Natural complexes. Natural zones of mountainous areas (grade 4) Why does the temperature decrease with height?

181. The cycle of substances is characteristic of:

A) Hydrospheres.

B) Hydrospheres and lithospheres,

C) All geospheres.

D) The upper layer of the atmosphere.

E) The inner layer of the Earth.

182. Which sea has more water: the Black or the Baltic?

A) In Black.

B) In Baltic.

C) Same.

D) It's hard to say.

E) In spring - in Chernoye, in autumn - in Baltiysky.

183. Temperature of rocks with depth:

A) Increases.

B) Decreases.

C) Does not change.

D) Changes at a certain depth.

E) Depends on the time of year.

184. White buoys on the river show:

A) Left bank.

B) Right bank.

D) Turn of the river.

E) The depth of the river.

185. More than 80% of all swamps in Russia are located:

A) In the tundra.

B) In the forest-tundra

C) In the taiga.

D) In ​​the steppe.

E) In the mountains.

186. Do the average levels of oceans and seas coincide?

A) They match.

B) They do not match.

C) The level is low.

D) The level is high.

E) All answers are correct.

187. The largest natural complex:

A) Continents.

B) Oceans.

C) Geographical envelope.

D) Taiga and mixed forest zone.

E) Ravine, lake, sea bay.

188. A small natural complex is -

B) Continents and oceans.

C) Sea Bay.

E) Ravine.

189. A large natural complex that has common temperature and moisture conditions, soils, vegetation and fauna is called:

A) Geographical envelope.

B) Natural area.

C) Climatic zone.

D) Continents.

190. An anthropogenic natural complex is

A) Lakes and swamps.

B) River valleys.

C) Ponds and parks.

E) Deserts.

191. Natural land areas are named after:

A) The nature of the vegetation.

B) Geographical location.

C) The separation of land and ocean.

D) The nature of the relief.

E) The spread of swamps.

192. The alternation of natural zones on the plains is called:

A) Altitudinal zonation.

B) Latitudinal zoning.

C) Landscape.

D) Geographical envelope.

E) Anthropogenic complex.

193. The alternation of natural zones in the mountains is called:

A) Altitudinal zone.

B) Latitudinal zoning.

C) Natural complex.

D) Climatic zone.

E) Plant community.

194. Which cape is further south?

A) Southern Cape of Africa - Agulhas.

B) Southern Cape of Australia - South - Eastern.

C) Southern Cape of Eurasia - Piai.

D) Southern Cape of South America - Froward.

E) Southern Cape of Hindustan - Kumari.

195. What natural area is being described here? The temperature is uniform, above +10° at night, precipitation falls regularly, and fever is common.

A) Tundra.

B) Mixed forest.

C) Equatorial forest.

E) Altitudinal zone.

196. In which zone is the soil fertile?

A) Steppe.

B) Tundra.

D) Tropical forest.

E) Semi-desert.

197. Main causes of soil pollution.

A) Industrial waste.

B) City landfills .

C) Fertilizers and pesticides, radioactive substances.

D) Construction.

E) Gardens, vegetable gardens.

198. What reasons affect human health?

A) Cleanliness of air, water, soil.

B) Intensity of traffic flows.

C) Development of hazardous industries.

D) Availability of forests and parks

E) All answers are correct.

199. Is the world ocean a natural complex?

C) Only its individual parts.

D) Only inland seas.

E) Only islands.

200. Which of the Earth's spheres includes parts of all other shells?

A) Hydrosphere.

B) Atmosphere

C) Biosphere.

D) Lithosphere.

E) Troposphere.

201. Which natural zone has more fertile soils?

A) In equatorial forests

B) In the steppes.

C) In deserts.

D) In ​​the tundra.

E) In forest-tundra.

202. “Complex” translated from Latin means “plexus”. What is the meaning of the phrase “natural complex of the area”?

A) The relationship of soil with flora and fauna

C) The interrelation of all natural components of the area.

C) The connection between the climatic features of the area and its relief,

D) The connection of all natural components of the area with human activities.

E) The relationship between rocks and relief.

203. In which natural zone does the forest height not exceed 50 cm?

A) In the Arctic deserts.

B) In a tropical forest.

C) In the tundra.

D) In ​​the forest tundra.

E) In the savannah.

204. Where do trees that lack annual rings grow?

A) Forest zones of the temperate zone.

B) In the taiga.

C) In the tundra.

D) In ​​the equatorial forest.

E) In the forest tundra.

205. Why is a flower that grows on the top of a volcano up to 3 thousand meters high called the “flower of death” by the residents of Java?

A) The appearance of this flower at such a height is a sure sign of an imminent volcanic eruption.

