Articles analyzing the use of metaphor in American newspapers. Metaphor in newspaper headlines. One of the characteristic features of modern newspaper journalism is the metaphorization of terms: “A characteristic feature of many modern newspaper and journalistic technologies

USE OF METAPHORS IN NEWSPAPER TEXT (BASED ON THE EXAMPLE OF THE THEMATIC GROUP “MILITARY VOCABULARY”)

Chepeleva Maria Nikolaevna

1st year master's student, IMCIMO National Research University "BelSU", Belgorod

E-mail: dubro [email protected]

No one doubts the fact that the media play a huge role in modern society. The main types of media include the following types: printed publications, which include, first of all, newspapers and magazines; electronic media, such as online publications, radio, television.

A special feature of newspapers and magazines is that they have a significant influence on the reaction and opinion of people, on current events in the world and the country as a whole, making one or another impression on them, which is achieved through the emotionality of ideas, expressiveness of assessments, and the use of various means of artistic expression, including tropes.

One of the main areas of origin and the most common place of use of most language processes (lexical, word-formation, phraseological, etc.) is the journalistic style. This style has a significant impact on the development of the language norm as a whole. This emphasizes the need for its study, especially from the perspective of stylistic analysis.

Journalism (Latin publicare - “to make common property, open to everyone” or “to explain publicly, to make public”) is a special type of literary work that highlights and explains current issues of socio-political life and raises moral problems. [Large Encyclopedic Dictionary: 4987] The specificity of this style lies in the fact that, thanks to mass use, it is here that new meanings are developed and linguistic means are formed to denote new phenomena in modern society.

Among the functions of the journalistic style are the following:

1) informational;

2) influencing;

3) popularization

Among the functions listed above, the main ones are influencing and informational.

The characteristic features of journalistic texts can be called the following: brightness of the image, relevance of the issue, imagery, political urgency, which is determined by the social purpose of the style. On the one hand, journalism has many similarities with the artistic style, and on the other, with the colloquial style. The difference is that works of fiction model the fictional world of artistic reality, generalizing reality, conveying it in specific, sensual images. The author of works of art creates typical images through the depiction of the specific, and the journalist explores types, general problems, specific and individual facts that are of secondary importance to him, which is associated with a different approach to seeing the world around him. The position of a journalist is the position of a person observing, thinking, evaluating.

A characteristic feature of the language of modern newspapers is the widespread use of metaphors related to military topics. The active use of metaphorical military vocabulary is most often found in materials devoted to socio-political, sports and economic issues.

Among metaphorized military terms, nouns and verbs are used in most cases: weapons, war, defense, landing, attack, blitzkrieg, fight, attack, charge, etc.

Thus, the figurative use of the word blitzkrieg arose under the influence of the thematically close traditional metaphor of offensive:

“... I must give up the temptation of some kind of blitzkrieg, a lightning-fast entry into the history of cinema” [Soviet Sport - 10/21/2011].

“Everyone is counting on a kind of religious blitzkrieg” [KP.-05.23.2013].

Having studied various examples, we noticed that thematic series are constantly developing, replenished, and in motion. Metaphors may experience changes in semantics, lexical compatibility, expressive and stylistic coloring of words.

The most common form of expressing metaphors are two-term phrases built according to the model “nominative case of a noun + genitive case of a noun”:

"health landings" [Med. gas - 03/13/2012].

"war of rumors" [KP - 05/23/2013]

Attributive phrases “adjective + noun” are also popular. The prevalence of metaphors of this type is explained by the fact that the mechanism of metaphorization itself is most clearly revealed in them.

“...in stores in December there is always a pre-New Year’s rush” [Izvestia. - 01/29/2013].

“...used heavy financial artillery” [Soviet Sport. - 09/12/2012]

As the study shows, the figurative meaning of a word and its linguistic environment are not indifferent to each other. From this point of view, the most interesting are the immediate syntactic environment of the metaphor and its components such as adjectives and verbs.

Adjectives can help strengthen the lexical compatibility of metaphors with dependent nouns, for example in contexts:

“...even an explosion of anti-Russian sentiment is possible” [KP. - 09/17/2013].

Adjectives significantly clarify the main meaning of metaphors: undermining the company’s reputation and undermining the company’s business reputation [Izvestia. - 06/03/2014]. An army of fans and an army of Moscow fans [Soviet Sport. - 07.21.2013].

