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Legal foundations of international economic security. The influence of economic sanctions of the United Nations Security Council on the execution of private law treaties of an international nature Irina Nikolaevna Kryukova. International economics

On October 27, 2017, the International Scientific and Practical Conference “Economic Security of States and International Private Law” was held at St. Petersburg State University (SPbSU). The conference is timed to coincide with the anniversary of the Honored Scientist of the Russian Federation, Doctor of Law, Professor L. N. Galenskaya.

The conference was opened by the Dean of the Faculty of Law of St. Petersburg State University, Associate Professor S. A. Belov. The conference was moderated by the head of the Department of International Law at St. Petersburg State University, Professor S. V. Bakhin.

Professor L.N. Galenskaya in her speech outlined the main challenges and threats to the economic security of the Russian Federation and emphasized the role of law in resolving these issues.

The conference was attended by leading scientists and practitioners: Professor A. Ya. Kapustin (First Deputy Director of the Institute of Legislation and Comparative Law under the Government of the Russian Federation, President of the Russian Association of International Law), Professor V. V. Ershov (Rector of the Russian State University of Justice ( RGUP)), Professor T. N. Neshataeva (Head of the Department of International Law of the RGUP, Judge of the EAEU Court) Professor M. L. Entin (Head of the Department of European Law at MGIMO), Professor W. E. Butler (USA), Associate Professor N. V. Pavlova (judge of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation), etc.

In his speech at the opening of the conference, Professor A.Ya. Kapustin noted the importance and significance of the issues brought up for discussion at this event for the current stage of development of international relations and international law. Particular attention in the speech was paid to the issue of compliance of the use of unilateral economic coercive measures with the fundamental norms of international law, with special emphasis on the need to develop an international legal assessment of such measures in relation to the Russian Federation. According to the speaker, the insufficiency and weakness of international legal mechanisms for ensuring international legality raises the issue of expanding the use of national legal means of countering unlawful unilateral restrictive measures, which requires relevant scientific research from Russian science.

During the conference, leading researcher at the Department of International Private Law of the Institute of Legislation and Comparative Law under the Government of the Russian Federation, A. I. Shchukin, made a report on the topic “The principle of protecting the national legal order in Russian civil proceedings.”

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Introduction

1.1 Theoretical aspects of national security

1.2 Threats to Russia's national security

2.1. Theoretical aspects of international economic security

Chapter 3. Ways to strengthen the national and international economic security of Russia

3.2 Ways to strengthen Russia’s international economic security

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Problems of ensuring national and international security have faced humanity at all times. They acquired a special meaning at the beginning of the 20th century in connection with the reality of the threat of a world war, therefore, in the early stages of the development of theory and security policy, they were identified with issues of war prevention. After the First World War they received official recognition. One of the practical policy steps in this direction was the creation of the League of Nations. But it was not possible to resolve the issues of preventing war: World War II broke out and after it the Cold War. The end of the latter was not marked by the cessation of wars and armed conflicts. Moreover, ensuring national and international security in modern conditions has required expanding this concept beyond the prevention of wars and armed conflicts.

Security problems have acquired fundamentally new features in the modern world, which is diverse, dynamic and away from acute contradictions. Current life is characterized by the involvement of all humanity in world processes, the course of which is accelerated by unprecedented scientific and technological progress, the aggravation of social, economic, raw materials and other problems that are becoming global in nature; until the 90s, issues of international security of the state were mainly developed in the scientific literature here and abroad . This was explained by the increasing interdependence of various states and peoples of the world, the internationalization of their economies, and the emergence of global weapons of mass destruction. The worldwide threat to humanity from industrial activities has also increased.

The concept of international and national security, in Russian scientific literature, international security is considered as a state of political, economic and other relations between states, eliminating the threat of aggression of one or a group of states against another state or group of states and ensuring their peaceful coexistence on the basis of equality, non-interference in internal affairs each other, respect for the national independence and self-determination of peoples, as well as their free development on a democratic basis. As can be seen from the above definition, international security acts only as a favorable external environment for the development of states. This approach stemmed from the primacy in international politics of ensuring state security.

The relevance of the topic under consideration lies in the fact that the interest of the world community in security problems is steadily growing, which is associated with the permanent crisis phenomena of the late 20th - early 21st centuries, the severity of which directly raised the question of the future fate of all humanity. Dynamic changes in the global geopolitical situation, the international position of Russia and the conditions of its internal development, the intensification of international terrorism, negative factors in the socio-economic development of the country, new trends in exacerbating threats to the interests of citizens, society and the state pose the urgent task of developing effective measures for all government bodies, aimed at practical resolution of key problems of ensuring national security.

The purpose of the work is to identify the essence of Russia’s national and international economic security and study ways to strengthen it.

Objectives of the work: - analyze the concepts of national and international economic security;

Study the main components of national and international economic security;

Consider threats to the national and international economic security of Russia, its types and forms;

Reveal the content of the modern doctrine of national and international economic security of Russia

The subject of the research is the national and international economic security of Russia.

The object of the study is the main patterns of the emergence, formation and development of relations in the field of legal support for the national and international economic security of Russia.

The research method is general scientific and specific scientific methods of understanding social and legal phenomena and activities for legal support of the national and international economic security of Russia.

This course work consists of an introduction, three chapters combining six paragraphs, a conclusion and a list of references.

Chapter 1. The concept of national economic security

1.1 Theoretical aspects of national economic security

The term “national security” was first introduced into the political lexicon by American President Theodore Roosevelt in 1904. Before 1947, it was used in the sense of "defense", rather than the integration of foreign, domestic and military policies. In 1947, the US Congress passed the National Security Act, which created the National Security Council (NSC) that still exists today. It develops a system of goals, interests, threats and priorities of national policy. Since 1971, there has been an NSC subcommittee that sets US priorities.

In the USSR, the problem of national security was not officially developed. It was, as it were, included in the category of “defense capability” that was familiar to the Soviet era.

In our country, the understanding of the problem of national security since the beginning of 1990 has been undertaken within the framework of the USSR Supreme Soviet Committee on Defense and State Security. The National and International Security Foundation and a number of initiative groups were created. The result of many years of work by our scientists and deputies was the Law of the Russian Federation “On Security,” which was adopted by the Supreme Council of Russia on March 5, 1992.

In accordance with this law, security is considered as a state of protection of the vital interests of the individual, society and state from internal and external threats.

In Russian history, the term “national security” was first used in 1995 in the Federal Law “On Information, Informatization and Information Protection.” The concept of “national security” received its further development in the Message on National Security of the President of the Russian Federation to the Federal Assembly of June 13, 1996: “...national security is understood as a state of protecting national interests from internal and external threats, ensuring the progressive development of the individual, society and state” .

The fundamental document in the field of security, first approved by the President of the Russian Federation in 1997, in a new edition in 2000, is called the National Security Concept of the Russian Federation.

It defines that the main objects of security include: the individual, society and the state. Society and the state are closely connected. At the same time, the main connecting link between them is personality. Protecting her life and health, rights and freedoms, dignity and property is of paramount importance.

Personal security consists in the real provision of constitutional rights and freedoms; improving the quality and standard of living; physical, spiritual and intellectual development.

The security of society includes the protection of its material and spiritual values, law and order, the strengthening of democracy, and the achievement and maintenance of social harmony based on the principle of social justice.

However, a state where there are no threats is ideal. In reality, there is always a certain danger or the possibility of its occurrence. Therefore, the concept of security includes the ability of society to withstand possible threats.

Danger is a fully realized, but not fatal, possibility of harm to the interests of society.

A threat is a real, immediate possibility of harm to vital interests.

Sometimes the concepts of “danger” and “threat” are identified, considering the differences between them insignificant. But it is still more correct to interpret danger as a certain probability of causing damage. This means that it can exist, but there will be no threat, and only under certain conditions can the danger reach the nature of a threat.

It is characterized by four important features. Firstly, there is a dynamic increased danger. Secondly, demonstrating a willingness to commit violence to cause damage. Thirdly, a threat is understood as the intention of some actors to cause harm to others. Fourthly, it is the highest degree of transformation of possible damage into reality.

For example, after coming to power in the early 30s of the last century, Hitler declared that the living space necessary for Germany was in the East. Such views posed a danger to the Soviet Union. The threat was the concentration of Nazi troops near the Soviet border.

The security of a state lies in protecting its constitutional system, sovereignty, territorial integrity, establishing political, economic and social stability, unconditional implementation of laws, decisive opposition to destructive forces, corruption, bureaucracy, and attempts to gain power for selfish purposes.

Political security is an integral part, the main link and basis of national security. This is the state of the political system, which guarantees the rights and freedoms of citizens and social groups, ensures a balance of their interests, stability and integrity of the state. In this context, the words of our great compatriot, historian Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin are appropriate: “One’s own security is the highest law in politics...”.

An integral feature of the political security of a state is sovereignty. This concept is defined as the ability of the state to conduct independent foreign and domestic policies. In other words, sovereignty is the supremacy of state power within the country, meaning the subordination of all individuals and organizations within the state territory to it, and independence in international relations.

Economic security is a state of vital activity of an individual, a social group and society as a whole, in which the protection of their material interests, harmonious, socially oriented development of the economy is guaranteed, and the ability of the state to determine, without outside interference, the paths and forms of its economic development is ensured.

Social security can be defined as a state of development of the individual, various groups of the population, society and the state, in which they remain satisfied with their social status, and the relations within and between them are not confrontational.

Information Security. We understand the ability of the state to protect all spheres of public life, the consciousness and psyche of citizens from negative information impacts, providing management structures with reliable data for their successful functioning, preventing the leakage of classified socially valuable information and maintaining constant readiness for information warfare within the country and on the world stage.

Military security is a state in which a nation does not sacrifice its interests for fear of being involved in a war and is able to reliably and effectively protect them by military means and methods if war cannot be avoided.

The specificity of this type of security lies in the fact that military security serves as a condition for ensuring many other types of security and at the same time is ensured on their basis.

Historical experience shows that the absence or weakness of a state militarily often pushed other countries to armed aggression, to pursue their interests in a particular region by ignoring or infringing on others. In the 19th century, Prussian general F.D. Galtz rightly argued that the best means for preserving peace is the presence of a strong and well-organized army, for “the strong do not risk being affected as easily as the weak.”

The strategy is the basis for constructive interaction between government bodies, organizations and public associations to protect the national interests of the Russian Federation and ensure the security of the individual, society and the state.

In addition, this document clarifies and concretizes a number of important concepts of the theory of national security:

National security is the state of protection of the individual, society and the state from internal and external threats, which makes it possible to ensure constitutional rights, freedoms, a decent quality and standard of living for citizens, sovereignty, territorial integrity and sustainable development of the Russian Federation, defense and security of the state.

The national interests of the Russian Federation are the totality of the internal and external needs of the state to ensure the security and sustainable development of the individual, society and state.

National security system - forces and means of ensuring national security.

National Security Forces - the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation, other troops, military formations and bodies in which federal legislation provides for military and (or) law enforcement service, as well as federal government bodies taking part in ensuring the national security of the state on the basis of the legislation of the Russian Federation .

Means of ensuring national security - technologies, as well as technical, software, linguistic, legal, organizational means, including telecommunication channels, used in the system of ensuring national security for collecting, generating, processing, transmitting or receiving information about the state of national security and measures to strengthen it .

1.2 Threats to Russia's national economic security

A threat to national security is a direct or indirect possibility of causing damage to constitutional rights, freedoms, decent quality and standard of living of citizens, sovereignty and territorial integrity, sustainable development of the Russian Federation, defense and security of the state.

The development of the world is moving along the path of globalization of all spheres of international life. Contradictions associated with uneven development as a result of globalization processes and the widening gap between the levels of well-being of countries have intensified between states. Values and development models have become the subject of global competition.

Threats to Russia's military security include the superiority of a number of leading foreign countries in the development of high-tech means of warfare, the unilateral formation of a global missile defense system and the militarization of near-Earth space.