C) The flower contains toxic substances.

C) Poisonous snakes like to hide in the thickets of these flowers.

D) Negatively affects the human body.

E) All answers are correct.

206. What is this pattern called when natural zones are distributed depending on the amount of solar heat and moisture?

A) Latitudinal zoning.

B) Altitudinal zone.

C) Polar zoning.

D) Azonality.

E) Oceanic zonality.

207. What is the most complete version of the components of natural complexes?

A) Rocks, temperature, moisture.

B) Soil, forest, food .

C) Rocks, moisture, soil, biocomponents.

D) Swamps, mountains, rivers.

E) Only flora and fauna.

208. Which scientist established the law on geographical zoning:

A) L.S. Berg.

B) G.D. Richter.

C) N.N. Przhevalsky

D) V.V. Dokuchaev.

E) B.B. Polynov.

209. The largest natural area by area:

B) Tundra.

C) Desert.

210. How do the Arctic desert differ from other natural areas?

A) The amount of ice and snow in all seasons of the year.

B) Geological structure,

C) Harsh climatic conditions.

D) Frequently blowing strong winds.

The altitudinal structure of the Caucasus is the most complete compared to other mountains of the Russian Federation. According to UNESCO World Heritage experts, the region is distinguished by a remarkable diversity of geology, ecosystems and species, and contains vast tracts of undisturbed montane forests, unique on a European scale. Let's look at the example of this majestic mountain system, which determines the set of altitude zones. Let's find out how the population uses the resources of each of the vertical zones.

Altitude zones in the mountains

Vertical zoning - or altitudinal zonality - is a geographical pattern that manifests itself in the change of plant communities from the foothills to the peaks. It differs from the latitudinal alternation of natural zones on the plains, which is caused by a decrease in the amount of solar radiation from the equator to the poles. A complete set of altitudinal zones is presented in which are located in the equatorial and tropical zones. Let's list all possible verticals (from the bottom to the top):

1. (up to an altitude of 1200 m).
2. High mountain forests (up to 3000 m).
3. Low-growing, twisted trees, shrubs (up to 3800 m).
4. Alpine meadows (up to 4500 m).
5. Rocky wastelands, bare rocks.
6. Snow, mountain glaciers.

What determines the set of altitude zones?

The existence of altitudinal zones is explained by a decrease in temperature, pressure and humidity with increasing altitude. When rising 1 km, the air cools by an average of 6 °C. For every 12 m of height there is a decrease in atmospheric pressure by 1 mm of mercury.

In mountains that are located at different distances from the equator, vertical zonation is significantly different. Sometimes different natural complexes arise on the same surface.

Let us list what the set of altitudinal belts depends on and what conditions influence their formation:

• Geographical location of the mountains. The closer to the equator, the more vertical zones.
• Low mountains are usually occupied by the natural community that dominates the adjacent plain.
• Mountain height The higher they are, the richer the set of belts. The further from warm latitudes and the lower the mountains, the fewer zones (in the Northern Urals there are only 1-2).
• The proximity of seas and oceans, over which warm and humid air is formed.
• The influence of dry cold or warm air masses coming from the continent.

Vertical change of natural zones in the mountains of the Western Caucasus

There are altitudinal zones of the Caucasus, belonging to two types of vertical zonation: continental and coastal (seaside). The second is represented in the mountains of the Western Caucasus, influenced by the Atlantic and humid sea air.

Let us list the main altitudinal zones from the foothills to the peaks:

1. Meadow steppes, interrupted by clumps of oak, hornbeam, ash (up to 100 m).

2. Forest belt.

3. Subalpine crooked forests and tall grass meadows (at an altitude of 2000 m).

4. Low herbs rich in bellflowers, cereals and umbrella plants.

5. Nival zone (at an altitude of 2800-3200 m).

The Latin word nivalis means “cold”. In this belt, in addition to bare rocks, snow and glaciers, there are alpine plants: buttercups, primroses, plantain and others.

Altitudinal zone of the Eastern Caucasus

In the east, there are slightly different altitudinal belts of the Caucasus, which are often called the continental, or Dagestan type of vertical zoning. Semi-deserts are common in the foothills, which give way to dry steppes with a predominance of cereals and wormwood. Above there are thickets of xerophytic bushes and rare forest vegetation. The next alpine region is represented by mountain steppe and cereal meadows. On the slopes that receive part of the Atlantic humid air, there are forests of broad-leaved trees (oak, hornbeam and beech). In the Eastern Caucasus, the forest belt gives way to subalpine and alpine meadows with a predominance of xerophytic plants at an altitude of about 2800 m (in the Alps, the border of this belt is at an altitude of 2200 m). The nival zone extends at an altitude of 3600-4000 m.