In some cases, the characterization of metaphors by adjectives is used to enhance the evaluative value of the metaphor. Wed: referee wars and malicious referee wars [Soviet Sport. - 09/12/2012]; war of words and a long war of words [KP.-09.17.2013].

The functions of verbs in metaphorical expressions also play an important role. The verb strengthens the complex syntactic structure, promotes the lexical compatibility of the metaphor with the word being defined, enhancing the imagery of the metaphor and forming an expanded metaphor.

The Yabloko party threw its best forces, heavy artillery into battle" [Izvestia. - 01/29/2013]; "Giannini went mad and declared war on the workers [Izvestia. - 06/03/2014].

In newspaper publications, extended metaphors are often found, the number of links of which is more than 4 components:

“Having landed a second automobile landing in the west of the country last year, blitzkrieg reaching the Volga and luring large VAZ dealers in Togliatti to their side, this year the Chinese have flooded Moscow and are already setting up a camp on our western borders - the Kaliningrad Avtotor is in full swing with them negotiations on the assembly of a number of models. Of course, the battle for such a tasty piece of the domestic market by Chinese automakers has not yet been won" [Izvestia. – 06/03/2014].

An expanded metaphor gives the text a special evaluative expressiveness and is aimed at a certain reader resonance. Most of the metaphorical model discussed above consists of verbs and concepts that characterize active offensive military operations. A figurative and associative idea appears of Chinese manufacturers as enemies who started the war in Russia and are occupying its territories.

Having examined the structural classification of military metaphors, we came to the conclusion that in newspaper publications the most common forms are verbal and substantive metaphors, which are represented by binary phrases (i.e., a closed metaphor). Journalism is practically not characterized by “riddle-metaphors”, in which there is no defined word. Extended metaphors, in which the metaphorical image is realized in several sentences, give newspaper articles particular expressiveness, accuracy and expressiveness.

List of used literature:

1. Large encyclopedic dictionary. Linguistics / chief editor V.N. Yartseva. M.: Scientific. Publishing house "Bolshaya Ros. Encyclopedia", 2000.

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1 . Exploring Metaphor

Metaphor- (from Greek. metaphora- transfer.) - called a trope or mechanism of speech, consisting in the use of a word denoting a certain class of objects, phenomena, etc., to characterize or name an object included in another class, or the name of another class of objects, similar to the given one in some or attitude. In a broad sense, the term metaphor applies to any type of use of words in an indirect meaning. Metaphor is the most common means of creating new meanings; most of our everyday concepts are essentially metaphorical.

The foundations of the theory of metaphor were laid in ancient times (see the works of Aristotle, Quintillian, Cicero). Also, studies of the phenomenon of metaphor belong to the greatest thinkers (J. Rousseau, E. Cassirer, X. Ortega y Gasset, etc.). Currently, in the course of the development of linguistic science, the study of the phenomenon of metaphor is becoming particularly relevant (N.D. Arutyunova, V.G. Gak, Yu.N. Karaulov, E.S. Kubryakova, V.V. Petrov, G.N. Sklyarevskaya , V.N. Telia, V.G. Kharchenko, A.P. Chudinov, etc.).

The conceptual features of metaphor come to the fore, within which several approaches to its study have emerged. On the one hand, metaphor is an object of study in stylistics and rhetoric, and, on the other hand, it is considered as a mental universal.

Thus, metaphors in the language of science seem to contradict the main requirements for scientific terminology - the “rigor” of the nomination, i.e. correspondence of the term to the concept, and its unambiguity. However, a careful study of the role of metaphor in the development of the language of science revealed the reason for its prevalence in terminology: a metaphor is capable of expressing a hypothesis, setting a special direction for understanding the object being studied. It is associative and at the same time correlates new knowledge with existing experience, embodied in the usual meaning of a linguistic unit.

This situation displays two important features that characterize the nature of metaphor: firstly, its creativity, i.e. the ability to form new concepts and linguistic meanings based on existing linguistic meanings; secondly, connection with experience, both individual and the experience of a cultural and linguistic community, encoded in the lexical and phraseological units of the language with their emotive and cultural connotations.