Today, according to the forecasts of Russian researchers, near the borders of Russia the struggle for access to natural, energy, scientific, technical, human and other resources is intensifying, as well as for expanding opportunities, including legal ones, for their use. In the so-called color revolutions in Georgia, Ukraine and Kyrgyzstan, Western intervention paralyzed the military and political leadership of these countries, ensuring their submission to the instructions of Western embassies.

The so-called “information terrorism” currently poses a threat to Russia’s national security. It has become an integral attribute of the global information society. It can be considered a manifestation of extreme extremism in the information sphere, aimed at achieving political goals through the putting forward by individuals or an organized group of individuals of demands on power structures that cannot be satisfied within the existing legal framework.

Studying the National Security Strategy of the Russian Federation until 2020, it can be concluded that several main groups will pose a threat to Russia’s national interests:

The first group includes potential threats that pose a danger to the geopolitical interests of our country, position and status in the world community. They are also directed against the territorial integrity and independence of the foreign policy of the Russian state.

Factors may include:

Actions of states aimed at violating the integrity of the Russian Federation and satisfying territorial claims against the Russian Federation, with references in some cases to the lack of a clear contractual legal design of interstate borders;

Actions of other countries aimed at undermining and restraining integration processes within the CIS, weakening the ties of the Russian Federation with the countries of Central, Eastern Europe and the Baltic states, as well as with other states in areas of traditional cooperation, which are becoming increasingly coordinated;

Violations of the rights and freedoms of the Russian-speaking population and citizens of the Russian Federation living in neighboring states, leading to increased tension (including in certain regions of Russia) and uncontrollable migration processes;

The policy of double standards pursued by certain forces abroad, which, while declaring in words about the need to ensure stability in the Russian Federation, in reality strive to do everything in their power to prevent this and thereby reduce the importance of the Russian Federation in solving key problems of the world community and activities of international organizations.

The second group consists of potential threats that have a geo-economic dimension, capable of weakening Russia’s position in international economic relations, creating difficulties for the progressive growth of the economic potential of our country, improving the well-being of the people and strengthening the country’s defense capability.

This group includes threats:

The desire of leading Western countries to weaken the economic independence of the Russian Federation and secure its role as a supplier of fuel and raw materials for the world economy and a source of qualified but cheap labor;

Attempts to limit Russia’s presence in foreign markets (including the arms market), as well as actions to oust it from them;

Actions of “partners” aimed at maintaining restrictions on the Russian Federation’s access to advanced technologies, creating obstacles to Russia’s full participation in international financial, economic and trade structures and organizations.

The third group is potential threats in the energy and resource spheres, which can create obstacles to the development of the Russian Federation as a global energy power, expressed in the claims of foreign states to the natural resources of our country, to its colossal base of natural resources.

Analysts note that in the near future our country, as the owner of the world's main fuel and energy resources, will be subject to strong geopolitical pressure from consumer countries. Such pressure, according to the forecasts of Russian researchers, can be carried out in the following most likely forms:

Putting forward new territorial claims against the Russian Federation and statements similar to those made at the beginning of 2007 by then-US Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice and Madeleine Albright that Siberia has such large reserves of resources that they belong not to Russia, but to the world;

Attempts to ignore the interests of the Russian Federation in solving problems of international security, countering its strengthening as one of the influential centers of the multipolar world;

Inciting new hotbeds of armed conflict, primarily near the borders of the Russian Federation and the borders of its allies (Middle East, Central Asia, the Caucasus, the Balkans);

Conducting all kinds of secret, subversive, reconnaissance and propaganda operations to take control of the production and distribution of fuel and energy resources;

Creation of force groups leading to a disruption of the existing balance of power near the borders of the Russian Federation and the borders of its allies, as well as in the seas adjacent to their territory;

Expanding the influence of the North Atlantic Alliance, the desire to gain a foothold in the post-Soviet space, as well as attempts to use the combined military power of NATO to exert military and political pressure and obtain concessions in access to fuel and energy resources;

The introduction of foreign troops, in violation of the UN Charter, into the territory of states adjacent to the Russian Federation and friendly to it (the creation of military bases and the deployment of military groups in the territories of the former republics of the USSR).

The fourth group is potential threats that are directly military in nature. Eliminating such threats is associated with preventing situations in which military aggression could be committed against the Russian Federation or an attack on its military contingents and citizens located outside the borders of our state.

Many Russian researchers consider the following to be the main external military threats:

Deployment of groups of forces and means aimed at a military attack on Russia or its allies;

Territorial claims against the Russian Federation, threats of political or forceful separation of certain territories from it;

Implementation by states, organizations and movements of programs to create weapons of mass destruction;

Interference in the internal affairs of the Russian Federation by foreign states or organizations supported by foreign states;

Demonstration of military force near the borders of Russia, holding exercises with provocative purposes;

The presence of hotbeds of armed conflicts near the borders of the Russian Federation or the borders of its allies that threaten their security;

Instability, weakness of state institutions in border countries;

A build-up of troop groups leading to a disruption of the existing balance of power near the borders of the Russian Federation or the borders of its allies and the sea waters adjacent to their territory;

Expansion of military blocs and alliances to the detriment of the military security of the Russian Federation or its allies;

The activities of international radical groups, the strengthening of the positions of Islamic extremism near Russian borders;

Deployment of foreign troops (without the consent of the Russian Federation and the sanction of the UN Security Council) into the territory of neighboring and friendly states of the Russian Federation;

Armed provocations, including attacks on military installations of the Russian Federation located on the territory of foreign states, as well as on objects and structures on the state border of the Russian Federation or the borders of its allies;

Actions that impede the operation of Russian state and military control systems, ensuring the functioning of strategic nuclear forces, warning of a missile attack, missile defense, control of outer space and ensuring the combat stability of troops;

Actions that impede Russia’s access to strategically important transport communications;

Discrimination, suppression of the rights, freedoms and legitimate interests of citizens of the Russian Federation in foreign countries;

The proliferation of equipment, technologies and components used to make nuclear and other weapons of mass destruction, as well as dual-use technologies that can be used to create weapons of mass destruction and their means of delivery.

An integral part of the military threat to the national security of the Russian Federation is the threat from aerospace. The transformation of means of combat in aerospace into the main weapon of modern wars and their intensive development by leading foreign countries indicates an objective increase in this type of threat.

These and other factors in their totality determine the preference for potential adversaries of Russia of an aerospace attack compared to ground-based means of attack. The situation around Russia is developing today under the influence of fundamental changes taking place in the system of the emerging new image of Russia and the new image of the world order. Russia's geostrategic position makes a strict requirement: to be in constant readiness to repel external threats, including from deployed groups of forces and means of aerospace attack and missile defense of foreign states. First of all, we are talking about those states whose geopolitical interests are or may come into conflict with the corresponding interests of Russia.

Chapter 2. The concept of international economic security

2.1 Theoretical aspects of international economic security

The development of globalization leads to the emergence of problems of international economic security. Globalization processes can contribute to the emergence of crisis phenomena at the international, national and regional levels. A striking example is the financial crisis that arose in 1997 in Southeast Asia and spread during 1998 to a number of states in other regions. Ukraine experienced part of the consequences of this crisis in August - September 1998.

Further development of integration processes in the world leads to a convergence of national economic security with international economic security.

The encyclopedic dictionary "Political Science" interprets international economic security as a complex of international conditions of coexistence, agreements and institutional structures, which could provide each member state of the world community with the opportunity to freely choose and implement its strategy of social and economic development, without being subject to external economic and political pressure and counting on non-interference, understanding and mutually acceptable and mutually beneficial cooperation on the part of other states.

Thus, the elements of international economic security include:

Ensuring the sovereignty of states over their natural resources, production and economic potential;

Lack of exclusive priority in the economic development of individual countries or a group of states;

Responsibility of states to the world community for the consequences of their economic policies;

Focus on solving global problems of humanity;

Free choice and implementation by each state of a strategy for social and economic development;

Mutually beneficial cooperation of all countries of the world community;

Peaceful settlement of economic problems.

Compliance with these principles contributes to increasing overall economic efficiency as a result of accelerating global economic growth.

An example of a solution to the problem of collective economic security is the Treaty on the European Union (EU), which established economic and monetary unions of the participating countries. In accordance with it, the Council of Ministers of the EU determines the strategic directions of the economic policy of individual member countries and the EU as a whole and controls the development of the economy of each EU state.

At the same time, the leaders of some EU countries note the possibility of crisis phenomena in a number of member countries due to their uneven economic development, the weakness of the currencies of individual states, and the slow reform of public administration in government organizations. Nevertheless, EU leaders believe that the entire European continent can benefit from the processes of integration of the states of this region in economic and political terms, as this will strengthen their security and accelerate economic growth.

Another example of solving international security problems is the Osaka Declaration.

In November 1995, an informal meeting of the leaders of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) took place in Osaka (Japan), following which a declaration was published. It reaffirms the determination of APEC members to strive for liberalization of trade and investment, simplification of trade and investment regimes, and strengthening economic and technical cooperation.

The close relationship between the international economic security of a country is evidenced by the experience of the United States. The US national security strategy is shaped by American interests and values. This calls for expanding the community of democratic market economies while limiting and containing threats to the United States and its allies. Hence, the main components of the strategy of US involvement in international affairs are:

Strengthening one's own security by maintaining a strong defense capability and promoting security cooperation with other countries;

Activities aimed at opening foreign markets and accelerating global economic growth;

Supporting democracy abroad.

The problem of international economic security also affects the economic interests of a country in various regions of the world. Regional economic projects are becoming broader in nature, for example, the approval of an oil pipeline route for transporting Caspian oil. Thus, the Washington Center for Security Policy emphasizes that American interests are affected in solving this problem, including:

Ensuring free supplies of oil and gas from the Caspian Sea and from the Central Asian republics to international markets;

Ensuring the economic independence of the former Soviet republics of this region.

In October 1995, finance ministers and central bankers of the G7 countries approved the idea of creating a special fund in the amount of $50 billion. to prevent currency crises and put in place an “early warning” system of approaching crisis phenomena, which would include indicators such as the balance of payments and money supply growth.

The role of administrator of the new “emergency package of measures” to save national currencies that are on the verge of collapse is assigned to the IMF.

In modern conditions, the tendency to give the economy a priority place in the domestic and foreign policies of various countries is becoming increasingly clear. This affects the acceleration of integration processes in the world economy. Regional economic organizations and blocs are developing. At the same time, international competition in the economic, scientific and technical spheres is intensifying, which is reflected in the economic growth of developing countries and countries with economies in transition. Therefore, issues of promoting economic growth of these participants in the global economic system should be under the constant control of the UN.

2.2 Problems of international economic security in Russia

The international economic order is a system of relations between economic international entities, which is always formed depending on the ideas, beliefs and prevailing theories in a given period, the balance of power between the main characters in the international arena.

The implementation of international economic security is closely related to the refusal to impose development models by one country or group of countries on another country, from various types of coercion, and to the international recognition of the right of any people to choose their own path.

International economic security is understood as such economic interaction between countries that would exclude deliberate damage to the economic interests of any country. Its implementation is carried out mainly at the supranational level of regulation of international economic relations and consists in the creation of an appropriate international legal mechanism.

Deposits of raw materials in the continental crust are close to disappearing, and the question of developing the riches of the World Ocean arises. Humanity already feels a lack of energy, and to replenish it it is necessary to invade space. The aggravation of the raw materials, energy, and food problems seriously complicates the prospects for a breakthrough of third world countries to the economic level of advanced industrial states. The development of this group of countries is hampered by their large military expenditures (6% of GNP) and huge foreign debt. Since 1984, the outflow of surplus product from developing countries has exceeded the influx of new funds, which has resulted in... Industrially developed countries are forced to a certain extent to meet the demands of developing countries to reduce debts and defer their payment, open markets, establish a new international order and a system of international economic security in the world economy. In conditions of increased interdependence, Western states, which bear a significant share of responsibility for the backwardness of former colonial and dependent countries, must take into account not only the explosive state of the social situation in developing countries, but also the fact that the difficult economic situation of these countries makes it difficult to expand the world market, and therefore , narrows the possibilities for overall economic growth and joint resolution of environmental problems.