Comparison of altitudinal zones of the Eastern and Western Caucasus

The number of altitudinal zones in the Eastern Caucasus is less than in the Western Caucasus, which is due to the influence of air masses, relief and other factors on the formation of natural zones in the mountains. For example, warm and humid Atlantic air almost does not penetrate to the east; it is retained by the main ridge. At the same time, cold moderate air does not penetrate into the western part of the Caucasus.

The main differences between the structure of the altitudinal zones of the Eastern Caucasus and the Western Caucasus:

• the presence of semi-deserts in the foothills;
• lower belt of dry steppes;
• narrow forest zone;
• thickets of xerophytic bushes at the lower border of the forest belt;
• absence of coniferous forest belt
• steppes in the middle and high parts of the mountains;
• expansion of the mountain meadow belt;
• higher location of snow and glaciers.
• forest vegetation only in valleys;
• There are almost no dark coniferous tree species.

Economic activity of the population

The composition of the natural zones of the Caucasus is determined by changes in climatic indicators within the mountain system from the foot to the peaks, as well as from west to east. Having found out what the set of altitudinal zones depends on, it should be noted that the region has a high population density, especially on the Black Sea coast. The fertile steppe plains of the Ciscaucasia are almost completely plowed and occupied by crops of grain, industrial and melon crops, orchards, and vineyards. Subtropical agriculture is developed, including the cultivation of tea, citrus fruits, peaches and walnuts. Mountain rivers have a large supply of hydropower and are used to irrigate low-water areas. Steppes, semi-deserts and meadows serve as pastures. Timber harvesting is carried out in the mountain forest belt.

All altitude zones in the Caucasus Mountains have ample opportunities for tourism. A system of mid- and high-mountain ridges covered with forest, glaciers and snow attracts fans of skiing and snowboarding. The routes involve overcoming rocks, snow-covered slopes, and mountain rivers. The clean air of mixed forests, picturesque landscapes, and the sea coast are the main recreational resources of the Caucasus.

The geographical envelope is not tripled equally everywhere; it has a “mosaic” structure and consists of individual natural complexes (landscapes). Natural complex – This is a part of the earth's surface with relatively homogeneous natural conditions: climate, topography, soils, waters, flora and fauna.

Each natural complex consists of components between which there are close, historically established relationships, and a change in one of the components sooner or later leads to a change in the others.

The largest, planetary natural complex is the geographic envelope; it is divided into natural complexes of a smaller rank. The division of the geographical envelope into natural complexes is due to two reasons: on the one hand, differences in the structure of the earth's crust and the heterogeneity of the earth's surface, and on the other, the unequal amount of solar heat received by its different parts. In accordance with this, zonal and azonal natural complexes are distinguished.

The largest azonal natural complexes are continents and oceans. Smaller ones are mountainous and flat areas within the continents (West Siberian Plain, Caucasus, Andes, Amazonian Lowland). The latter are divided into even smaller natural complexes (Northern, Central, Southern Andes). Natural complexes of the lowest rank include individual hills, river valleys, their slopes, etc.

The largest of the zonal natural complexes are geographical zones. They coincide with climatic zones and have the same names (equatorial, tropical, etc.). In turn, geographical zones consist of natural zones, which are distinguished by the ratio of heat and moisture.

Natural area is a large area of ​​land with similar natural components - soils, vegetation, wildlife, which are formed depending on the combination of heat and moisture.

The main component of a natural area is climate, since all other components depend on it. Vegetation has a great influence on the formation of soils and fauna and is itself dependent on soils. Natural zones are named according to the nature of their vegetation, since it most obviously reflects other features of nature.

The climate naturally changes as it moves from the equator to the poles. Soil, vegetation and fauna are determined by climate. This means that these components should change latitudinally, following climate change. The natural change of natural zones when moving from the equator to the poles is called latitudinal zonality. At the equator there are humid equatorial forests, and at the poles there are icy arctic deserts. Between them are other types of forests, savannas, deserts, and tundra. Forest zones, as a rule, are located in areas where the ratio of heat and moisture is balanced (equatorial and most of the temperate zone, eastern coasts of continents in the tropical and subtropical zone). Treeless zones form where there is a lack of heat (tundra) or moisture (steppes, deserts). These are continental regions of the tropical and temperate zones, as well as the subarctic climate zone.

The climate changes not only in latitude, but also due to changes in altitude. As you go up the mountains, the temperature drops. Up to an altitude of 2000-3000 m, the amount of precipitation increases. A change in the ratio of heat and moisture causes a change in soil and vegetation cover. Thus, different natural zones are located in the mountains at different altitudes. This pattern is called altitudinal zone.