The foundations for the study of metaphor as a cognitive tool were laid long before our century. In the European tradition, the first person to explicitly raise the question of the heuristic possibilities of metaphor was Aristotle. Considering this linguistic means primarily as an attribute of oratory and poetic arts, Aristotle also analyzes the logical mechanism of metaphor, which determines its ability to express knowledge about the world. For Aristotle, a logically clear metaphor is good, in which the transfer of a name is based on a structurally ordered thought, which is explained by the desire of ancient science to look for a reflection of logical structures in linguistic forms. The analysis of the analogy-based metaphor “sowing God-given light” is indicative: explaining why this metaphor is good, Aristotle argues his statement by the logical correlation of conceptual complexes: “there is no name for the scattering of light by the sun; but it is related to the sun in the same way as sowing is to seeds.” Thus, the mechanism of a “good” metaphor consists in the correct correlation of conceptual complexes; At the same time, it is emphasized that to express the desired concept in the language there was no separate name before the metaphorical one.

The affirmation of the heuristic significance of the underlying metaphor of the technique of likening the unknown and unnamed to something known from experience and having a name in language has become the starting point in the study of metaphor as a cognitive tool in recent decades. However, this does not mean that all research is moving in the same direction. F. Ankersmit and J. Muizh identify four main directions in the study of metaphor, which determined the approaches to it during this period of time. The leading direction is considered to be the theory of interaction, the most famous representative of which is the American logician M. Black. This direction is based on the approach to metaphor as the result of the associative interaction of two figurative or conceptual systems - the denoted and the figurative means. The projection of one of the two systems onto the other gives a new view of the object and makes what the metaphor denotes a new verbalized concept. This theory goes back to the views of K. Buhler and A.A. Richards.

The second approach, in many ways opposite to the first, can be called “asemantics” (no-semantics approach), since it denies not only the cognitive potential of metaphor, but also the very concept of semantics of metaphor, which, from this point of view, is either nonsense or a substitution direct meaning for pragmatic purposes. This approach was developed by D. Davidson.

Proponents of the third approach, based on the views of F. Nietzsche, believe that metaphor is historically the first and main type of linguistic meaning, since language itself with established meanings, which all members of the community had to reckon with from now on, was the first metaphor from which they then developed all other types of linguistic meanings, including “individual” poetic metaphors.

The fourth approach, which can be called anthropological, seeks the origins of linguistic metaphor not in the rules of logic, but in the peculiarities of human consciousness and worldview, in the patterns of the emergence of images and concepts both in a universal human sense and in relation to the worldview of the linguistic community

2 . Classification of metaphors

In the history of linguistics, there have been several interpretations of the issue of classification of metaphors. Various researchers have identified them into certain types, developed various approaches and criteria, in accordance with which they then distributed metaphors into different classes. Metaphor is a complex sign that has a number of structural features and specific content features, and also performs certain functions in language. But, as V.M. noted. Moskvin, “we still do not have a set of parameters by which a metaphor can be classified. Therefore, systematization, and in a number of cases, identification of such parameters, i.e. classification of metaphors from a linguistic point of view seems to be a truly urgent task for the Russian science of language.” Moskvin proposed, in the opinion of researchers, the most complete classification of metaphors. He developed a structural, semantic and functional classification of metaphors.

2.1 Semantic classification of metaphors

Semantic classification, in the opinion of researchers, is of the greatest interest due to the extensive field for research activity. This classification is based on the features of the content side of the metaphorical sign, which lie in their semantic duality (simultaneous indication of the main and auxiliary subject), i.e. comparison of something (main subject) with something (auxiliary subject, comparison term) on some basis (aspect of comparison). Thus, the content of the metaphor “epidemic of non-payments” is the comparison of non-payments with an epidemic in terms of prevalence; prevalence is the area of ​​similarity between two specified objects.

This classification distinguishes metaphors:

according to the main subject of comparison;

according to the auxiliary subject of comparison (anthropocentric or personification, animalistic, “machine”);

by the commonality of the auxiliary and main subjects of comparison;

according to the degree of integrity of the internal form of metaphors (figurative metaphors (general poetic (usual, generally accepted) and non-logical (individual author), erased metaphors and dead metaphors).

Based on the belonging of the sign-bearer of the image (auxiliary subject) to the system of terms of a particular industry, researchers traditionally identify the following groups of metaphors:

medical (“election fever”, “acute attack of remorse”, “economic stroke”, etc.);

sports (“relay race of non-payments”, “record production figures”, “one-sided game”, etc.);

military (“election battles”, “food war”, “economic breakthrough”, etc.);

technical (“levers of power”, etc.);

gambling (“political roulette”, etc.);

biological (“political genera”), etc.