Despite the fact that more than 300 international economic organizations and over 60 regional integration groupings that regulate international economic relations are involved in international economic relations, the world has not become more stable and secure. And the words “world economic order” are increasingly being replaced by the concept of “world economic disorder” with many threats, growing inequality and, most importantly, the uncontrollability of world economic processes.

What's going on? After all, globalization, as an objective trend towards the economic rapprochement of countries, remains. The idea of universal liberalization, which ensures lasting prosperity and economic growth for all states, is collapsing, the most backward countries are being recolonized, world loan capital is turning into openly speculative, destroying the real economy, and liberal norms and standards are being selectively applied. Instead of the process of democratization of international economic relations, a course has been taken towards a combination of economic and military means to establish the economic hegemony of the United States. "The United States now enjoys strategic and ideological superiority. The first goal of its foreign policy should be to maintain and enhance this superiority." These words belong to D. Cagan, director of the Carnegie Endowment, which is developing a project-scenario called "America's Guide."

Western researchers also note the special nature of the liberalization of external relations in Russia, during which the country's economy adapts to the rules and norms of the international market. It is emphasized that in Russia there was mainly a financial opening to the world, which was ahead of the economic liberalization of other areas. For example, stock exchange operations and the placement of funds were virtually free, while foreign direct investment was regulated, “but it was necessary to act exactly the opposite.” One of the consequences of this financial opening to the world was the dollarization of the economy. (According to some estimates, on the eve of August 1998, up to 80% of the ruble supply in circulation were dollars).

One can agree with the assessments of the famous American economist Thurow that “today Russia is halfway between a market and a planned economy, and neither of them works.” But in order to move forward, it is necessary to resolve the main question - “how and when,” since the cause of the crisis situation in Russia is not so much economic as political. Given the “blurring” of strategic guidelines, the policy of transformation is reduced primarily to responding to reform failures and crisis situations. Moreover, many of these “failures” do not seem so random.

Perhaps the most terrible news from the point of view of international economic security came from Ukraine, where, as part of the new government, key economic areas were given to foreign specialists. Unfortunately, we have to admit that Ukraine has completely lost the sovereignty of its economic policy and, apparently, de facto its national economy has come under external control.

At the moment, the situation related to Ukraine has greatly weakened the international economy of Russia. Western countries led by the United States do not benefit from Russia’s position in relation to the situation in Ukraine. In this connection, Western countries led by the United States are imposing sanctions against Russia. Such pressure not only causes economic damage, but also threatens Russia's international security.

1. The State Department threatened Russia with sanctions for transactions with Iran. Since recently the US rhetoric towards Iran has changed dramatically from discussions of a possible military operation to negotiations, it can hardly be said that the US is simply against violating the sanctions regime. Most likely, the United States is concerned about the establishment of too close partnership relations between the Russian Federation and Iran.

2. Russia announced the closure of the South Stream project, announcing its intention to build an alternative gas pipeline to Turkey. Despite all the orgy of biased analysts who began vying with each other to claim that this is a defeat for the Russian Federation and V.V. Putin personally, as well as Russia’s recognition of its defeat, so far everything looks just the opposite. Apparently, the EU did not even imagine that games in obstructing the construction of this gas pipeline could lead to such sad events for them. However, the consequences may turn out to be sad for the Russian Federation, but for now Russia’s position looks more preferable.

3. The member countries of the Eurasian Economic Union, which currently includes Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan and Armenia, intend to abandon mutual payments in US dollars and euros. In return, according to the draft concept for the development of payment systems in the EAEU, by 2025-2030 there should be a transition to mutual settlements in national currencies. However, the volume of mutual trade turnover still seems insufficient for mutual settlements to actually be carried out in all national currencies. In addition, export-import flows will definitely be unequal. Therefore, it seems more realistic that for mutual settlements one currency will be chosen (officially or unofficially) and, most likely, the main contender is the Russian ruble, or the project of a single currency is being implemented, that is, the conditional altyn, which has already surfaced in various projects.

4. On December 1, the Central Bank took out the “sheathed blade of intervention” and intervened in the formation of the ruble exchange rate. This was explained a few days later by the fact that the ruble exchange rate “deviated significantly from fundamentally justified values.” Is it worth understanding that between November 10, when the abandonment of the currency corridor was officially announced, and December 1, this rate fit into the interval of “fundamentally justified values”, it remained unclear. However, the fact remains that the market has not yet had time to miss currency interventions, and the Bank of Russia has already returned.

The global world order makes national borders permeable. First of all, this is a change in the functions of the state. They are partially transferred to international organizations, forcing countries to submit to international rules for regulating market relations. At the same time, while remaining a subject of international economic relations, the state must regulate intranational processes, perform traditional functions of social protection, and resist market forces, i.e. be under double pressure.

Now a crisis situation is emerging, in which we can say that some of the international economic organizations (IMF, World Bank) are becoming omnipotent, dictating the “rules of the game” to borrowing countries, and at the same time powerless, since they are unable to regulate and coordinate the dynamics of such factors production, like finance, and prevent the transformation of modern capitalism into the so-called “turbo-capitalism” of the American style, as Edward Luttwak figuratively dubbed its modern stage in a book of the same name, published in 1999.

In modern conditions, stratification is intensifying, and the “technological colonialism” of the states of the industrial “core” transfers competition to the sphere of high technologies, inaccessible to most countries.

At the same time, it is quite obvious that the deterioration of the situation of resource-producing countries can continue only up to certain limits that do not violate overall global sustainability. That is why the West is concerned with the creation of various projects for reforming the international management system - from revising the powers and functions of the IMF, the World Bank and other organizations to the creation of new international institutional structures, up to the World Government.

However, monopolization of the management of international economic relations cannot become a stable structure, and the erosion of national sovereignty will inevitably give rise to aggressive nationalism. A new system of power must appear on the world stage, meeting the requirements of a new world order built on collectivist foundations.

economic security national strengthening

Chapter. 3. Ways to strengthen Russia’s national and international economic security

3.1 Ways to strengthen Russia’s national security

Strategic national priorities are the most important areas of ensuring national security, along which the constitutional rights and freedoms of citizens of the Russian Federation are realized, sustainable socio-economic development and the protection of the country's sovereignty, its independence and territorial integrity are carried out.

The National Security Concept of the Russian Federation in the 2000 edition was replaced by the “National Security Strategy of the Russian Federation until 2020” (Strategy). It was approved by the head of state on May 12, 2009 by Decree No. 537.

The development and adoption of the strategy was prompted by:

Firstly, the aggravation of interstate contradictions associated with the unevenness of their development and the widening gap between the levels of well-being of countries.

Secondly, the vulnerability of all members of the international community in the face of new challenges and threats.

Thirdly, with the strengthening of new centers of economic growth and political influence, a qualitatively new geopolitical situation is emerging, related to the solution of existing problems and the resolution of crisis situations on a regional basis without the participation of non-regional forces.

Fourthly, the failure of global and regional security systems (oriented, especially in the Euro-Atlantic region, only to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization).

Fifthly, the imperfection of legal instruments and mechanisms that pose a threat to international security.

Sixthly, the need to resolve important internal issues in the field of health, education, science, ecology, culture, as well as increasing the level of well-being of citizens and economic growth.

“The National Security Strategy of the Russian Federation until 2020” is a kind of response to the new international situation.

It is a basic document for planning the development of the national security system of the Russian Federation. It sets out procedures and measures to ensure national security. The strategy is the basis for constructive interaction between government bodies, organizations and public associations to protect the national interests of the Russian Federation and ensure the security of the individual, society and the state.

The national interests of our state in the long term are:

In the development of democracy and civil society, increasing the competitiveness of the national economy;

To ensure the inviolability of the constitutional order, territorial integrity and sovereignty of the Russian Federation;

In transforming the Russian Federation into a world power, whose activities are aimed at maintaining strategic stability and mutually beneficial partnerships in a multipolar world.

The National Security Strategy of the Russian Federation is a fundamentally new document. For the first time, it clearly reflects strategic national priorities and outlines the main criteria for assessing the state of national security.

The main priorities of the national security of the Russian Federation are national defense, state and public security.

To ensure national security, the Russian Federation focuses its efforts and resources on the following sustainable development priorities:

Improving the quality of life of Russian citizens by guaranteeing personal safety, as well as high standards of life support;

Economic growth, which is achieved primarily through the development of a national innovation system and investment in human capital;

Science, technology, education, healthcare and culture, which are developed by strengthening the role of the state and improving public-private partnerships;

Ecology of living systems and rational use of natural resources, the maintenance of which is achieved through balanced consumption, the development of advanced technologies and the expedient reproduction of the country’s natural resource potential;

Strategic stability and equal strategic partnership, which are strengthened on the basis of Russia’s active participation in the development of a multipolar world order model.

The main criteria for assessing the state of national security of the Russian Federation are:

Unemployment rate (share of economically active population);

Level of consumer price growth;

the level of government external and internal debt as a percentage of gross domestic product;

The level of provision of health care, culture, education and science resources as a percentage of the gross domestic product;

Level of annual renewal of weapons, military and special equipment;

Level of provision of military and engineering personnel;

Decile coefficient (ratio of income of the 10% most affluent and 10% of the least affluent population).

According to the Russian Academy of Sciences, in 2000 in our country the incomes of the richest exceeded the incomes of the poorest by 14 times, now - by 17. At an extended meeting of the State Council in February 2008, former President of the Russian Federation V. Putin set the task of reducing to minimize the gap between the incomes of the most and least affluent segments of society. As we see, this indicator is now one of the main criteria for assessing the state of national security.

In general, the implementation of the “National Security Strategy of the Russian Federation until 2020” is intended to become a mobilizing factor in the development of the national economy, improving the quality of life of the population, ensuring political stability in society, strengthening national defense, state security and law and order, increasing Russia’s competitiveness and international prestige.

Russia's geostrategic position makes a strict requirement: to be in constant readiness to repel external threats, including from deployed groups of forces and means of aerospace attack and missile defense of foreign states. First of all, we are talking about those states whose geopolitical interests are or may come into conflict with the corresponding interests of Russia.

Russia's military security is ensured by a purposeful state policy in the field of defense, which is a system of conceptual views and practical measures of an international, economic, military and other nature, aimed at preventing a military attack and organizing the reflection of military aggression.

...

Recommended list of dissertations in the specialty “International Law, European Law”, 12.00.10 code HAC

International legal aspects of ensuring universal security 1997, candidate of legal sciences Mohammad Taher
The impact of economic sanctions of the United Nations Security Council on the implementation of private law treaties of an international nature 2005, Candidate of Legal Sciences Kryuchkova, Irina Nikolaevna
International legal mechanisms for regulating economic integration and state sovereignty 2010, Doctor of Law Efremova, Nellya Andreevna
Global and regional systems of collective security at the present stage: International legal aspects 2004, Doctor of Law Mohammad Tahir
International legal framework for ensuring collective security of the CIS member states 2003, Candidate of Legal Sciences Arkhangelsky, Alexander Valerievich

Introduction of the dissertation (part of the abstract) on the topic “Economic security of states and problems of its international legal support in modern conditions”

Relevance of the research topic. The process of establishing a market economy in the Russian Federation, as an integral part of the world economy and the international market, is associated with the growth of external threats to national economic security (hereinafter referred to as NES). The complexity of the problem of ensuring economic security is due to the fact that it is complex in nature and must be solved not only by economic, but also by legal means, including within the framework of international law.

Despite all the attempts made during the 20th century, ensuring the security of states in the economic sphere remains one of the most pressing problems of modern international law. Regulatory regulation of this issue is associated with the constant struggle of developed and developing countries to consolidate their interests in international law, based on different approaches to understanding national economic security.

In this regard, it is necessary to analyze modern international law from the standpoint of its use to ensure Russia’s national security, the results of which should be taken into account when creating a comprehensive strategy for ensuring national security.

In the modern science of international law, the problem of international legal support for economic security has not yet received due attention. Most of the work available today on this topic dates back to the period of the 80s and early 90s, when the issue of international economic security was discussed within the United Nations.