The change in altitudinal zones in the mountains occurs in approximately the same sequence as on the plains, when moving from the equator to the poles. At the foot of the mountains there is a natural area in which they are located. The number of altitudinal zones is determined by the height of the mountains and their geographical location. The higher the mountains, and the closer they are located to the equator, the more diverse the set of altitudinal zones. Vertical zonality is most fully expressed in the Northern Andes. In the foothills there are moist equatorial forests, then there is a belt of mountain forests, and even higher - thickets of bamboo and tree ferns. With an increase in altitude and a decrease in average annual temperatures, coniferous forests appear, which are replaced by mountain meadows, often turning into rocky areas covered with moss and lichens. The peaks of the mountains are crowned with snow and glaciers.

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1. The main components of the natural complex are relief and rocks, climate, water.

2. Natural complexes that are called anthropogenic are gardens and reservoirs.

3. The main reason for the change in natural complexes on the earth's surface is climate change depending on geographic latitude and the movement of air masses.

4. A large natural complex with common temperature conditions and soil moisture, plants and fauna is a natural zone.

5. The formation of natural zones on land is determined by climate, that is, the ratio of heat and moisture.

6. The most vulnerable natural component is soil.

7. The alternation of natural zones in the mountains is called altitudinal zonation.

8. The largest natural complex is the geographical envelope.

9. The small natural complex is a ravine.

10. A natural area where the temperature is uniform at night above +10⁰, precipitation falls regularly and fever is common - the equatorial forest.

11. “complex” translated from Latin means “plexus”. The meaning of the phrase “natural complex of an area” is the interconnection of all natural components of the area.

12. The shell of life is the biosphere.

13. The alternation of natural zones on the plains is called latitudinal zoning.

14. The alternation of natural zones in the mountains is called altitudinal zonation.

15. The natural zone where the increase in climate severity as you move from west to east is most clearly visible is the taiga.

16. An area with fertile soil is the steppe.

17. Natural land areas are named according to the nature of their vegetation.

18. The lowest temperature that was recorded in the village of Oymyakon. – 71⁰s.

19. The pattern when natural zones are distributed depending on the amount of solar heat and moisture is latitudinal zoning.

20. The natural area in which shagyls (dunes) are found is desert.

21. The most complete version of the components of natural complexes - rocks, moisture, soil, biocomponents.

22. The scientist who established the law on geographic zoning is V.V. Dokuchaev.

23. The largest natural area in terms of area is the desert.

24. The Arctic desert differs from other natural zones in its harsh climatic conditions.

25. The reasons why the snow line in the Himalayas runs at an altitude of 4300 - 4600 m, and in the Alps 2500 - 2900 m is their geographical location.

26. Territories developed by man for several millennia - Mesopotamia, the Indus-Gangetic lowland, the Mediterranean coast, the great Chinese plain.

27. The main type of vegetation in the forest zone of the north is evergreen coniferous forests.

28. A natural area where the change of seasons is not clearly expressed is the equatorial forest.

29. The zone most developed by man is the steppe.

30. The natural zone in which the height of the forest does not exceed 50 cm is the tundra.

31. The polar night in the circumpolar regions lasts 6 months.

32. What prevents the Indian Ocean monsoons from influencing the climate is the precipitation regime.

33. The local name for the natural territorial complex located at the foot of the southwestern slopes of the Himalayas to an altitude of 400-600 m is terai.

34. The slopes of the Tien Shan, which are more humidified, are the northern ones.

35. The anthropogenic natural complex is ponds and parks.

36. Over the years, the position of natural zones in a certain territory changes, but very slowly.

37. The season of the year in Eastern China that is very humid is summer.

38. The transitional natural zone is forest-tundra.

39. A natural zone that is located mainly in a temperate climate, the vegetation cover is dominated by coniferous species, typical large predators, as well as artiodactyls - taiga.

40. The type of soil with the maximum humus content (fertility) is chestnut soil.

41. The relationship of components in a natural complex is determined primarily by the exchange of substances and energy between them.

42. The ocean that has the greatest impact on the climate of the Arabian Peninsula is the ocean that has a negligible effect on the climate of the Arabian Peninsula.

43. Geographic zoning consists in a natural change in all natural components and the geographical envelope from the equator to the poles.

Altitudinal zone

Altitudinal zonality or altitudinal zonality is a natural change in natural conditions and landscapes in the mountains as the absolute height increases.

Accompanied by changes in geomorphological, hydrological, soil-forming processes, composition of vegetation and fauna.