Classification according to the auxiliary subject of comparison is of interest not only for philologists, but also for historians, cultural scientists, political scientists, and sociologists. Metaphor is social. Metaphors show how the picture of the world is reflected in the public consciousness. According to the fair opinion of G. Paul, from the totality of metaphors that have become commonplace in the language, one can see what interests prevailed among the people in a particular era, what ideals were laid in the foundation of culture at one or another stage of its development. A.P. Chudinov continues this thought: “each new stage of the country’s social development is reflected in a metaphorical mirror, where, regardless of anyone’s intentions, the true picture of public self-consciousness is recorded. The system of basic metaphors is a kind of key to understanding the “spirit of the times.” “Therefore, the relevance of their research is determined not only by linguistic needs itself, but represents an interdisciplinary problem.”

2.2 Structural classification of metaphors

This classification is based on consideration of the external structure of metaphor as a specific lexical and grammatical structure.

The external structure of a metaphor is represented by two elements:

§ term of comparison (metaphorized component of a phrase, a word in a figurative meaning);

§ word-argument (support word) (metaphorizing component of a phrase that sets the topic of figurative meaning).

With this classification, the features of the metaphor expression plan can be taken into account, in particular the level affiliation of the unit, which acts as a carrier of the metaphorical image. According to this parameter, verbal and phrasal metaphors are distinguished.

Verbal metaphors are usually divided into substantive, adjective, verbal and adverbial according to their part-verbal nature.

Based on the number of units that carry the metaphorical image, they are distinguished:

§ a simple metaphor, in which the expression plan is represented by one word;

§ an expanded metaphor (metaphorical chain), in which the carrier of the metaphorical image is a group of thematically related units.

There is a well-known classification based on the presence/absence of a reference word:

§ Metaphor of comparison (closed metaphor). It contains both a parameter word and a reference word.

§ A riddle metaphor, where there is no supporting word.

2.3 Functional classification of metaphors

Metaphors are also classified according to their functional characteristics.

§ Nominative metaphor, used to denote an object that does not yet have its own name (Earth satellite). This type of metaphor exists only at the moment of nomination; having fulfilled the function of nomination, it loses its internal form and “fades away.” This metaphor is widely used in the process of term creation in various sublanguages ​​of science and technology.

§ Decorative (artistic) metaphor. Serves as a means of decorating speech (diamond dew, gold hair). The main area of ​​its use is artistic speech.

Evaluative metaphor (about people: bear, snake) Characteristic of newspaper and colloquial metaphors. Expressive metaphor in journalism is intended, first of all, to create an emotional and evaluative effect. Metaphorical models of journalism are created primarily in order to transfer the evaluative attitude from the source concept to the metaphorical meaning. The following evaluative phrases are quite common in modern newspapers: food war, gas war, industry headquarters, political capitulation, etc.

§ Explanatory (pedagogical, didactic) metaphor. Characteristic of scientific speech.

Unlike nominative metaphors, decorative, evaluative, and explanatory metaphors retain imagery for a long time, since they are essentially created for the sake of internal forms, which in metaphors of this type has a certain functional load. The internal form of a nominative metaphor does not have such a load and therefore immediately fades into the background and is forgotten.

Scientists have different views on the functionality of metaphor; Experts name up to fifteen of its functions.

Thus, the parameters of the classification of metaphors are determined by the originality of the plans of content and expression, dependence on the context and the functional specificity of the metaphorical sign. The analysis of metaphors can be carried out not only according to any one, but also according to various combinations of the parameters discussed above.

3. PproblemsA“living” and “erased” metaphors

The works of V.G. are devoted to the problem of “living” and “erased” metaphors. Gaka, V.N. Telia, O.R. Platonova, O.Yu. Buinova, N.D. Arutyunova, N. Goodman, A. Martinet, B. Fraser, etc. However, the heuristic potential of these theories, in our opinion, has not yet been fully used. In particular, it seems possible to use it to determine the degree of novelty or obsolescence of a metaphor.

As language and society developed, the old metaphor lost its connections in the language and was repeatedly replaced by a new one. Etymological metaphor loses all imagery. According to the figurative expression of V.G. Gak language is a graveyard of dead metaphors [Gak 1988].

This brief review shows that the boundaries within which the combinatorics of features creates metaphorical meaning have not yet been defined.

Traditionally, the reason for the erasure of metaphors was their repeated use. However, some metaphors are doomed to die at birth, while others, from repeated use, can turn into a cliche, but not die. This fact can be explained by the fact that an insignificant, dull literal truth gives rise to a weak and lifeless metaphor. Metaphorical force requires a combination of novelty and usefulness, unusualness and obviousness. N.D. Arutyunova believes that “the transition to monosemy consists... the main difference between a speech (occasional, individual, poetic) metaphor and a metaphor that has become the common property of speakers of the same language” [Arutyunova 1992, 339].