Analysis of the features of international economic relations that have a significant impact on the development of the system of international legal support for the economic security of states, the study of a set of principles and norms of modern international law, as well as existing organizational and legal institutions are mandatory conditions for creating an effective state system for ensuring the national economic security of the Russian Federation. Federation.

The degree of development of the research topic. At the moment, there are no monographic works specifically devoted to a comprehensive analysis of the problem of international legal support for the economic security of states in the conditions of the current stage of development of the world economy. Some issues of ensuring economic security in modern conditions were considered in general works devoted to international economic law by such Russian legal scholars as G.M. Velyaminov, A.A. Kovalev,

B.M. Shumilov. The problems of international legal support for international security have been generally studied in the works of S.A. Voitovich,

S.A. Malinina, A.V. Pirogova, E.I. Skakunova, R.A. Tuzmukhamedova, N.A. Ushakova, V.N. Fedorov.

A special role in substantiating the NEB concept is played by the works of domestic economists and political scientists: L.I. Abalkina, I.Ya. Bogdanova, N.P. Vashchekina, B.C. Zagashvili, N.A. Kosolapova, M.A. Muntyan, V.A. Pankova, V.K. Senchagova, A.I. Strakhova, A.D. Ursula. The works of these authors study the features of ensuring the economic security of states at the present stage of development of international economic relations, as well as the problems of including Russia in the world economy.

The object of the study is interstate relations regulated by modern international law in the field of ensuring the economic security of states.

The subject of the study is a complex of regulatory and organizational-legal institutions operating in international law aimed at ensuring the economic security of states from external threats.

The purpose and objectives of the dissertation. The purpose of the dissertation research is to, based on an analysis of the features of modern international economic relations and the concept of economic security, study modern international legal normative and organizational institutions that can be used to ensure the economic security of the Russian Federation.

Achieving this goal led to the formulation of the following main tasks: to identify the features of modern international economic relations and elements of the economic security of states that must be taken into account when analyzing the system of international legal support for the economic security of states; explore the history of raising the issue of ensuring the economic security of states in international law; determine the role of international law in solving the problem of ensuring the economic security of states; analyze the possibilities of international law in ensuring the economic security of the state from objective and subjective threats of an external nature, within the framework of a unified system of ensuring national security; analyze the system of normative and organizational-legal guarantees existing in modern international law; study existing principles and norms that can be used to ensure the economic security of states, as well as trends in their development;

Reveal the main features and prospects for the development of organizational and legal guarantees of economic security, primarily the UN system and the WTO, as well as regional integration economic associations;

The methodological basis of the dissertation is the following methods: general scientific (comparison, analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy), special (formal-logical) and private law (interpretation, comparative legal, technical and legal).

The theoretical basis of the study was:

General theoretical works on international law;

Works on some basic branches of international law;

Works on general and special issues of international economic law;

Regulatory sources of international law;

Special works on the problems of globalization, interdependence, regionalization and national economic security.

The provisions and conclusions contained in the work are based on the works of domestic legal scholars: B.M. Ashavsky, D.I. Baratashvili, M.M. Boguslavsky, V.A. Vasilenko, S.A. Voitovich, G.M. Velyaminova, A.Ya. Kapustina, E.M. Klimenko, A.A. Kovaleva, Yu.M. Kolosova, D.K. Labina, D.B. Levina, I.I. Lukashuka, S.V. Marinich, V.I. Menzhinsky, A.A. Moiseeva, A.V. Pirogova, E.I. Skakunova, R.A. Tuzmukhamedova, G.I. Tunkina, E.T. Usenko, N.A. Ushakova, S.V. Chernichenko, G.V. Sharmazanashvili, V.M. Shumilova.

The author widely used the works of economists and political scientists: L.I. Abalkina, I.Ya. Bogdanova, N.P. Vashchekina, E.B. Zavyalova, B.C. Zagashvili, M.D. Intriligeiter, N.A. Kosolapova, S.A. Malinina, A. Mikhailenko, M.A. Muntyan, V.A. Pankova, A.V. Prokopchuk, L.V. Sabelnikova, V.K. Senchagova, A.D. Ursula.

Among the foreign scientists whose works were used in writing the dissertation, it is necessary to name: D. Carreau, M. Bedjaoui, J. Fawcett, D. Fischer , J. N. Jackson, P. Juillard, G. S. Hufbauer, K. Knorr, H. Machovski, H. Maull, R. McGee, C. Murdoch, S. Reismann, J. N. Rosenau, M. Shimai, A. Tita (A. Tita), J. Tinbergen (J. Tinbergen), R. Vernon (R. Vernon), M. de Vries (M G. de Vries), etc.

The scientific novelty of the dissertation lies in the fact that this work is the first to examine the possibilities of modern international law in the field of ensuring the economic security of states at the present stage of development of international economic relations. The author identifies elements of economic security, the provision of which requires the use of international law. An analysis of the current state and prospects for the development of a complex of international legal guarantees for the economic security of states is carried out. The main provisions of the dissertation submitted for defense: 1. In modern international economic relations (IER), there are a number of features that influence the development of modern international law and should be taken into account when studying the issue of international legal support for IER.

2. A systematic analysis of the concept of economic security allows us to identify a number of elements, the problem of ensuring which can be solved with the help of international law.

3. Differences in the approaches of developed and developing countries, as well as countries with economies in transition, to the problem of international legal support for economic security do not allow us to talk about the creation in the near future of a global system for ensuring the economic security of states. In this regard, the importance of ensuring the economic security of states within regional economic associations is increasing.

4. Analysis of the main groups of threats to electronic security allows us to conclude that international law can be used to counter threats of both an objective and subjective nature.

5. In order to include Russia in the modern world economy on conditions that will contribute to effectively countering threats to the country’s national economic security, it is necessary to take a number of steps in the field of international legal support for economic security related to the analysis of modern international law and the development of an action strategy to consolidate international law of Russia's national interests in the economic sphere.

6. Broad and narrow approaches to understanding international legal support for the economic security of states are identified. In a broad sense, the system of international legal support for economic security includes the norms of all branches of international law, since the relations that are the subject of their regulation can, to one degree or another, influence the formation and prevention of threats to the economic security of any state. A narrow approach to understanding international legal support for the economic security of states is based on the presentation of general principles of international law and special principles of international economic law, as well as regulatory and organizational legal institutions of international economic law as a unified system of regulatory and organizational guarantees of economic security of states.

7. The development trends of some general principles of international law and special principles of international economic law, which play an important role in ensuring the economic security of Russia, are identified.

8. An analysis of the current state and prospects for the development of the UN system from the point of view of ensuring the economic security of states confirmed the need to create a body within the UN that deals with the problems of economic disputes and the application of economic sanctions, as well as the need to expand the competence of ECOSOC in the field of interaction with major international economic organizations within the framework of joint programs.

9. Analysis of the system of regulatory and organizational institutions operating within the WTO allows us to conclude that within the WTO, a system of regulatory and organizational mechanisms has been created to ensure the national economic security of participating countries. This system should be studied in connection with Russia’s planned accession to the WTO, both from the point of view of its use in order to realize Russia’s national economic interests in the markets of WTO countries, and from the point of view of countering the use of these mechanisms in relation to Russia.

10. An analysis of the main regional economic associations in the conditions of modern development of the world economy allows us to conclude that today they are the main instrument for ensuring the economic security of both individual countries and their groups from external threats.

Theoretical and practical significance of the research results. Based on an analysis of modern international law, Russian and foreign scientific literature, a study of the regulatory and organizational mechanisms of the UN, WTO and regional economic associations, the author formulated conclusions regarding the understanding of the essence and features of the modern system of international legal support for economic security, which can be used: a) in further scientific works devoted to the development of problems of using international law to ensure economic security; b) when analyzing systems for ensuring national economic security and international security in general; c) to improve the current legislation in the field of ensuring economic security, as well as the policy of ensuring the economic security of Russia when included in the modern world economy; d) in the higher education system when studying international law and non-legal disciplines.

Approbation of research results. The dissertation was completed at the Department of International and Constitutional Law of Moscow State Linguistic University, where it was discussed.

Some provisions of the dissertation research are presented in three scientific articles, and also tested at conferences and seminars held at the Moscow State Linguistic University and the Diplomatic Academy of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation.

The dissertation materials were used during classes in the special course “International Economic Law” at the Moscow State Linguistic University.

The structure of the dissertation is determined by the logic of the topic and plan, the purpose and objectives of the research. The work consists of an introduction, three chapters including nine paragraphs, a conclusion and a bibliography.

Conclusion of the dissertation on the topic “International Law, European Law”, Ignatov, Yuri Vladimirovich

CONCLUSION

The study allows us to draw the following conclusions: W

1. Studying the issue of international legal support for the economic security of states and their groups from external threats requires taking into account the features of the development of modern international economic relations (IER) and international economic law (IEL), which include: the processes of economic globalization, interdependence and regionalization, development modern IEOs based on competition between states and their associations, confrontation between developed and developing countries in the sphere of limiting the use of economic coercion and abuse of economic sanctions, insufficient international legal framework in the field of combating negative phenomena in IEOs.

2. An analysis of the concept of economic security of states, carried out taking into account the features of modern international economic relations, allows us to identify a number of elements, ensuring which it is possible to use normative and organizational legal institutions of international law: counteraction to internal and external factors of an objective and subjective nature; ensuring the economic independence of states, which includes independence in determining the ways and forms of economic development without external pressure and interference; f ensuring the economic security of the state in conditions of interdependence, the consequence of which is an increase in the danger emanating from external factors.

3. The history of posing the problem of international legal support for economic security can be divided into several stages. The first stage covers the period of the 20-30s. XX century, and is associated with bilateral and multilateral efforts of the USSR to combat manifestations of economic aggression. The second stage is associated with the USSR raising the question of economic aggression in 1953 when discussing the definition of aggression and the concept of “force” in various UN bodies. Despite the subsequent failure, the interest of developing states in creating a legal framework for international economic security was expressed within the framework of the third stage, associated with an attempt to establish a New International Economic Order and the subsequent consideration of the issue of international economic security at the UN. In the early 90s. work on the concept of international economic security was suspended, however, the support received by the idea of ensuring the economic security of states through international law, and the return of the UN to discussing the problem of economic sanctions and problems related to coercion in the economic sphere, allow us to conclude that a new stage of creation has begun international legal framework for the economic security of states.

4. There are deep contradictions in the approaches of developed and developing countries, as well as countries with economies in transition, to the problem of international legal support for economic security. As the analysis of the concepts of economic security has shown, the main task of developed countries is to maintain economic independence and gain control over the resources necessary for the normal development of the national economy, as well as to create conditions that guarantee the availability of markets for their products. This approach forms the basis of the policies of Western countries in the field of international law. It is characterized by a refusal to use rigid norms and a desire to use “soft” law and more flexible organizational and legal institutions that allow the active use of various methods of political and economic pressure.

The position of developing countries and countries with economies in transition, which, within the framework of this approach, are a source of resources and sales markets for F products, is based on the idea of creating a system of regulatory framework of IEO, based on general and special principles of international law, including a system of regulatory and organizational institutions for ensuring economic security of states. This is precisely the position that Russia should adhere to when creating a strategy for its foreign policy measures in connection with ensuring national economic security.

5. The effectiveness of the mechanism of international legal provision of economic security is determined by its ability to guarantee the security of states in two situations - in the case of the impact of negative factors of an objective nature on the national economy, as well as in the case of the impact of negative factors of a subjective nature. In the first case, a regulatory framework is needed on the basis of which individual and collective actions of states and international organizations will be coordinated to provide assistance to a state or group of states that have suffered from external economic influence generated by the objective laws of the functioning and development of IEO. In the second case, a system is required that ensures the construction of the IEO on a democratic basis, limiting, and ideally prohibiting, the use of means of economic coercion, within the framework of which there is a system of peaceful settlement of disputes caused by differences in the national interests of the member states of the IEO.