Altitudinal zonation - alternation of natural zones in the mountains

Many features of altitudinal zonation are determined by the location of the slopes in relation to the cardinal points, dominant air masses and distance from the oceans.

The number of belts usually increases in high mountains and as one approaches the equator.

Altitudinal zonality is determined by changes in density, pressure, temperature, moisture and dust content of air with altitude. Atmospheric pressure decreases in the troposphere by 1 mmHg. Art. for every 11-15 m of height. Half of all water vapor is concentrated below 1500 - 2000 m, quickly decreasing with increasing altitude and dust content. For these reasons, the intensity of solar radiation in the mountains increases with height, and the return of long-wave (or thermal) radiation from the surface of mountain slopes into the atmosphere and the influx of counter thermal radiation from the atmosphere decrease.

This leads to a decrease in air temperature within the troposphere by an average of 5-6°C for every kilometer of altitude. The conditions for condensation of water vapor are such that the number of clouds, concentrated mainly in the lower layers of the troposphere, increases to a certain height.

This leads to the existence of a belt of maximum precipitation and to its decrease at higher altitudes.

The set of altitudinal zones of a mountain system or a specific slope is usually called the spectrum of zones. In each spectrum, the basic landscape is the foothills of the mountains, close to the conditions of the horizontal natural zone in which the given mountain system is located.

There is an analogy in the change of altitudinal zones within the spectrum of a mountainous country, on the one hand, and horizontal geographical zones from low to high latitudes, on the other hand.

However, there is no complete identity between them. For example, the tundra of Arctic latitudes is characterized by a polar day and a polar night, and with them a special rhythm of hydroclimatic and soil-biological processes. The high-mountain analogues of the tundra in lower latitudes and alpine meadows lack such features. The high-mountain regions of equatorial latitudes are characterized by special landscapes - paramos (Andes of Ecuador, Kilimanjaro), which have little in common with the belt of alpine meadows.

The most complete altitudinal spectra can be observed in the high mountains of equatorial and tropical latitudes (Andes, Himalayas). Toward the poles, the levels of altitudinal belts decrease, and the lower belts at certain latitudes wedge out. This is especially well expressed on the slopes of meridionally elongated mountain systems (Andes, Cordillera, Urals). At the same time, the altitudinal spectra of the external and internal mountain slopes are often different.

The composition of the altitudinal spectra also changes greatly with distance from the seas inland.

Oceanic regions are usually characterized by a predominance of mountain-forest landscapes, while continental regions are characterized by treeless ones.

The composition of altitudinal spectra also depends on many local conditions - features of the geological structure, slope exposure in relation to the sides of the horizon and prevailing winds.

For example, in the Tien Shan mountains, high-altitude belts of mountain forests and forest-steppe are characteristic primarily of the northern, i.e., shady and more humid, slopes of the ridges. The southern slopes of the Tien Shan at the same levels are characterized by mountain steppes.

Altitudinal zones create a variety of impressions and, as a result of the contrast of the zones, their special acuteness when traveling and climbing in the mountains.

Within one day, the traveler manages to visit different zones - from the belt of broad-leaved forests to alpine meadows and eternal snow.

In Russia, a particularly complete range of altitudinal zones is observed in the Western Caucasus in the Fisht or Krasnaya Polyana region.

Here, on the southern slope of the Main Caucasus Range, rising, for example, from the Mzymta valley (500 m above sea level) to the Pseashkho peak (3256 m), one can observe a change in numerous altitudinal belts. Oak forests, alder forests and subtropical Colchis forests of the foothills give way higher up to beech forests with the participation of hornbeam and chestnut forests.

The upper belts of vegetation are formed by dark coniferous fir and spruce forests, light pine forests, and park maple forests. This is followed by crooked forests, subalpine and alpine meadows.

The top of the pyramid at altitudes above 3000 m is closed by the subnival and nival-glacial belts.

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Altitudinal zone
A change in natural zones, as is known, occurs not only on the plains, but also in the mountains - from the foot to their peaks. With altitude, temperature and pressure decrease, up to a certain altitude the amount of precipitation increases, and lighting conditions change. Due to changes in climatic conditions, natural zones are changing. But unlike the plains, in the mountains this change occurs from the foot to the top. The successive zones seem to encircle mountains at different altitudes, which is why they are called altitudinal zones.

The change in altitudinal zones in the mountains occurs much faster than the change in zones on the plains.
The first (lower) altitudinal belt of mountains always corresponds to the natural zone in which the mountain is located. For example: The Subpolar Urals are located in the taiga zone.

At its foot, the first zone will be the mountain taiga, and as we climb to the top we will discover the following high-altitude zones - forest-tundra, mountain tundra, arctic deserts.

