ago (the time of the appearance of the first man), people had a need to express their thoughts in the process of collective activity. This is how the language appeared. But in those days the population was extremely small, and all people spoke the same language. Thousands of years later, a migration of peoples took place. People's DNA changed, tribes became isolated from each other and began to speak differently.

Languages ​​differed from each other in form and word formation. Each group of people developed their native language, supplemented it with new words, and gave it form. Later, there was a need for science that would describe new achievements or things that people came to.

As a result of this evolution, so-called “matrices” arose in human heads. These matrices were studied in detail by the famous linguist Georgy Gachev, who studied more than 30 matrices - linguistic pictures of the world. According to his theory, Germans are very attached to their home, and this served as an image of a typical German speaker. And the Russian language and mentality came from the concept or image of a road, a path. This matrix lies in our subconscious.

The birth and development of the Russian language

About 3 thousand years BC among Indo-European languages the Proto-Slavic dialect stood out, which a thousand years later became the Proto-Slavic language. In the VI-VII centuries. n. e. it was divided into several groups: eastern, western and southern. Our language is usually classified as belonging to the eastern group.

And the beginning of the path of the Old Russian language is called the formation of Kievan Rus (IX century). At the same time, Cyril and Methodius invented the first Slavic alphabet.

It developed rapidly, and in terms of popularity has already become equal to Greek and Latin. It was the Old Church Slavonic language (the predecessor of modern Russian) that managed to unite all the Slavs; it was in it that the most important documents and literary monuments were written and published. For example, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.”

Normalization of writing

Then came the era of feudalism, and the Polish-Lithuanian conquests in the 13th-14th centuries led to the fact that the language was divided into three groups of dialects: Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian, as well as some intermediate dialects.

In the 16th century in Muscovite Rus' they decided to normalize the writing of the Russian language (then it was called “prosta mova” and was influenced by Belarusian and Ukrainian) - to introduce the predominance of coordinating connections in sentences and frequent use conjunctions “yes”, “and”, “a”. The dual number was lost, and the declension of nouns became very similar to the modern one. And the basis of the literary language became the characteristic features of Moscow speech. For example, “akanie”, the consonant “g”, the endings “ovo” and “evo”, demonstrative pronouns (yourself, you, etc.). The beginning of book printing finally established the literary Russian language.

Peter's era

It greatly affected my speech. After all, it was at this time that the Russian language was freed from the “tutelage” of the church, and in 1708 the alphabet was reformed so that it became closer to the European model.

In the second half of the 18th century, Lomonosov laid down new norms for the Russian language, combining everything that came before: colloquial speech, folk poetry and even command language. After him, the language was transformed by Derzhavin, Radishchev, and Fonvizin. It was they who increased the number of synonyms in the Russian language in order to properly reveal its richness.

A huge contribution to the development of our speech was made by Pushkin, who rejected all restrictions on style and combined Russian words with some European ones to create a complete and colorful picture of the Russian language. He was supported by Lermontov and Gogol.

Development trends

How did the Russian language develop in the future? From the mid-19th to early 20th centuries, the Russian language received several development trends:

1. Development of literary norms.
2. The convergence of literary language and colloquial speech.
3. Expansion of language through dialectisms and jargons.
4. Development of the “realism” genre in literature, philosophical issues.

Somewhat later, socialism changed the word formation of the Russian language, and in the twentieth century the media standardized oral speech.

It turns out that our modern Russian language, with all its lexical and grammatical rules, originated from a mixture of various East Slavic dialects, which were widespread throughout Rus', and the Church Slavonic language. After all the metamorphoses, it has become one of the most popular languages ​​in the world.

A little more about writing

Tatishchev himself (author of the book “Russian History”) was firmly convinced that Cyril and Methodius did not invent writing. It existed long before they were born. The Slavs not only knew how to write: they had many types of writing. For example, cutting traits, runes or initial letters. And the scientist brothers took this very initial letter as a basis and simply modified it. Perhaps about a dozen letters were thrown out to make it easier to translate the Bible. Yes, Cyril and Methodius, but its basis was the initial letter. This is how writing appeared in Rus'.