6. Considering the complexity of the globalization process, the combination of both objective and subjective elements in it, the national strategy for Russia’s inclusion in the world economy should include a number of steps in the field of international law: analysis of the existing regulatory bilateral and multilateral framework to identify norms that ensure the economic security of the state ; active use of existing regulatory and organizational institutions to ensure security in the economic sphere; active participation in the development and adoption of norms within international organizations; creation and development of a clear regulatory framework for interaction with friendly countries within the framework of integration associations, taking into account the positive experience of other countries; identification of norms that require creation or further development and strengthening; taking steps to create and develop these norms in international law; active participation in international organizations that influence the development of the globalization process for the purposes and implementation of their own interests and initiatives within their framework.

7. Within the framework of such a strategy, understanding the role of international law in ensuring the economic security of states is possible in both a broad and narrow sense. In the first case, the system of international legal support for economic security includes almost all branches of international law, since relations that are the subject of regulation of various branches of international law are more or less capable of influencing the formation and prevention of threats to the economic security of any state. As part of a broad approach, it is necessary to analyze such branches of international law as, for example, international security law, international maritime law, a set of rules governing issues of international legal responsibility and the peaceful settlement of international disputes, as well as rules created within the framework of interstate cooperation in the fight against with crime, especially organized economic crime. A narrow approach to understanding international legal support for the economic security of states is based on the presentation of general principles of international law and special principles of international economic law, as well as regulatory and organizational legal institutions of international economic law as a unified system. Within this system, two groups of guarantees can be distinguished: regulatory and organizational. In addition to the general and special principles of international/international economic law, the concept of normative guarantees includes rules related to the fight against economic coercion, the misuse of economic sanctions, as well as other rules that have been formed in international law, primarily within the framework of the multilateral system regulation of international trade. A set of organizational and legal guarantees is associated with the active use and development of the current UN system and international economic organizations, as well as with the activities of economic integration associations.

8. To ensure the economic security of states, an important role is played, first of all, by such general principles of international law as the principle of non-use of force or threat of force, the principle of non-interference in the internal affairs of states, the principle of cooperation and the principle of sovereign equality of states.

The process of globalization and the internationalization of many matters within the domestic competence of states are used as a basis for the conclusion that the importance of the principle of sovereignty is steadily declining and is likely to disappear in the near future. As studies by Russian and foreign scientists have shown, at the present stage the importance of state sovereignty is only increasing, although states are obliged to exercise sovereign rights, including when exercising control over the economy, taking into account their international obligations.

The principle of non-interference in the internal affairs of states plays an important role in the system of regulatory provision of economic security. External illegal interference in the national economy is possible in two forms: direct and indirect. In cases of direct intervention carried out in the public sphere, the application of the principle of non-interference is fully justified. It can become one of the elements of protection against unlawful interference in the internal affairs of the state. However, in cases where pressure on the government or other negative interference in the economic life of states is the result of the activities of private foreign companies, their representative offices and affiliated enterprises, counteraction is possible only with the help of national law. One of the trends in the development of the principle of non-interference is the reduction of the exclusive internal competence of states in many traditionally sovereign areas, which is associated with the development of international legal regulation. In this regard, it should be taken into account that modern international law allows for lawful intervention, which is the result of the participation of states in various international treaties and international organizations.

In our opinion, at the present stage it is necessary to enshrine in international law the principle of prohibition of economic coercion. The first step towards creating this principle and defining its specific content could be a Resolution of the UN General Assembly. In the future, this principle should be developed and consolidated within the framework of bilateral and multilateral relations between states.

Also, in our opinion, it would be advisable to enshrine in international law the principle of equal economic security, which would prohibit ensuring the economic security of one state (or group of countries) by increasing the dangers to the economy of another state.

9. In the sphere of normative guarantees of the economic security of states, two particularly acute problems can be identified: the problem of economic coercion and the issue of the use of economic sanctions by states.

The problem of economic coercion is related to the interpretation of the term “force” established in paragraph 4 of Article 2 of the UN Charter, in connection with its use in relation to the phenomenon of economic coercion. Under modern international law, the concept of “force” refers only to the use of military force. Therefore, the problem of using illegal economic influence must be resolved within the framework of limiting “economic coercion.”

The problem of combating economic coercion has always been associated with an acute confrontation between socialist and developing states, on the one hand, and Western countries, on the other. The result of this intense struggle was the absence in international law of clear rules for the use of economic coercion. Basically, the ban on the use of economic coercion is contained in the resolutions of the UN General Assembly, which cannot be considered a sufficient normative basis for the formation of a rule on the prohibition of economic coercion in the IEO.

An additional complexity is presented by the political-economic aspect of the problem of economic coercion. Due to the lack of clear norms, the coercive measures used often do not achieve their goals, are associated with the use of means that only aggravate the situation in the target country, and also often pursue commercial goals, for example, they can be used to aggressively penetrate the market of the target country and displace competitors .

Today, attempts are being made at the UN to resolve the problem of sanctions. There is a need for support and further development of the draft Declaration on Basic Conditions and Standard Criteria for the Imposition and Application of Sanctions and Other Coercive Measures, which sets out the rules governing the practice of applying sanctions. The creation within the UN of a regulatory framework and international bodies dealing with the issue of applying economic sanctions and monitoring the implementation of coercive measures are the most important issues in the development of the system of international ensuring the economic security of states.

10. There is a need to develop the UN system in the field of regulation of IEO. It may be advisable to create a UN Economic Security Council (ESC), whose functions would be to monitor the state of the world economy, assess the relationship between major policies, strategically coordinate the policies of a number of international organizations and ensure consistency in the implementation of their program goals, as well as promote intergovernmental dialogue on the development of the global economic system. It should be noted that the system of distribution of seats in this body proposed within the framework of the SEB concept does not meet the interests of Russia, since it is assumed that seats in this body should belong to the economic powers of the world that occupy leading positions in terms of GDP, calculated by purchasing power parity.

In connection with the need to increase the effectiveness of ECOSOC in the field of IEO, as well as to find a comprehensive solution to the problem of developing countries and the implementation of the Millennium Goals, the main direction of ECOSOC activity should be interaction with leading international economic organizations on the development and implementation of joint programs with the UN, as well as ensuring information exchange between ECOSOC and the UN Security Council.

If an international system is created on the basis of ECOSO that deals with the problem of regulating international economic relations, it will be possible to talk about the formation of a global system for ensuring the economic security of states. While this process is in its early stages of development, it is necessary to determine Russia’s priorities in this area and take an active part in the development of fundamental documents. Such a strategy can ensure that Russia’s national economic interests are taken into account and, possibly, implemented at the international level.

I. The system of regulatory and organizational mechanisms for ensuring economic security, created and operating within the WTO, is one of the most developed in modern international law. When forming the WTO system, the participants provided for the possibility of the lawful use of economic reprisals in order to counteract unfair business practices on the part of economic entities of other WTO member countries (combat threats of a subjective nature), as well as in order to minimize the negative consequences that arose in any sectors of the national economy in connection with trade liberalization (combat objective threats). A number of regulatory guarantees for the economic security of participating states have been supplemented by the creation of a dispute resolution mechanism that allows for the peaceful resolution of emerging disputes. By joining the WTO, Russia gets the opportunity to use these mechanisms to ensure national economic security. At the same time, it is necessary to take into account the opposite effect that may occur when using these mechanisms in relation to Russia. The basis for making a decision on joining the WTO should be a comprehensive economic and legal analysis of the consequences of joining the WTO. When considering the WTO system, special attention should be paid to the analysis of the following institutions that can be used by states to ensure national economic security: procedures for combating dumping and government subsidies; mechanism for using protective measures; rules allowing for the introduction of quantitative restrictions on external trade turnover, as well as rules providing for the possibility of derogation from obligations under any multilateral agreement concluded within the WTO. It is necessary to analyze the practice of applying such norms and the activities of the relevant WTO bodies in order to identify the conditions and features of the functioning of existing mechanisms.

12. The creation of regional economic organizations increases the ability of states to ensure collective economic security while countering external threats, and also helps to increase the competitiveness of both individual countries and the entire group as a whole. In our opinion, today the creation of economic integration associations is the main way to ensure collective economic security. For the Russian Federation, the problem of regionalism is connected, first of all, with the creation of the EurAsEC. Today, integration processes within the EurAsEC are not yet as clearly expressed as, for example, in Western and Eastern Europe, however, in our opinion, the best interests of the EurAsEC member countries would be met by the creation of a regional economic grouping with a high degree of integration, in within which Community law will have a supranational character. Such a basis for interaction will ensure the effective implementation of both individual and group economic interests of the participating countries, whose economies are characterized by a high degree of interdependence. When creating regional economic associations in Russia, special attention should be paid to the problem of participation of member countries of economic integration associations in the WTO, since the creation of economic associations between WTO participants requires compliance with a certain procedure, within the framework of which the WTO can make binding decisions. One should also take into account the obligation of WTO members not to worsen the existing conditions provided to other members of the organization when creating a regional integration grouping, which requires a coordinated policy of accession to the WTO.

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Please note that the scientific texts presented above are posted for informational purposes only and were obtained through original dissertation text recognition (OCR). Therefore, they may contain errors associated with imperfect recognition algorithms. There are no such errors in the PDF files of dissertations and abstracts that we deliver.

England concluded bilateral agreements with European states on the mutual provision of most favored nation treatment and soon took a dominant position in world industry, trade, credit relations, and maritime transport. European states have concluded bilateral treaties with each other on the mutual provision of most favored nation treatment. Russia at that time ranked fifth in the world in industrial development.

In the mid-19th century, the United States exported mainly raw materials and agricultural products and adhered to a protectionist policy, which was combined with complete freedom to import foreign capital. By the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. The USA became the first industrialized country in the world.

In the 20th century, human society went through gigantic technological shifts. Scientific and technological progress has changed the structure of industry and the nature of all production activities of mankind. The colonial system collapsed. The world has entered the stage of integration processes. The interpenetration of economies was expressed in intensive cross-border movement of goods, services, investments, and labor. The industrial era began to give way to the information, post-industrial era.

Currently, in the international division of labor there is a tendency towards the creation of a single planetary market for goods, services, and capital. The world economy is becoming a single complex.

The national economies of different states are thus interconnected by economic ties, which form international economic relations(IEO).

International economic relations find their practical expression in international trade, monetary, financial, investment and other relations, i.e. in various types of movement resources.

The scale of the modern world economy and international economic relations can be illustrated by the following data. By the end of the 20th century, the total gross domestic product (GDP) in the world amounted to more than 30 trillion. dollars per year, the volume of world trade in goods is more than 10 trillion. dollars. Accumulated foreign direct investment has reached approximately 3 trillion. dollars, and annual direct investments - more than 300 billion dollars.

The US share in world GDP during this period exceeded a quarter of the total, and its share in exports was 12%. The share of EU countries in world exports was 43%, Japan - about 10%. The main trade and investment flows are concentrated within the “triad”: USA-EU-Japan

From the movement goods international trade is taking shape, i.e. paid total turnover. Paid imports and exports of one country are called foreign trade.

The system of legal regulation of interstate economic relations has developed its own “superstructure” - international economic law (IEL). MEP is one of the branches of international law.

2. Elements of international economic law.

DEFINITION: International economic law is a system of legal norms regulating relations between small business entities in connection with their activities in the field of international economic relations(in trade, financial, investment, labor spheres).

Thus, object regulation in international economic law are international economic relations - multilateral and bilateral, cross-border movement of resources (in the broadest sense of “resources” - from material to intellectual).

MEP has its own industries (sub-sectors of SE):

International trade law, which regulates the movement of goods, including trade in services and rights;

International financial law regulating financial flows, settlement, currency, and credit relations;

International investment law, within which the movement of investments (capitals) is regulated;

The law of international economic assistance as a set of rules governing the movement of material and intangible resources that are not goods in the accepted sense;

International labor law, within the framework of which the movement of labor resources and labor is regulated.

Some of the rules governing international economic relations are part of international legal institutions that are traditionally included in other branches of international business. Thus, the regime of maritime exclusive economic zones and the regime of the seabed as the “common heritage of mankind” are established by international maritime law; market regime for air transportation services - international air law, etc.