The alternation of natural zones in the mountains is called altitudinal zonation or altitudinal zonation.
The change of day and night and seasonal changes depend on geographic latitude. If the mountain is located near the pole, there is a polar day and a polar night, a long winter and a short cold summer.

In the mountains near the equator, day is always equal to night, and there are no seasonal changes.

Natural areas of mountainous areas (grade 4)

Why do changes occur in natural areas in the mountains? At altitude, temperature and pressure decrease, humidity and lighting change. Click on the slide.

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ALTITUDE ZONE (altitudinal zonality, vertical zonality), the main geographical pattern of changes in natural conditions and landscapes with altitude in the mountains. It is caused mainly by changes in the conditions of heat supply and humidification with increasing absolute altitude.

The causes, intensity and direction of these changes differ significantly from the corresponding changes in geographic latitude. When atmospheric pressure decreases with height due to a decrease in air density, a decrease in the content of water vapor and dust in it, the intensity of direct solar radiation increases, however, the own radiation of the earth's surface increases faster, resulting in a sharp decrease in air temperature with height (on average 0.5 -0.65°C for every 100 m of ascent).

Due to the barrier effect of mountains, precipitation increases up to a certain altitude (usually higher in dry areas) and then decreases. The rapid change in climatic conditions with altitude corresponds to a change in soils, vegetation, runoff conditions, the set and intensity of modern exogenous processes, relief forms and, in general, the entire natural complex.

This leads to the formation of high-altitude zones, distinguished by the predominant type of landscape (mountain forest, mountain steppe). Within them, according to the dominance of a certain subtype of landscape, altitudinal belts, or altitudinal subzones, are distinguished (for example, belts of mixed, broad-leaved or dark-coniferous forests of the mountain forest zone). High-altitude zones and belts are named according to the type of prevailing vegetation - the most obvious component of landscapes and an indicator of other natural conditions.

From latitudinal landscape zones and subzones, high-altitude zones and belts differ in their smaller extent, the manifestation of specific exogenous processes in conditions of highly dissected and steeply sloping terrain that are not characteristic of flat landscapes (landslides, mudflows, avalanches, etc.); gravelly and thin soils, etc. Some high-altitude zones and belts have no plain analogues (for example, a mountain-meadow zone with subnival, alpine and subalpine belts).

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For the first time, M. wrote about the differences in climate and nature of mountains depending on the proximity of the earth’s surface to the “frozen layer of the atmosphere”.

V. Lomonosov. Generalizations of the patterns of altitudinal zonation belong to A. Humboldt, who identified the relationship between climate change and vegetation in the mountains. The doctrine of vertical zonation of soils, as well as climate, flora and fauna as the main soil-forming factors was created by V.

V. Dokuchaev, who pointed out the identity of vertical zonality in the mountains and latitudinal zonation on the plains. Subsequently, in order to emphasize the identified differences in the genesis of altitudinal (vertical) zonality from latitudinal one, in Russian landscape science it was proposed to use the term “altitudinal zonation” (A.

G. Isachenko, V. I. Prokaev, etc.), widely used in geobotany and soil science. To avoid confusion in terminology, some Russian physical geographers (N. A. Gvozdetsky, A. M. Ryabchikov, etc.) believe that the pattern of distribution of vegetation with height is better called altitudinal zonation, and in relation to changes in natural complexes the term “altitudinal landscape zonation” should be used. , or “altitudinal zonation”.

The term “vertical zonation” is sometimes used in modern geography to describe the deep zonation of the nature of the oceans.

The structure of altitudinal zones is characterized by a spectrum (set) of altitudinal zones and belts, their number, sequence of location and loss, vertical width, and altitudinal position of boundaries. The type of altitudinal zonation of landscapes is determined by a natural combination of vertically alternating altitudinal zones and belts, characteristic of territories with a certain zonal-sectoral association (see Zoning).

The influence of orographic features of mountain systems (stretch, absolute and relative height of mountains, slope exposure, etc.) is manifested in a variety of spectra, reflecting various subtypes and variants of structures within a specific type of altitudinal zone. The lower altitude zone in a mountain system, as a rule, corresponds to the latitudinal zone in which this system is located.

In the southern mountains, the structure of altitudinal zones becomes more complex, and the boundaries of the zones shift upward. In the longitudinal sectors of one geographic zone, the structures of altitudinal zones often differ not in the number of altitudinal zones, but in their internal features: mountains in the oceanic sectors are characterized by a large vertical width of altitudinal zones, the unclear nature of their boundaries, the formation of transition zones, etc.; in the mountains of continental sectors, zone changes occur more quickly, and the boundaries are usually more clearly defined.