External threats

Unfortunately, our language has been repeatedly subjected to external danger. And then the future of the entire country was in question. For example, on turn of the 19th century century, all the “cream of society” spoke exclusively French, dressed in the appropriate style, and even the menu consisted only of French cuisine. The nobles gradually began to forget their native language, stopped associating themselves with the Russian people, acquiring a new philosophy and traditions.

As a result of such an introduction of French speech, Russia could lose not only its language, but also its culture. Fortunately, the situation was saved by the geniuses of the 19th century: Pushkin, Turgenev, Karamzin, Dostoevsky. It was they, being true patriots, who did not allow the Russian language to perish. They were the ones who showed how handsome he was.

Modernity

The history of the Russian language is complex and not fully studied. There is no way to summarize it. It will take years to study. The Russian language and the history of the people are truly amazing things. And how can you call yourself a patriot without knowing your native speech, folklore, poetry and literature?

Unfortunately, modern youth have lost interest in books, and especially classical literature. This trend is also observed among older people. Television, the Internet, nightclubs and restaurants, glossy magazines and blogs - all this has replaced our “paper friends”. Many people have even stopped having their own opinions, expressing themselves in the usual cliches imposed by society and the media. Despite the fact that the classics were and remain in school curriculum, few people read them even in summary, which “eats” all the beauty and uniqueness of the works of Russian writers.

But how rich is the history and culture of the Russian language! For example, literature can provide answers to many questions better than any forums on the Internet. Russian literature expresses the full power of the wisdom of the people, makes us feel love for our homeland and better understand it. Every person must understand that their native language, native culture and people are inseparable, they are one whole. What does he understand and what does he think about? modern citizen Russia? About the need to leave the country as quickly as possible?

Main danger

And of course, the main threat to our language are foreign words. As mentioned above, this problem was relevant in the 18th century, but, unfortunately, has remained unresolved to this day and is slowly acquiring the features of a national catastrophe.

Not only is society too keen on various slang words, obscene language, made-up expressions, but it also constantly uses foreign borrowings in its speech, forgetting that the Russian language has much more beautiful synonyms. Such words are: “stylist”, “manager”, “PR”, “summit”, “creative”, “user”, “blog”, “Internet” and many others. If this came only from certain groups of society, then the problem could be combated. But, unfortunately, foreign words are actively used by teachers, journalists, scientists and even officials. These people bring their word to people, which means they introduce a bad habit. And it happens that a foreign word settles so firmly in the Russian language that it begins to seem as if it were original.

What's the matter?

So what is it called? Ignorance? Fashion for everything foreign? Or a campaign directed against Russia? Perhaps all at once. And this problem must be solved as quickly as possible, otherwise it will be too late. For example, more often use the word “manager” instead of “manager”, “business lunch” instead of “business lunch”, etc. After all, the extinction of a people begins precisely with the extinction of the language.

About dictionaries

Now you know how the Russian language developed. However, that's not all. The history of Russian language dictionaries deserves special mention. Happened modern dictionaries from ancient handwritten and later printed books. At first they were very small and intended for a narrow circle of people.

The most ancient Russian dictionary is rightfully considered a short appendix to the Novgorod Helmsman's Book (1282). It included 174 words from different dialects: Greek, Church Slavonic, Hebrew, and even biblical proper names.

After 400 years, much larger dictionaries began to appear. They already had systematization and even an alphabet. The dictionaries of that time were mainly educational or encyclopedic in nature, and therefore were inaccessible to ordinary peasants.

The first printed dictionary

The first printed dictionary appeared in 1596. This was another supplement to the grammar textbook of the priest Lawrence Zizanius. It contained more than a thousand words, which were sorted alphabetically. The dictionary was explanatory and explained the origin of many Old Church Slavonic languages ​​and was published in Belarusian, Russian and Ukrainian.

Further development of dictionaries

The 18th century was a century of great discoveries. They also did not bypass explanatory dictionaries. Great scientists (Tatishchev, Lomonosov) unexpectedly showed increased interest in the origin of many words. Trediakovsky began writing notes. In the end, a number of dictionaries were created, but the largest was the “Church Dictionary” and its supplement. More than 20,000 words have been interpreted in the Church Dictionary. This book laid the foundation for a standard dictionary of the Russian language, and Lomonosov, along with other researchers, began its creation.