IEOs (in the broad sense of this concept) have, as is known, two levels of relations - depending on the presence public And private elements:

a) relationships public law character between SE subjects: states, international organizations. It is these relations in the field of international economic relations that are regulated by international economic law;

b) economic, civil law ( private legal) relations between individuals and legal entities of different countries. These relations are regulated internal law each state, private international law.

In the same time public subjects: states, international organizations - enter not only into INTERNATIONALLY legal, but often in CIVIL legal relations.

Very often, especially when it comes to the development of natural resources, the regime for accepting and protecting foreign investments is determined in an agreement between the host state And private foreign investor. In the agreements, the importing state usually undertakes not to take any measures to nationalize or expropriate the investor's property. Such agreements are called “diagonal”, and in Western literature - “government contracts”.

“Public contracts” (“diagonal agreements”) are a subject subject to regulation internal law; it is part of domestic law. At the same time, many Western lawyers believe that this is the sphere of so-called “international contract law”.

The problem has always been relevant for international economic relations immunity states. How should the principle of state immunity operate if the state enters into private legal relations, into “diagonal” agreements?

The international legal principle of state immunity is closely related to the concept sovereignty. Sovereignty - this is one of the signs of a state, its integral property, which consists in the completeness of legislative, executive and judicial power on its territory; in the disobedience of the state, its bodies and officials to the authorities of foreign states in the spheres of international communication.

Immunity state is that it beyond the jurisdiction of the court another state (equal over equal has no jurisdiction). Immunity is enjoyed by: the state, state bodies, state property. Immunity is distinguished:

– judicial: a state cannot be brought to court of another state as a defendant, except in cases of its express consent to this;

From preliminary security of a claim: state property cannot be subjected to coercive measures in order to secure a claim (for example, property cannot be seized, etc.);

From forced execution of a court decision: state property cannot be subjected to measures of forced execution of a court or arbitration decision.

Western legal theory has developed the doctrine of “split immunity” (“functional immunity”). Its essence is that a state entering into civil law agreement with foreign physical/legal person to perform functions sovereignty(construction of an embassy building, for example), has these immunities.

At the same time, if the state enters into such an agreement with a private person with commercial purposes, then it should be equated to a legal entity and, accordingly, should not enjoy immunities.

The legal doctrine of the USSR, socialist countries, and many developing countries proceeded from the non-recognition of the doctrine of “split immunity,” meaning that even in economic transactions the state does not renounce sovereignty and is not deprived of it. However, in modern conditions, in a market or transition economy, opposition to the functional theory of immunity is largely meaningless, since economic entities are no longer “nationalized.” The legal policy and position of Russia and the CIS countries should accept (and actually accepted) the doctrine of “splitting immunity”, which will promote a favorable legal investment climate and the entry of these countries into the legal field of regulation of IEO.

States interacting in international economic relations, enter into legal relations and bear legal rights and obligations. From many legal relationship is formed international economic legal order.

The following circumstances have a significant impact on the international economic legal order:

a) in economic relations between national economies, two trends are constantly in conflict - liberalization and protectionism. Liberalization is the removal of restrictions in international economic relations. Currently, within the framework of the World Trade Organization (WTO), a multilaterally coordinated reduction of customs tariffs is being carried out with the goal of their complete elimination, as well as the elimination of non-tariff regulatory measures. Protectionism is the use of measures to protect the national economy from foreign competition, the use of tariff and non-tariff measures to protect the domestic market;

b) the legal status of a particular state in the IEO system is influenced by the degree of influence of the state on the economy - the economic function of the state. Such influence can range from direct participation in economic activity to different levels government regulation economy.

Thus, in the USSR the entire economy was state-owned. In the foreign economic sphere, there was a state monopoly on foreign economic activity: foreign economic functions were carried out through a closed system of authorized foreign trade associations. Such a market instrument for regulating imports as a customs tariff did not have a decisive significance in a planned, state economy.

In countries with a market economy, the state does not intervene in the economy so completely; its intervention takes the form of state regulation. All economic entities have the right to carry out foreign economic relations. The main instrument for regulating foreign economic relations is the customs tariff (along with non-tariff measures).

The deep basis of the state’s various approaches to managing the sphere of foreign economic activity (FEA) were radically opposing views on essence state and its role in society.

The modern world economy is based on the principles of a market economy. The international economic legal order, therefore, is designed for interaction between market-type states. States that were socialist in the past (about 30 states), making a transition from a planned, state economy to a market economy, received a special status "states with economies in transition".

The balance between market mechanisms of international economic relations and state regulation of the economy is established in the contradictions between liberalization and protectionism.

Everything about which states enter into legal relations is subject legal relations. Subject contractual legal relations of private persons in the field international economic relations may be: goods, services, finance (currencies), securities, investments, technologies, property rights (including intellectual property), other property and non-property rights, labor, etc.

Subject interstate - public - legal relations in the field international economic relations, are usually legal modes trade turnover, access of goods to the domestic market, market protection, principles of settlements for trade turnover, the use of tariff and non-tariff measures to regulate foreign trade, import/export, control over world prices in commodity markets, regulation of commodity flows, transportation of goods, legal status of individuals engaged in foreign economic activity and so on.

ú INTERNATIONAL LAW ú

Current problems of international

private law

N. G. Doronina

Features of modern conditions for the development of international private law

The problems of private law relations characterized by the presence of a foreign element are determined by the structure of private international law. “Many Russian researchers perceive modern international private law as a stable unity of conflict of laws rules and principles that mediate two substantive and complementary ways of regulating private law relations, complicated by a foreign element”1.

The important role of conflict of laws in private international law of the Russian Federation has made it possible to form a special area of law in the national legal system. This trait has been noted in other countries. “Thanks to conflict of laws rules, private international law emerged as an independent area of law, located in the national system of law of a separate state.

Doronina Natalia Georgievna - head of the department of international private law of IZIP, Doctor of Law.

*The article was prepared based on the materials of a report made at a meeting of the Private Law Section of the Academic Council of the Federal State Research University “Institute of Legislation and Comparative Law under the Government of the Russian Federation.”

1 Zvekov V.P. Collisions of laws in private international law. M., 2007. P. 1.

gifts"2. However, conflict of laws rules are limited only to indicating the legal order in which answers should be sought in relation to the relations that have arisen. At the same time, as Adolfo Miajo de la Muelo emphasizes, the law of each state, like the system of international public law, consists of substantive norms, i.e. norms that answer the question of what legal consequences arise in connection with or other legal fact.

Domestic substantive rules governing relations with a foreign element are also part of private international law. “Private international law is not limited to conflict of laws; but conflict of laws rules are a very significant part of private international law and the most complex from a legal and technical point of view”3. Indeed, the law on state regulation of foreign trade, the law on foreign investment, and other laws fall within the scope of private international law. Issues of unification of material civil

2 Adolfo Miaho de la Muelo. Las Normas Materiales de Derecho Internacional Privado // Revista Espanola de Derecho Internacional. V. XVI, No. 3. (Adolfo Miajo de la Muelo - Professor of International Law at the University of Valencia, Spain).

3 Lunts L. A. Course of international private law. M., 2002. P. 30.

Danish law, which received their decision in the norms of an international treaty, are also part of private international law. Issues of the legal status of foreigners have always been considered among the issues of private international law when it comes to the scope of their legal capacity. The norms of international civil procedure have traditionally been considered within the framework of private international law in the Russian Federation. “International procedural law is a set of rules and regulations governing the competence of judicial authorities, the form and assessment of evidence and the execution of decisions in international legal life in the event that there is a conflict of procedural laws and customs of different states”4.

The complex structure of private international law (hereinafter referred to as PIL) for a long time did not allow this area of science to be classified as a branch of law. The autonomy of private law within the framework of civil law was recognized with the adoption of Part 3 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation in 2001. The changes taking place in international life indicate the continuing development of private international law as an independent branch of law. Russian Foreign Minister S. Lavrov at the conference “Modern State and Global Security” in Yaroslavl in 2009 gave a general description of the changes taking place, emphasizing that in modern conditions “deologization of international relations” is important. Raising the level of significance of private law relations means, according to S. Lavrov, re-evaluating the essence of the concepts of “state” and “economic activity” in modern conditions of global challenges and threats. Problems of illegal migration, global poverty, challenge of change

4 Yablochkov T. M. Works on international

mu private law. M., 2002. P. 50.

Climate issues, which at first glance are far removed from the problems of private international law, are in fact related to the search for sources of financing for their solution. The emergence of various forms of participation of private individuals in financing the solution of problems of a national scale significantly expands the boundaries of private international law.

Thus, on October 28, 2009, the Government of the Russian Federation adopted a resolution regarding the implementation of “joint implementation” projects in Russia in accordance with the Kyoto Protocol to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. These projects solve the problem of climate change through the interaction of authorities and individuals on the issues of financing activities to preserve the ozone layer. Resources generated within the world community are distributed among its members in accordance with the terms of the international convention. The regulatory act adopted by the Russian Federation concerns the implementation of this global project, in particular the procedure for approving “joint implementation” projects, including the definition of authorized bodies and the content of civil obligations of the parties participating in the agreements. New aspects of international cooperation affect relations arising in private international law.

Back in the 70s. XX century the course of private international law involved the study of forms of international cooperation, the regulation of which was carried out by norms found in various branches of law: labor (issues of the legal status of foreigners), civil and administrative law (issues of foreign trade), civil procedure (international civil process). Currently, in addition to strengthening the role of international legal regulation,

research in these areas of relations, other areas of international cooperation are also being developed. However, in these areas the approach to regulating relations of private international law remains unchanged. “When studying international treaties of the Russian Federation, classified as sources of international private law, one cannot fail to take into account the features of these treaties. Generating, like any other international treaties, obligations for the subjects of international law that have concluded them, they contain norms, the implementation of which is ensured, ultimately, in the sphere of relations between citizens and legal entities”5.

In connection with the adoption of the Concept for the development of civil legislation of the Russian Federation (hereinafter referred to as the Concept), it seems important to once again turn to the problems of private international law, defining priorities in solving certain problems of the development of international cooperation6.

According to the approved Concept, the correction of section six “Private International Law”, part three of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation seems sufficient, taking into account the accumulated experience and the changes that have occurred. At the same time, the Concept provides a small range of changes that have occurred as a justification for such an adjustment, in particular, a reference is made to the adoption by the European Union of communitarian legislation in the field of private international law in the form of regulations on contractual and non-contractual obligations.

5 International private law: Textbook. / Ed. N. I. Marysheva. M., 2004. P. 37.

6 The concept for the development of civil legislation of the Russian Federation was approved at a meeting of the Council for the Codification and Improvement of Civil Legislation, which took place on October 7, 2009, chaired by the President of the Russian Federation.

government7. In our opinion, the changes in international life mentioned by S. Lavrov do not allow us to limit ourselves to only “finishing work” in the current legislation. In addition to correcting the relevant section in the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, it would be advisable to think about the prospect of adopting a law on private international law.

The work to unify private international law in the European Union has indeed made great progress, and not only in the area of contractual and tort relations. Projects have been prepared for the uniform regulation of property relations in family law8, inheritance9, as well as in resolving issues of jurisdiction, recognition and execution of foreign court decisions10. This activity, of course, gives food for thought about improving the general provisions of the mentioned section of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation.

At the same time, the examples given are only a small

7 See: European Union Regulation of 17 June 2008 on the law applicable to contractual obligations (Rome I) and European Union Regulation of 11 July 2007 on the law applicable to non-contractual obligations (Rome II) / / Bulletin of the Supreme Arbitration Court of the Russian Federation. 2009. No. 11. P. 95.

8 See: Proposal for a Council Regulation, amending Regulation (EC) N 2201/ 2003 as regards jurisdiction and introducing rules concerning applicable law in matrimonial matters // Com (2006) 399 final of 17.07.2006 (Rome III); Green Paper on Conflict of Laws in matters concerning matrimonial property regimes, including the question of jurisdiction and mutual recognition // Com (2006) 400 final of 07/17/2006 (Rome IV).