In mountains of meridional and submeridional extent, the latitudinal zonality is more clearly manifested in the spectra of altitudinal zonation. In latitudinal and sublatitudinal mountain systems, the influence of longitudinal differentiation on the spectra of altitudinal zonality is more clearly expressed. Such mountain systems also emphasize and enhance zonal contrasts due to exposure effects, often serve as climate divides, and their ridges form boundaries between latitudinal landscape zones and geographic zones. For example, for the Greater Caucasus, various types of altitudinal structure are distinguished, characteristic of the northern and southern slopes in its western and eastern parts (Figure 1).

Depending on the features of the relief, full and shortened spectra of altitudinal zones are distinguished.

A simplification of the structure of altitudinal zonation occurs both due to the insignificant height of the ridges (loss of upper zones in low and medium-altitude mountains) and with an increase in the absolute height of the foothills and bottoms of valleys (loss of lower zones).

The greatest diversity of altitudinal zones and belts is characterized by low and middle mountains. In the upper tiers, the structure of altitudinal zones is quite homogeneous due to the uniformity of the climate of the peaks.

For example, in the Urals, at the intersection of different latitudinal zones, landscapes corresponding to these zones are formed in the lower parts of the slopes, and in the upper parts mountain tundra and char, found both in the north and in the south, predominate (Figure 2). At the same time, the width of the bald zone narrows to the south, and its border rises. Given the large extent of the Urals from north to south (over 2000 km), fluctuations in the boundary of the goltsy zone are insignificant - from 750 m in the north to 1050 m in the south.

The exposure of the slopes is associated with the asymmetry of altitudinal zonation, that is, the difference in spectra on slopes of different insolation (relative to the Sun) and circulation (relative to the direction of movement of moist air masses) exposures.

The asymmetry of altitudinal zonation is manifested in an increase in the boundaries of altitudinal zones on the southern slopes and a decrease in the width of individual zones - up to their complete pinching out. For example, on the northern slope of the Western Sayan, the upper boundary of the taiga is located at an altitude of 1300-1350 m, on the southern slope - 1450-1550 m. Exposure differences are more clearly manifested in mountain systems with a continental climate, especially if they are located at the junction of latitudinal landscape zones. Circulation exposure enhances the effect of insolation exposure, which is typical for latitudinal and sublatitudinal ranges.

On the other hand, different orientations of slopes in relation to the main transport routes of moisture-bearing air masses lead to the formation of unequal spectra of altitudinal zonation. In the region of western transport of moist air masses, precipitation falls mainly on the western slopes, in the region of monsoon climate - on the eastern.

The windward slopes of the ridges are characterized by humid landscapes, while the leeward slopes are characterized by arid ones. In dry climates, exposure contrasts appear brighter, especially in mid-mountains - at altitudes where the maximum amount of precipitation falls.

Inversion of altitudinal zones, that is, the reverse sequence of their change with height, is observed on the slopes framing intermountain basins and large valleys.

In areas of heat deficiency and increased moisture, mountain slopes are usually occupied by more southern types of landscapes compared to the bottoms of basins (for example, in the Polar Urals, tundras at the bottoms of basins are replaced by forest-tundras on the slopes). In areas of sufficient heat and lack of moisture, more southern types of landscapes are typical for valleys and basins (for example, in the mountains of Transbaikalia, steppe basins are found among forested lowlands).

The structure of the altitudinal zonation of landscapes is one of the criteria for the physical-geographical zoning of mountainous countries.

Lit.: Dokuchaev V.

B. To the doctrine of natural zones. Horizontal and vertical soil zones. St. Petersburg, 1899; Shchukin I. S., Shchukina O. E. Life of the mountains. M., 1959; Ryabchikov A.M. Structure of altitudinal zonation of land landscapes // Bulletin of Moscow State University. Ser. Geography.

Lecture: Regularities of the geographical envelope

1968. No. 6; Stanyukovich K.V. Vegetation of the mountains of the USSR. Shower, 1973; Grebenshchikov O. S. On the zonality of vegetation cover in the mountains of the Mediterranean in the latitudinal band of 35-40 degrees latitude // Problems of botany. L., 1974. T. 12; Gorchakovsky P. L. Plant world of the high-mountain Urals. M., 1975; Gvozdetskikh N. A., Golubchikov Yu. N. Mountains. M., 1987; Isachenko A. G. Landscape science and physical-geographical zoning. M., 1991; Avssalamova I. A., Petrushina M. N., Khoroshev A. V. Mountain landscapes: structure and dynamics.

M. N. Petrushina.

Accompanied by changes in geomorphological, hydrological, soil-forming processes, the composition of vegetation and fauna, which leads to the formation of altitudinal zones.