Repeated use, in turn, is explained by the fact that symbol words are used as an auxiliary component of a “dead” metaphor, i.e. words that a given national consciousness considers to symbolize some quality.

The reasons for the erasure of metaphors are closely related to the understanding of the characteristics of certain features that are extracted when interpreting a metaphor. The language community considers some features to belong to one or another concept (name). For a linguistic community, there are names - “standards”, the denotations of which, in the opinion of this linguistic community, have this characteristic to a greater extent than the denotations of other names. “Reference” features are most often connotations of a given word, but can also be part of its meaning [Platonova 1992, 4]. A language community may make mistakes in choosing “standards” for a particular feature. Since the selection of “standard” features depends on the opinion of the linguistic community, these features may be different for different linguistic consciousnesses, and in addition, they may be discovered by different linguistic societies at different times. For example, the British say as slow as a snail - slow as a snail, to run like the wind - rush like the wind, butterflies in the stomach - butterflies in the stomach (during hunger), and the Russians, accordingly, say “slow like a turtle”, “ rush like a bullet”, “revolution in the stomach”.

The formalization of the “reference” feature can be observed in a stable comparison, the formation of which probably precedes the creation of a metaphor. “The question of what appears first - the auxiliary subject or its properties, apparently, should be resolved in favor of the properties” [Telia 1988, 209]. Subsequently, according to the law of economy of effort put forward by A Martinet, the attribute (or property) ceases to be explicated, since it is duplicated in an auxiliary nomination included in comparative circulation. If to interpret a metaphor it is sufficient to isolate an auxiliary component of one attribute from the significat or connotative zone, and, moreover, a “reference” one, such a metaphor is erased. If two or more “reference” features stand out, then we can talk about a lifeless metaphor that sounds banal. The meaning revealed to us by such a metaphor was previously found by a stable comparison. In some cases, the process of metaphor formation is an unconscious search for “standard” features.

So, we call a “reference” feature such a semantic component, thanks to which the word containing it becomes an obligatory component of stable comparisons or an erased metaphor. But even in an erased metaphor, extralinguistic knowledge about the denotations of components is updated.

All this leads to the idea that there are at least two stages in the process of interpreting metaphor. At the first stage, it is necessary to find at least one feature common to the base of the auxiliary component. If such a sign is found, the interpretation process can be completed. If this feature turns out to be already highlighted in a given linguistic consciousness, i.e. “standard”, the interpreter does not receive new knowledge, and the metaphor performs a duplicating function, it turns out to be erased. However, the process of interpretation can be continued, the interpreter can turn to his extralinguistic knowledge and identify new features that were not previously fixed in language, and therefore not fixed in the linguistic consciousness, which may not even be inherent in the object itself, but in the situation associated with it . Thus, even an erased metaphor can serve as a tool for understanding the world [Platonova 1992, 6].

As we see, metaphor actualizes associations, i.e. stable signs “registered” by the subconscious. Stable characteristics are not distinctive, i.e. “standard”, they may belong not to the name itself, but to a situation that includes the denotation of a given name, however, like “standard” they are transferred from a large number of objects or their states to the entire extension, and from many situations to all situations.

In contrast to the “reference”, a stable feature can belong not only to a certain national-linguistic consciousness, but also to part of a linguistic community, and can also be temporary and belong to a certain historical era. Another interesting fact is that metaphor makes it possible to recognize language-fixed, but nevertheless non-standard features. “Reference” features cannot be fixed by direct nominations, including terms.

In most cases (especially in a poetic text), combining two names in a metaphor is not aimed at identifying “standard” features, but at identifying and giving linguistic form to stable characteristics of elements of reality. This is the process of forming new predicates. The absence of a corresponding predicate can be explained by the fact that the selected common component is inherent in other objects only partially or is combined with other components, or is not observed at all in other objects. As a result, the meaning of most metaphors is conveyed not by one word, but by periphrasis, i.e. a set of words, and their series remains open, since the interpreter whose linguistic experience is greater can establish more correspondences between realities and identify new signs, i.e. elementary semantic components. If we consider an elementary semantic component to be a component that has a corresponding predicate lexeme in the language, then the meaning of “living” metaphors is always not elementary.