9 See: Green Paper on Succession and Wills // Com (2005) 65 final of 03/01/2005 (Rome V).

10 See: Proposal for a Council Regulation on jurisdiction, applicable law, recognition, and enforcement of decision and cooperation in matters relating to maintenance obligations // Com (2005) 649 final of 12/15/2005 (Rome VI).

part of numerous examples of international treaty unification of national legal regulation, which formulate the problem much more broadly - about the relationship between international and national law as two systems of law. In this regard, the number of conflict of laws rules is expanding and general approaches to resolving conflict of laws issues in civil legal relations between the state and a foreign private person are being clarified. Therefore, it seems relevant to adopt a law on private international law that would solve problems that go beyond the scope of civil law regulation.

In the European Union, work to create communitarian private international law began in 1980 with the adoption of the Rome Convention on the Law Applicable to Contractual Obligations. The adoption of this convention, which contains general provisions providing a uniform approach to the application of conflict of law rules, led to the adoption of national laws on private international law on all continents11. Adoption of regulations

11 According to research by the Private Law Research Center in 2001, private international law laws have been enacted at various times and are in force at the time of publication in countries such as the UK (Private International Law Act 1995), Austria (Private International Law Act 1978), Hungary (Private International Law Decree 1979), Germany (General Terms and Conditions Act 1976), Italy (Private International Law Reform Act 1995) ), Liechtenstein (Private International Law Act 1996), Poland (Private International Law Act 1965), Romania (Private International Law Regulation Act 1992), Czech Republic (Private International Law Act 1963). ), Switzerland (Federal Law on Private International Law 1987).

agreements of the European Union, aimed at unifying private international law, gave essentially the same effect12. The influence of the development of communitarian law on the legislative activity of member states makes us think about the significance of law as a more optimal form of regulation.

However, it is not only changes in European Union law that are pushing for the adoption of a law on private international law. The development of the process of codification of private international law is largely required by developing international economic cooperation and a change in the role of international law in its regulation.

Outside the European Community, the development of the process of codification of private international law is facilitated by the expansion of the boundaries of international economic cooperation. At the present stage of the unification of private international law, the main event is the emergence of the so-called international economic law, which would be more correctly called international civil (economic) law, since it provides regulation of economic cooperation between subjects of civil law of different states.

The development of international economic law was associated with an increase

The geography of the new laws affects many continents: Venezuela (1998), UAE (1965 Law), South Korea (1962), Japan (2007), as well as countries with transition economies: Romania (1992 Law), Estonia (1994). See: International private law. Foreign legislation. M., 2001.

12 See: Belgian Private International Code // Moniteur belge of July 2004; Act of

1 9 December 2005 // Moniteur belge of 18 January 2006; Bulgarian Code of Private International Law of May 17, 2005 (as amended on July 20, 2007) // Journal of Private International Law. 2009. No. 1. P. 46.

by determining the volume of investments - property assets moved from one jurisdiction to another. Whatever area of international cooperation we take, the issues raised in connection with this cooperation almost always come down to finding a source of funding. The volume of foreign investment, which has increased manifold in recent decades, is a clear illustration of the relevance of the problems of private international law.

According to Yu. Bazedov, the relationship that arises when making investments belongs to international private law, which is evidenced by the fact that “the effective placement of funds in a market economy depends on the investment decision of a private individual.” In this case, in his words, a “collision of economic regulation” of different states arises.

states

Collisions of economic regulation in different states inevitably involve rules of a public legal nature, the purpose of which is to protect public, i.e. national, interests. Protection of public interests within the framework of civil legal relations becomes the main task of private international law. At the same time, international treaties and national legislation, in which civil law plays a major role, in particular the rules governing investment relations, become sources of regulation of economic relations between participants of different nationalities. “Whether we are talking about contractual or corporate relations, about real rights or intellectual property rights, about contractual

13 Cm.: Basedoff J. Conflicts of Economic Regulation // American Journal of Comparative Law. V. 42. 1994. P. 424.

law or torts, when it comes to investments, the main thing we mean is the efficient allocation of funds, and in a market economy, the efficiency of resource allocation depends on the investment decision of a private individual”14.

The problem of codification of private international law

The adoption of laws on private international law in various countries indicates the development of the process of formation of an independent branch of law within the framework of the national legal system. The Rome Convention of 1980 “On the Law Applicable to Contractual Obligations” had a great stimulating effect on the development of the legislative process. The adoption of this convention was aimed at unifying private international law in the countries of the European Union. In order to uniformly apply conflict of laws rules, general provisions were formulated on the procedure for their application: the rule regarding the application of mandatory rules (lois de police), on public order, revocation, qualification, etc. In its significance, the Rome Convention went beyond the scope of regional unification of private international law . Its effect can be compared with the effect of universal unification of private international law achieved as a result of the International Convention on Private International Law of 1928, known as the Bustamante Code15. The last way is

14 Ibid. P. 425.

15 “Starting from the 19th century. Many scientists in continental Europe dreamed of creating a comprehensive codification of international private law. Manci Pasquale Stanislao (1817-1888) advocated the codification of international private law on an international basis. Mancini's idea was supported by the Institute of International Law, founded in 1873, and in 1893 by the Danish scholar Tobias Michael Karel Asser

promoted the development of conflict of laws as a special area of law by formulating various types of conflict of laws forms and the territorial principle of their application. The Rome Convention formulated general provisions on conflict of laws rules.

The provisions of the Rome Convention were taken into account when developing the corresponding section of the Civil Code in the Russian Federation. However, the section on private international law in the Civil Code of the Russian Federation does not concern complex forms of economic cooperation arising in the field of culture, healthcare, exploitation of energy and other natural resources, in which the participation of foreigners involves resorting not to certain types of civil contracts, but to a system of contractual relations .

In our opinion, the law on private international law should reflect the features of those civil contracts that are used when moving material assets from one jurisdiction to another - making investments abroad. These are agreements regulated by the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, as well as agreements classified as agreements for the regulation of which special laws have been adopted.

(1838-1912), with the participation of the Danish government, convened the first Hague Conference on PIL in order to begin work on conventions aimed at the universal unification of PIL. South American states also began preparing international conventions for their region. Without waiting for this work to be completed, states adopted laws on private international law" (Siehr K. General Problems of PIL in Modern Codifications // Yearbook of Private International Law. Vol. VII. 2005 / Ed. by P. Sar...evi... , P. Volken, A. Bonomi (Lausanne, 2006. P. 19).

Xia: Financial lease agreement (leasing) (Chapter 34, Article 665 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation); Targeted loan agreement (Chapter 42, Article 814 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation); Property trust management agreement (Chapter 53, Article 1012 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation); Commercial concession agreement (Chapter 54, Article 1027 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation); Simple partnership agreement (Chapter 55, Article 1041 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation); Financing agreement for the assignment of a monetary claim (Chapter 43, Article 824 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation).

Civil law contracts, called agreements, include: Production Sharing Agreement (Law of December 30, 1995 No. 225-FZ); Concession agreement (Law of July 21, 2005 No. 115-FZ); Agreement on carrying out activities in the SEZ between the resident and the SEZ management body (Law of July 22, 2005 No. 116-FZ); Agreement on the conduct of industrial and production activities (Article 12 of the Law on Special Economic Zones of July 22, 2005 No. 116-FZ); Agreement on the conduct of technology and innovation activities (Article 22 of the Law on Special Economic Zones of July 22, 2005 No. 116-FZ); Agreement on the implementation of tourism and recreational activities (Article 311 of the Law on Special Economic Zones of July 22, 2005 No. 116-FZ); Agreement on carrying out activities in a port special economic zone (Article 311 of the Law on Special Economic Zones of July 22, 2005 No. 116-FZ).

All these contracts are united by the fact that they, as a rule, are concluded for a long period, their subject is separate property (asset), the transfer of which is carried out for the sole purpose of making a profit during the entire term of the contract. It is this goal - causa - that lies at the basis of the agreement, and allows us to classify these agreements as “investment agreements”.

There are questions about the relationship between property law and obligations law16, about the connection between a subcontract and a construction contract, which does not allow following the principle of “abstractness and neutrality” when resolving a conflict of laws17, etc. The choice between the property law and obligations statute when determining the law applicable to the contract, must take into account the content of contractual relations as investment ones.

The party to the contract transferring the property, or the investor, is provided with a guarantee only when the law establishes an attitude towards him as a “quasi-owner” of the transferred property. How this problem will be solved in the law on private international law is still unknown. However, we can say with confidence that the solution to this problem is possible only if it is solved using the entire toolkit of international private law in a complex, including super-mandatory rules, rules on public order, rules on the qualification of legal concepts when determining the law to be applied.

The application of agreements that provide for the investor’s obligation to resort to various legal means in order to implement the project also provides for the application of the law of the state to which the agreement itself underlying the project is subject. In order to take into account all the features of the

16 See: Zykin I.S. On the issue of the relationship between the property and obligation statutes // Civil law of modern Russia: Collection of articles of the Research Center for Private Law in honor of E. A. Sukhanov. M., 2008. pp. 45-57.

17 See: Pirodi P. International Subcontracting in EC Private International Law // Yearbook of Private International Law. Vol. VII. 2005/

Ed. by P. Sarwvm, P. Volken, A. Bonomi.

Lausanne, 2006. P. 289

temporary realities, it seems advisable to adopt a law on private international law in the Russian Federation, in which the issues of participation of foreigners in national projects and social development programs would receive a uniform solution.

Codification of private international law in Russia can help solve other problems. “The adoption of the Russian law on private international law and international civil procedure provides a rare opportunity to unite related institutions of civil, family and labor law”18.

When adopting a law on private international law, one cannot ignore the problems of civil regulation associated with the participation of the state as a subject of civil law and a party to a civil contract. To ensure the viability of such an agreement, a declaration in the law that it is subject to civil law is not enough. In this case, a civil contract, in accordance with the general principle of civil law on the equality of participants in a civil legal relationship, is the only instrument that can provide the necessary balance of public and private interests. In private international law, this balance of interests is ensured with the help of conditions on the law applicable to the contract and on the procedure for resolving disputes. Among the listed agreements, none of them fully resolved these issues that directly affected the interests and security of the state.

The adoption of a law on private international law involves resolving issues that are an integral part of substantive law.

18 Zvekov V.P. Collisions of laws in private international law. M., 2007. P. 366.

VA, which unites different branches of private law (civil, family and labor). Considering the uneven degree of regulation of relations of international private law in these areas, it is assumed that the adoption of a law on private international law will eliminate the existing gaps while maintaining a unified concept of private international law.

Problems of unification of legal regulation of private law relations

Public international law is the beginning in regulating relations of private international law.

In private international law, the key formula for the relationship between national and international public law is the recognition of the role of “the main starting point” for public international law. According to L. A. Lunts, “a number of basic principles of public international law are of decisive importance for private international law”19. Until recently, the initial principles of private international law included such general principles of public international law as the recognition of socialist property and the operation of laws on the nationalization of private ownership of tools and means of production, and foreign trade monopolies. When deciding private law disputes by the courts of the national legal system, taking these principles into account continues to be of decisive importance. This significance of generally recognized principles and norms of international law is discussed in Part 4 of Art. 15 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation.

Currently, the generally accepted principles of public international law include the principle of national treatment of foreign

19 Lunts L.A. Decree. Op. M., 2002. P. 48.

knapsacks, which can be formulated differently in the norms of international treaties and agreements depending on the specific area of international cooperation in which it is applied. The principle of national treatment is also enshrined in the norms of national legislation. When resolving private law disputes, a court or arbitration body must solve a complex problem associated with the application of the relevant rule belonging to a particular system of law.

In private international law, it seems necessary to take into account that, since it is part of the national legal system, the understanding of the phrase “recognition of the original principle of international law” is limited to such an interpretation of the relevant norms and principles that exists within the framework of this legal system. On the other hand, the state has the right to formulate a norm on national treatment in its legislation. However, the interpretation of this norm must be based on the legislation in force in this state, that is, on the system of law in the depths of which this norm originated.