The number of altitudinal zones, as a rule, increases with the height of the mountains and as one approaches the equator.

The alternation of natural zones in the mountains is called:

The high zonality of equatorial latitudes is characterized by a natural change from the belt of humid equatorial forests to belts of savannas and woodlands, mountain variable-humid forests, mountain tropical vegetation (paramos), mountain tall grasses and shrubs (subalpine), mountain meadows (alpine) and eternal snow and ice (nival). ).

Many features of altitudinal zonation are determined by the exposure of the slopes, their location in relation to the prevailing air masses and distance from the oceans.

Altitudinal zonality has a number of similar features to latitudinal zonality, but in the mountains the change of natural territorial complexes occurs more abruptly (at intervals of several km compared to hundreds and thousands of km on the plains). The discovery of general patterns of altitudinal zonation belongs to A. Humboldt.

How do air temperature and atmospheric pressure change with altitude?

With altitude, the air temperature drops and atmospheric pressure decreases.

How does the sequence of zones in the mountains change?

The sequence of natural zones in the mountains is the same as on the plains. The first (lower) altitudinal belt of mountains always corresponds to the natural zone in which the mountain is located. So, if the mountain is located in the taiga zone, then when climbing to its peak you will find the following altitude zones: taiga, mountain tundra, eternal snow. If you have to climb the Andes near the equator, then you will begin your journey from the belt (zone) of equatorial forests. The pattern is this: the higher the mountains and the closer they are to the equator, the more altitude zones there are and the more diverse they are. In contrast to zonality on the plains, the alternation of natural zones in the mountains is called altitudinal zonation or altitudinal zonation.

Where do mountain desert and forest landscapes prevail?

The mountain-desert landscape is characteristic of the Taimyr Peninsula and the Arctic islands.

Mountain forest landscapes are typical for Transbaikalia, Southern Siberia, Altai, and Sikhote-Alin.

Where in Russia are altitudinal zones most fully represented?

In the mountains located near the sea coasts, mountain-forest landscapes predominate. Treeless landscapes are typical for the mountains in the central regions of the continent. The most complete mountain belts are represented in the North Caucasus.

questions and assignments

1. What is altitudinal zonation?

Altitudinal zonation is a natural change in natural conditions, natural zones, and landscapes in the mountains.

2. Do you think altitudinal zonation is a deviation from the norm or a confirmation of the law of latitudinal zonation?

Altitudinal zonation rather confirms the laws of latitudinal zonation, since in the mountains the change of natural zones is also the result of changing climatic conditions.

3. Why does the change in natural conditions in the mountains occur vertically and manifest itself more sharply than on the plains?

The change in natural zones in the mountains occurs more sharply, since pressure, temperature, and humidity change more sharply with altitude.

4. What altitude zones predominate in the Russian mountains? What areas of the world can they be compared to?

The northern regions are dominated by high-altitude zones of coniferous forests and tundras, and mountain deserts. They are similar to the mountains of Alaska and the Canadian Arctic Archipelago.

In the southern and central regions of the country, mountain-steppe and mountain-desert landscapes are expressed, which are also characteristic of other mountains of Central Asia.

5. What determines the set of altitude zones?

The set of altitude zones depends on the latitude of the area in which the mountains are located and the height of the mountains.

6. If in the north of the Russian Plain there were mountains higher than the Caucasus, would they be richer in the number of altitudinal zones?

The mountains in the north of the Russian Plain would not be richer in the number of altitudinal zones of the Caucasus. The Caucasus is further south. And the further south the mountains are, the greater the number of altitude zones.

7. How do mountains affect human life and health?

Life in the mountains affects human health. In mountain conditions, with less oxygen, many body systems change. The work of the chest and lungs increases, the person begins to breathe more often, and accordingly the ventilation of the lungs and the delivery of oxygen to the blood improves. The heart rate increases, which increases blood circulation and oxygen reaches the tissues faster. This is also facilitated by the release of new red blood cells into the blood, and therefore the hemoglobin they contain. This explains the beneficial effect of mountain air on a person’s vitality. Coming to mountain resorts, many notice that their mood improves and their vitality is activated. Especially if a vacation in the mountains is combined with a vacation at sea. However, it should be noted that a resident of the plains will feel unwell with a rapid ascent already at an altitude of 3000 m. He will be tormented by altitude sickness.

Life in the mountains also has its downsides. Firstly, mountain residents will receive more ultraviolet radiation, which has a negative impact on health. In the mountains there are difficulties in conducting economic activities, building housing and roads. Often, transport connections may be absent for one reason or another. In the mountains there is a higher probability of natural phenomena occurring.