Thus, the appearance of a metaphor can be equated to the birth of a predicate, the peculiarity of which is that its meaning is described not by a lexeme, but by a combination of lexemes.

It can be assumed that as soon as a certain object becomes distinguished for a certain linguistic consciousness among other objects by some sign or property, the name that names it acquires a figurative meaning (cultural connotations differ from “standard” signs and must be learned through texts, belonging to this national team).

To erase a metaphor, it is necessary that the object, called the auxiliary component, be well known to speakers of the given language. But this condition is not the only one. Only those metaphors that have a specific basis die and acquire independent meaning.

We consider a “dead” metaphor to be the figurative meaning of a word recorded in the dictionary. Interpretation of such word usage occurs by substituting the dictionary meaning, and not by dividing the corresponding concept into individual features. Such word usage is only etymologically a metaphor. We can call those metaphors erased when, during the interpretation of which, one attribute is isolated from the auxiliary component. All other metaphors are “living”. They serve to establish a connection between any two segments of the real world by identifying their common associative features.

The function of a dead predicate metaphor is to predicate a specific attribute to some object, which is noticed by the speaker, but not yet noticed by the listener; this attribute is not directly named, it is hidden in the significative or connotative zone of the “reference” lexeme for this attribute.

The function of erased predicate metaphors is to assert the discovered properties of the class specified by the main component.

An interesting property of dead and erased predicate metaphors is the presence of an “internal metaphor” in them, i.e. metaphorization of an elementary semantic component when passing through a “filter”. “Some signs from the “system of generally recognized associations” themselves experience metaphorization during the transition from an auxiliary subject to the main one” [Black, 166]. It can be assumed that the existence of an internal metaphor is explained by the secondary nature of a predicate metaphor with an identifying lexeme in the predicate position compared to a metaphor with a predicate lexeme in this position. The secondary nature of metaphors here is also proven by the choice of the auxiliary component.

Currently, there are no clear criteria for distinguishing between “living”, common and “dead” metaphors. When determining the novelty and obsolescence of a metaphor, we rely not on the time of creation of a work of art, but on the criteria of repetition of the metaphor. We determine the repeatability of a metaphor either from modern sources that record the metaphorical meaning, or using a computer search system that provides examples of repeated use of some metaphors and does not provide examples of others, which indicates the degree of obsolescence of certain metaphors.

Many scientists also refer to the vagueness of boundaries. Bruce Fraser, discussing the problem of “live” and “dead” metaphors, calls the latter simply idioms that were once “living” metaphors, but are now treated as “conventionalized forms” in language. As an example, Fraser cites the phrase "to kick the bucket" ("stretch out your legs, die" according to Lingvo 9.0), which was once used literally and then metaphorically to refer to the final fight of animals kicking their legs against a crossbar called a bucket. The phrase is now an idiom that has lost all meaning from its original source, and whose meaning we understand without context. From this we can conclude that “dead” or erased metaphors (idioms), which have a translation in the dictionary, do not require context to actualize their meaning.

4. Metaphor as a means of speech expressiveness

Metaphor has firmly entered the journalistic arsenal of active means of influencing the reader. Aristotle’s statement: “The most important thing is to be skillful in metaphors; they cannot be adopted from another; this is a sign of talent,” remains the fundamental principle of artistic creativity and one of the criteria for the skill of a writer and journalist.

4.1 Features of journalistic metaphor

A journalistic metaphor (like an artistic one) is the author’s use of a certain word, reinterpreted on the basis of figurative and associative similarity, which arises as a result of a subjective impression, sensation, and emotional perception. This, on the one hand, is a reflection of the real world and objective knowledge about it, enshrined in language, and on the other, a way of creating an individual, imaginative world of a journalist. The associativity caused by the metaphorical use of the word helps to more vividly imagine the reality described by the journalist.

Newspaper metaphors can be divided into commonly used ones (replicated by journalists) and into individual ones.

One of the characteristic features of modern newspaper journalism is the metaphorization of terms: “A characteristic feature of many modern newspaper journalistic texts is the figurative use in them of special scientific, special professional, military vocabulary, vocabulary , related to sports."

Special terminology turns out to be an almost inexhaustible source for new, fresh, uncliched ways of speech expression. Many highly specialized words are beginning to be used as linguistic metaphors.

There is some “distrust” of newspaper metaphors, the source of which is rooted in their opposition to artistic ones and the assessment of the role of newspaper metaphors from the standpoint of artistic speech, which is more suitable for the functioning of metaphors.