The approach adopted in conflict of laws law, according to experts in the field of private international law, should also be adopted in cases of appealing to the norms of international law as a source of law. “Through trial and error, the doctrine and practice of private international law have reached the only possible option (in terms of the application of norms belonging to different systems of law - N.G.): the norm of one legal system should be applied within the framework of another - as it would be applied in subsoil

the legal order to which she

belongs"20.

20 Bakhin S.V. International composition

of the legal system of Russia // Jurisprudence. 2007. No. 6. P. 130.

The legislative consolidation of this approach is contained in civil (Article 1191 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation), family law (Article 166 of the RF IC) and in the Arbitration Procedure Code of the Russian Federation (p. 14). The dispersion of norms reflecting the fundamental foundations of the modern level of international communication should be considered among the shortcomings of the national legislation of the Russian Federation on private international law, which are unlikely to be corrected if we limit ourselves to section six of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation.

The question of the interaction of two systems of law - international and national - in the present conditions is becoming increasingly important. As an independent system of law, international law arose and developed in parallel with the state21. At the same time, international law continues to develop as a special branch, distinct from the national system of law, characterized by the presence of branches of law in it. International law is a system of law that is not based on any normative legal act, like the constitution of a state. The peculiarity of international law as a special system of law is manifested in the generally accepted principles of legal regulation, which are voluntarily accepted and implemented by states in their natural desire for self-preservation.

A feature of international law of the modern era is that in this system of law, a tendency towards regionalism has recently developed. This trend is expressed in the desire of states to unite into economic unions in order to accelerate the economic development of the states participating in the union. An example of the development of regionalism in international law, in addition to the European Union, is the North Atlantic Treaty Organization.

21 See, for example: Levin D. B. History of international law. M., 1962.

ical free trade area, or NAFTA. The regional association is based on international treaties called constituent acts. In NAFTA, the basis for integration was international investment arbitration, created on the basis of the Washington Convention.

The attitude towards European law as part of international law is supported by many European authors. At the same time, it was the regional structures that gave rise to the discussion of the problem of fragmentation of international law associated with the “multiplying of judicial institutions.” According to the President of the International Law Association (British branch) R. Higgins, “overlapping jurisdiction is a characteristic feature of international courts and tribunals. In connection with the deepening of international law, the courts are faced with the question of which rules of international law are subject to application. An alternative in the applicable rules of law may lead to the existence of different solutions”22.

In Russian scientific literature, the separation of European law into a special system of law is associated, rather, with the awareness of the importance of studying the law that underlies the economic integration of the state, and for educational purposes in training lawyers in universities. A feature of European law is that it affects the sphere of international economic cooperation, which, in turn, explains the specifics of the attitude towards private international law in the European Union. “The integration program set out in the Treaty of Rome clearly indicated only the role of the member states and bodies of the community. The rights and obligations of private individuals, both citizens and entrepreneurs, have not been directly established, including in the case of

direct connection between these (subjects) of law (my italics - N. G.) and the obligations assumed by the Member States”23.

Y. Basedov characterizes European law as a system that regulates relations between states as subjects of international law. According to him, ambiguity in certain formulations cannot give rise to the attribution of European law to a special supranational structure. “Even the provisions of Articles 81 and 82 on competition of the Treaty establishing the European Community are formulated in such a way that the rights of private individuals do not clearly arise from the provisions prohibiting concerted practices and abuse of a dominant position by economic entities.”24

The example of the NAFTA integration association shows how easily some seemingly indisputable truths can be shaken. The exaggeration of the role of international treaty investment arbitration, created on the basis of the Washington Convention, and the interpretation of the norms of international agreements on the protection of investments as contractual obligations regulated within the framework of the national legal system have led to errors in the practice of resolving investment disputes25.

Currently, the activities of international treaty investment arbitration, which considers disputes between one state

23 Bazedov Yu. European civil society and its law: on the issue of determining private law in the community // Bulletin of civil law. 2008. No. 1. T. 8. P. 228.

theta on the annulment of ICSID decisions in the Vivendi case are based on the difference between claims from treaties and from international agreements // ICSID Case N. ARB/97/3; Solution

gift and person of another state, is greatly facilitated by the fact that the UN International Law Commission at its 53rd session in 2001 adopted the final version of the articles “On the responsibility of states for unlawful acts of an international nature.” According to K. Hober, this means that “in the new era of investment arbitration, what is important, first of all, is one aspect of the legal responsibility of the state, the role of which is constantly increasing, namely the qualification of actions as actions of the state.”

Qualification issues undoubtedly relate to issues of private international law, as, in fact, does the very nature of an investment dispute, which is classified as a private law dispute. These issues have not been resolved in the Civil Code of the Russian Federation in relation to relations with the participation of the state, and this is not accidental, since the protection of the interests of the state goes beyond the scope of civil law relations.

The new law on private international law should reflect the changes that have occurred in international law in connection with the development of new methods of unifying law based on economic integration. It is also important to determine the principles for resolving conflicts in connection with the application of the norms of two different systems of law - international and national.

In our opinion, we should join the opinion expressed by experts that “at least in the context of investment law, it is not enough to simply refer to international law as the applicable law”26. This approach is due to the fact that the interpretation of the norms of international treaties must be based on the general provisions of the system of international law.

26 Campbell McLachlan QC. Investment Treaties and General International Law // International and Comparative Law Quarterly. 2008. V. 57. P. 370.

As for civil law contracts, their effect is ensured by the norms of the national legal system. The interaction of the two legal systems should be aimed at ensuring the fulfillment of each of these obligations, but this goal is achieved through different legal means.

Back in the 70s. XX century Many well-known experts in private international law have spoken out against the so-called transnational law governing civil agreements or contracts. The dispute was about whether such contracts belonged to the international or national legal system. This is how D. Bettem describes in his doctoral dissertation the discussion that took place at that time on the issue of classifying concession agreements (state contracts) as international law: “A war broke out between international lawyers over the issue of applying international law to contracts concluded by the state. Having settled on the position put forward by lawyer Garcia Amador, a supporter of the idea of internationalization of contracts, the UN International Law Commission stopped dealing with this problem and turned to the development of a draft Convention on State Responsibility proposed by Ago. Ago, examining the reasons for the occurrence of violations of international (my italics - N. G.) obligations, asserted with all certainty that contracts are not subject to the norms of international law”27.

In total, the International Law Commission several times addressed the issue of state responsibility in

27 Bettems D. Les contrats entre Etats et personnes privees etrangeres. Droit applicable et responsabil^ internationale. These de License et de doctorat presentee a la Facu^ le droit de l"Univers^ de Lausanne. Lausanne, 1988.

within the framework of contractual obligations. In the 50s XX century The question of the international responsibility of states was raised in connection with the adoption by states of acts of nationalization28. During that period, the International Law Commission, at its session in 1952 in Siena, recognized that states are obliged to comply with the contracts they enter into, but no resolution was adopted in relation to international law.

In the 60s XX century The problem related to government contracts was discussed by the International Law Commission in connection with the problem of legal regulation of investments. At the regular session of the UN Commission in 1967 in Nice, when discussing Wortley’s report on the topic “Legal conditions for investing capital in developing countries and investment agreements,” the issue of international responsibility of the state in connection with government contracts was again raised, but no solution was reached was taken.

The participation of the Russian side in discussing the problem made it possible to record in the decisions of the International Law Commission the point of view on the private law nature of government contracts and their belonging to the national legal system. When discussing the issue of conflict of laws in Athens in 1979, a number of international lawyers participating in the discussion (Colombos, Fawcett, Giraud) supported the view that the application of international law to government contracts is permissible. However, after the Soviet lawyer Tunkin voiced a different position, he was supported

28 See: Durdenevsky V.N. Concession and convention of the maritime Suez Canal in the past and future // Soviet State and Law. 1956. No. 10; Sapozhnikov V.I. Neo-colonialist doctrines of international protection of foreign concessions // Soviet Yearbook of International Law. 1966-

1967. M., 1968. P. 90-99.

other jurists (Wright, Ago and Rolin) and a resolution was passed stating that in private international law there is a general rule that parties may choose international law as the law applicable to a contract. It should be noted that this resolution dealt exclusively with resolving a conflict of laws issue in private international law, i.e., within the framework of the national legal order29.

The position of Russian lawyers, in particular Ushakov, was supported by foreign experts in the field of international law (Wengler, Bindschedler, Salmon and Mosler). As a result, a resolution was adopted in which, although no conclusions were made regarding the legal nature of government contracts, it directly stated that the contract could not be classified as an “act of international law.”

The resolution of that time did not contain, and could not contain, any conclusions regarding how applicable the principle of autonomy of the will of the parties is to such contracts and what the applicable law should be, as well as what the content of “international contract law” is. These issues of private international law must be resolved within the framework of the national legal order and are most likely expressed in the law on private international law.

Lack of resolution of these issues at the end of the 20th century. made it possible to postpone the resolution of the issue of international responsibility of the state

29 According to Art. 2 of the adopted resolution, the parties may choose the law applicable to the contract, or several national legal systems applicable to the contract, or name the general principles of international law, the principles applicable to international economic relations, or international law, or a combination of these sources, applicable to the contract.

parties - parties to a contract. Currently the situation has changed. The expansion of the scope of state participation in large infrastructure projects financed from private sources has led to the fact that the International Law Commission, acting within the boundaries of exclusively international law, has formulated a number of rules on the international responsibility of states, which are of a recommendatory nature. The articles on state responsibility formulated by the International Law Commission include rules for the qualification of state actions affecting relations of private international law: the behavior of individuals and (or) legal entities that are not organs of the state is qualified as state actions, provided that the conduct in question constitutes their exercise of state powers30.

The articles “Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts” were approved by a resolution of the UN General Assembly31 and are currently the starting point for the formation of rules of law on private international law in individual states interested in attracting private investment in the social sphere. In the interests of the state, it is necessary to determine the specific scope of application of these rules, including by

30 See: Hober K. Responsibility of States and Investment Arbitration // International Commercial Arbitration. 2007. No. 3. P. 30.

31 UN General Assembly Document A/56/589. Resolution 56/83 adopted by the UN General Assembly at the 56th session (agenda item 162). Russian text of the article “Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts”, developed by the UN International Law Commission, see: International Commercial Arbitration. 2007. No. 3. P. 31-52.

resolving issues of private international law (on the autonomy of the will of the parties in a state contract, applicable law, dispute resolution procedure) by a special law.

The adoption of a law on private international law will also solve such a problem as achieving unity in the approach to resolving procedural issues. Issues of international jurisdiction of judicial and arbitration bodies have traditionally been considered outside the framework of private international law. The development of a law on private international law will also make it possible to solve the problems of civil procedure, which are currently regulated separately (in the Civil Procedure Code of the Russian Federation and the Arbitration Procedure Code of the Russian Federation).

Thus, maintaining Sect. 6 in the Civil Code of the Russian Federation will help avoid possible losses in the integrity of the regulation

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lation of international civil law relations. However, when improving it, it would be necessary to take into account the difficulties that arise when solving the problem of immunity of the state participating in civil legal relations. The development of investment relations associated with the movement of various types of resources (natural, human, monetary and material) from one jurisdiction to another can be resolved in the law on private international law, which does not interfere with the work to improve the norms of section. 6 Civil Code of the Russian Federation. Proposals to amend Section. 6 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation are contained in the Concept proposed by the Council for the Codification of Civil Legislation under the President of the Russian Federation.

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Adolfo Miaho de la Muelo. Las Normas Materiales de Derecho International Privado // Revista Espanola de Derecho Internacional. V. XVI. No. 3.

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Siehr K. General Problems of PIL in Modern Codifications // Yearbook of Private International Law. Vol. VII. 2005/Ed. By P. Sar...evi..., P. Volken, A. Bonomi. Lausanne, 2006.

Pirodi P. International Subcontracting in EC Private International Law // Yearbook of Private International Law. Vol. VII. 2005/Ed. By P. Sar...evi..., P. Volken, A. Bonomi. Lausanne, 2006.

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