The most important dictionary

The history of the development of the Russian language remembers such a significant date for all of us - the creation of " Explanatory dictionary living Great Russian language" by V. I. Dahl (1866). This four-volume book has received dozens of reprints and is still relevant today. 200,000 words and more than 30,000 sayings and phraseological units can safely be considered a real treasure.

Our days

Unfortunately, world community I am not interested in the history of the emergence of the Russian language. His current situation can be compared with one case that once happened to an unusually talented scientist Dmitry Mendeleev. After all, Mendeleev was never able to become an honorary academician of the Imperial St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (the current RAS). There was a huge scandal, and one more thing: such a scientist would not be accepted into the academy! But Russian Empire and her world were unshakable: they declared that the Russians, since the times of Lomonosov and Tatishchev, were in the minority, and one good Russian scientist, Lomonosov, was enough.

This history of the modern Russian language makes us think: what if someday English (or any other) will supplant such a unique Russian? Notice how much there is in our jargon foreign words! Yes, mixing languages ​​and friendly exchanges is great, but we must not allow amazing story our speech has disappeared from the planet. Take care of your native language!

There are “external” and “internal” history of the language. By “internal” history we mean the development of the language structure and its individual subsystems (for example, the phonological subsystem, grammatical subsystem, etc.). “External” history is connected with the history of the native speaker - the people. Naturally, the internal story “overlays” the external one.

The following periods are distinguished:

1) East Slavic period (VI – IX centuries) The period of settlement of Slavic groups throughout the territory of Eastern Europe and their active interaction with the Baltic and Finno-Ugric peoples. During this period, territorial dialects were formed, serving early state associations.

2) Old Russian period (IX – XIV centuries) Two subperiods are distinguished here: a) Early Old Russian (before the end of the 11th – beginning of the 12th century); b) Late Old Russian. In the early Old Russian period, the language of the Old Russian people was formed, associated with the emergence of a single state association of the Eastern Slavs - Kievan Rus. Cities emerge on the territory of old tribal formations, old ethnonyms are replaced by the names of city residents. Thus, the Novgorod land appears on the territory of the Slovenes. At the same time, writing, transferred from the Slavic South, spread to Rus'. In Kyiv, as the center of the Russian land, in the conditions of mixing dialects, a supra-dialect formation is formed - the Kiev Koine. In the late Old Russian period, during the era of feudal fragmentation, large dialect zones became isolated, primarily in the northeast and southwest, respectively, the linguistic processes occurring during this period received dialect reflection. As a result of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, Rus' was divided into isolated spheres of influence, within which the development of individual East Slavic languages ​​began - Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian.

3) Old Russian (Great Russian) period (XIV – XVII centuries). Includes the history of the development of the Great Russian people. The Great Russians are uniting around a new center - Moscow. The most significant phonetic phenomenon of this period was the spread of Akanya.

4) Initial period formation of the Russian national language (XVII – XVIII). As a result of the formation of the Russian nation, a single language is formed on the basis of Great Russian speech, characterized by multifunctionality, i.e. serving all areas of society. At this time, the functions of the Church Slavonic language were limited, as well as the leveling of dialects and their assignment outside the socio-economic centers.

5) Finally, the last, traditionally distinguished period is the era of development of the national Russian language (XIX - XX centuries), it is usually spoken of “from Pushkin to the present day.” The basic outlines of the norm of the modern literary language are taking shape and its oral variety is being formed.

6. Features of syllable construction in the language of the Eastern Slavs.

The syllabic structure that developed in the late Proto-Slavic period was characterized by two laws: One of the main features of the Old Russian language was that all syllables here were open, there was a law open syllable. All syllables ended with a vowel sound or a syllabic consonant. Consonants r And l could be syllabic, in their qualities they were close to vowel sounds and were syllabic. Currently, this feature has been preserved, for example, in the Czech language (Russian word top corresponds vrch, word throat - grlo, word wolf – vlk with syllabics l , r ). In the Old Russian phonetic system, the following patterns also existed: 1) the construction of a syllable according to increasing sonority (all syllables were built from a less sonorous consonant to a more sonorous vowel or syllabic consonant): bra-t, sl-po-ta; 2) the law of syllabic consonance (synharmonism), which assumes that in a syllable there should be adjacent sounds close in the zone of formation - hard consonants with non-front vowels, soft consonants with front vowels: horse, plo-d.