According to some authors, a metaphor in a newspaper often goes through the following path: metaphor - stamp - error. This universality seems to contain the objective conditions for appearing in a newspaper, as V.G. writes. Kostomarov, “ill-thought-out stylistically and often logically unjustified metaphors.” Calling them “the scourge of the printed word,” he believes that they confirm the view that metaphor is utilitarian in the newspaper, where it is used as an expresseme in order to “beat the standard.” In polemics with V.G. Kostomarov A.V. Kalinin admits that fiction and newspapers have different tasks and functions. But this does not give grounds”... to belittle the newspaper metaphor, to reduce its function to a purely utilitarian one... Not very often, but in newspapers there are still bright, interesting metaphors that help the reader to see some new connections through which “the world is revealed.”

The scientist's position returns metaphors in the newspaper to their natural function - the function of artistic cognition. It is the focus on positive, successful images that makes it possible to approach unsuccessful semantic formations as an optional and not so inevitable phenomenon for newspaper stylistics. Verbal failures should be viewed not as a typical phenomenon for a newspaper, but as a cost.

The danger of cliches “lies not in the repetition itself, for example, of metaphors, but in their unjustified use.” According to I.D. Bessarabova, creating a metaphor is the same as searching for the only suitable, necessary word. The introduction of metaphors, like other tropes, largely depends on the genre and content of the publication; not every metaphor is suitable for the general intonation of the text. A metaphor may remain misunderstood if semantic-paradigmatic, semantic-grammatical connections are violated. A metaphor is sensitive not only to its proximity to the word being defined in its literal sense, but also to another metaphor or metaphors.

But, despite this, metaphors are actively used in newspaper journalism, increasing the informational value of the message with the help of associations caused by the figurative use of the word, participating in the most important functions of journalism - persuasion and emotional impact.

Metaphor, as one of the most popular means of artistic expression, helps to present a complex concept as relatively simple, a new one as well-known, an abstract concept as concrete. The specificity of newspapers provides for the presence of replicated metaphors, but it depends only on the skill of the journalist that the “standard” does not turn into a “mistake.” We must strive to ensure that the use of metaphors is dictated, first of all, not by the desire to enliven the material, but by the desire to achieve the effectiveness of the printed word, its effectiveness. Sluggish expressions, streamlined formulations in the language of newspapers are simply unacceptable, because... journalism is called upon to actively intervene in life and shape public opinion.

5. Metaphorization of military vocabulary in the language of the newspaper

A characteristic feature of the language of modern newspapers is the extensive metaphorical use of military vocabulary.

Military metaphors in the Russian language have deep historical roots. The militaristic nature of pre-revolutionary Russia, the realities of revolutions, wars, widespread coverage of military events in the media, their reflection in fiction determines that many special designations are continuously activated in general literary use.

The process of metaphorization of military vocabulary occurs most effectively in the language of newspapers. The active metaphorical use of military vocabulary is found most often in newspaper materials devoted to socio-political and economic issues; especially noteworthy is the use of military terminology in the language of sports.

metaphor living military newspaper

5.1 Structural classification of military metaphors

Among metaphorized military terms, nouns and verbs are used mainly: war, attack, landing, headquarters, defense, weapons, camp, army, blockade, fighters, campaign, front, fight, conquer, attack, charge, etc.

There are practically no isolated, single metaphors. The appearance of a rare, unexpected metaphor not noted in explanatory dictionaries has already been prepared by its traditional predecessors.

Thus, the metaphors division, platoon continue the theme of military formations (squad, detachment), which have a figurative meaning (“a group of people organized for some activity”) is noted:

“football division” (What will happen to Moscow clubs // KP. - 05/10/2005).

“girls from the “dance platoon” of CSKA” (Army girls won the “Grand Prix” // Soviet Sports. - 04/22/2005).

“ice squad” (Kazan kingdom // Izvestia. - 04/14/2006).

“a squad of singing stars” (“Lyubasha, be!” // AiF. - 11/30/2005).

The same meaning is added by analogy to the word guard, which already has a figurative meaning of “the best, proven part of any collective, group.” (“And then the guard of archangels, archangels, mostly Muscovites, dances” (Artist Mikhail Shemyakin: “To to the exclamation “Russia!” I would also add an interrogative one - “Russia?!” // Izvestia. - 09.14.2005).