In the Proto-Slavic language, in addition to conditions, there was also form the existence of a syllable. It would be unclear why great value would have received a phonetic syllable if we had not taken into account the prosodic characteristics of the syllable, because it was the syllable that was their carrier. At the same time, quantitative oppositions (long-shortness) could exist both in individual vowels and in individual syllables: the phonemic opposition of long-short vowels also collided with the phonetic difference between long and short syllables. Even in the Proto-Slavic language, quantitative contrasts of vowels were lost in favor of the syllable, etc.: swan, lӉzѫ given instead. In short, the need arose to connect the length or shortness of each syllable with the length or shortness of neighboring syllables and, at the same time, to identify a feature that could somehow explain the phonetic preference of this particular syllable. This sign became a sign intonation, because of all the prosodic (from Greek - stress) features, only intonation can unite by its action two adjacent syllables, as if attaching them to each other: an increase (or decrease) in intonation begins 9or ends) on the syllable adjacent to the stressed syllable. As a result, what historians of the Proto-Slavic language call the transition of quantitative vowel differences into qualitative ones occurred and what could be considered the third main pattern of the Proto-Slavic phonological system.

Basic geneological indicators

Russian national language

Russian language and speech culture

National language- a means of written and oral communication of the nation.

The concept of a nation is formed by four main factors:

Integrity of the territory

One economic space

Mentality

The Russian language is close to Ukrainian and Belarusian, it belongs to To:

East Slavic subgroup

Slavic group

Indo-European language family

Russian national language is one of the official working languages ​​of the UN

It is one of the most widespread and is taught in more than a hundred countries.

The Russian language emerged in the 14th and 15th centuries from the collapsed Old Russian language, from which the Ukrainian and Belarusian languages ​​also originated.

Dialects and dialects of the Russian language are united into adverbs. Northern Great Russian dialect is the most characteristic feature strong okanie. Southern Great Russian - strong akanye.

Central Russian dialects: they are characterized by moderate dialects.

In the 16th and 17th centuries, Koine developed in Moscow - a dialect that became exemplary. In Muscovite Rus' at this time, original and translated literature was developing productively, but there was still no single literary language. Bilingualism was inherited from the Old Russian era: the Church Slavonic language and the Russian literary language coexisted with a folk speech basis.

Since the end of the 14th century, two linguistic trends have been observed:

Archaization of language

Development of literature oriented towards the public language

Since the 17th century, the Great Russian nationality has been transformed into the Russian nation with its own national language.

In the era of the national language, bilingualism is eliminated, uniform literary norms are created based on folk speech. Dialectal use ceases, this is due to the centralization of the language and the influence of the literary language on local dialects. The gradual displacement of dialects from the speech sphere begins.

The Church Slavonic language, which continues to play a large role in the history of the country, is preserved only as a church language.

In modern Russian, 10% of the total lexical composition is Church Slavonic vocabulary.

The 18th century became a turning point in the development of the Russian language. During this period, European influence becomes noticeable. At the beginning of the 19th century, linguistic trends were united in the work of A.S. Pushkin. The basis is literary processed folk speech.

At this time, two interrelated varieties of the Russian literary language emerged: written and spoken.

The codification of a literary norm receives some expression.

The Russian literary language has become a multifunctional means of communication. It is used in all areas of communication, with its help you can transfer all the knowledge accumulated by a person.

Literary classics made a huge contribution to the enrichment of the Russian language.

Significant changes in the Russian language were caused by the great Russian October Revolution of 1917:

The vocabulary has been updated and enriched, especially in the field of terminology.

New stylistic means have emerged

There has been a stylistic reassessment literary means expressions.