The figurative use of the word blitzkrieg arose under the influence of the thematically close traditional metaphor of the offensive:

“...I must give up the temptation of some kind of blitzkrieg, a lightning-fast entry into the history of cinema” (Ruminov P.: “I want to create a living film” // Parliamentary newspaper - 09.21.2005).

“They were counting on a kind of religious blitzkrieg” (KP. - 08/24/2005).

“The United States has recently experienced an energetic offensive of the ideology of secularism” (Metropolitan Kirill of Smolensk and Kaliningrad: “The Russian Church and the Christian dimension of the problem of human rights and freedoms” // Izvestia. - 04/05/2006).

The most common form of expressing metaphor is two-term phrases (metaphor plus the basic, most frequent word). These can be genetic phrases built according to the model “nominative case of a noun + genitive case of a noun”:

“health landings” (From cooperation to commonwealth // Med. Gaz. - 06.29.2005.

“an army of benefit citizens” (You have to be on your guard // Med. Gaz. - 08/19/2005)

“war of rumors” (Chernobyl: they live and die like everyone else. // Economy gas. - 04/19/2006)

Attributive phrases “adjective + noun” are very popular. The prevalence of metaphors of this type is explained by the fact that the mechanism of metaphorization itself is most clearly revealed in them. Metaphor is always binary (two-term), since it is based on the interaction of two information-semantic complexes. are in motion.

“...I remember the pre-New Year rush” (Depression according to plan // Izvestia. - 01/13/2006).

“...they used heavy financial artillery” (“Spider” is being torn to pieces. “Avant-garde”, “Dynamo” or “Detroit”? // Soviet Sport. - 09/12/2005)

“Comment on ice battles...” (Who will become the champion in Vienna 2005 // KP. - 04/25/2005).

Infectious blitzkrieg . In Russia, the number of cases of dysentery has reached five hundred (Ros. Gaz. - 02.11.2005).

Metaphors expressed by nouns, in the role of predicates, differ from non-metaphors by some semantic independence. If you say: “the fifth match is a war,” “the behavior of the medical staff is a powerful weapon,” “Ukraine is a springboard,” then the semantic connection between the predicate and the subject is broken. Only the complete syntactic block receives a complete meaning (“The fifth match is a war of nerves and characters.” (Avangard defender Oleg Tverdovsky: “Yardo” created a miracle // Soviet. Sports. - 03/25/2005). “Ethically competent behavior of medical staff - a powerful weapon of treatment and prevention" (Treat not only the body, but also the soul // Med. Gaz. - 08/05/2005). "For Berezovsky, Ukraine is a springboard for an attack on Russia" (KP. - 06/25/2005)

The material under study shows that the figurative meaning of a word and its linguistic environment are not indifferent to each other. From this point of view, the most interesting are the immediate syntactic environment of the metaphor and its components such as adjectives and verbs.

Adjectives can help strengthen the lexical compatibility of metaphors with dependent nouns, for example in contexts:

“...even an explosion of anti-Russian sentiment is possible” (Hide the freebie for the “orange”! // KP. - 04/11/2006).

Without an adjective, the compatibility of the metaphor noun with the dependent noun and the consistency of the metaphor itself are called into question.

A number of adjectives significantly clarify the direction of understanding metaphors: undermining the company’s reputation and undermining the company’s business reputation (GAZ is suspected of tax evasion // Izvestia. - 06/03/2005). An army of fans and an army of St. Petersburg fans (“Zenit” believed in the “Wings” crisis? // Soviet Sport. - 04/25/2005).

Sometimes the characterization of metaphors by adjectives is translated into the realm of emotions. Adjectives enhance the evaluativeness of the metaphor (mostly negative) and their expressiveness. Wed: refereeing wars and stinking refereeing wars (Rose on Ice // Soviet. Sports. - 03/21/2005); war of words and protracted war of words (Baltic boycott // Izvestia. - 03/10/2005).

The functions of verbs in metaphorical contexts are also varied. The verb (verb form) strengthens the complex (combined) syntactic structure, promotes the lexical compatibility of the metaphor with the word being defined, enhancing the imagery of the metaphor and forming an expanded metaphor.

United Russia threw its best forces and heavy artillery into battle. At the top of the list is Mayor Yuri Luzhkov" (Can the voter relax? // Izvestia. - 10/19/2005; "Giannini went mad and declared war on the board of directors. (Wild banker // Izvestia. - 03/11/2005; Belgium enters a flower war (Izvestia) . - 03/22/2005).

In newspaper publications, extended metaphors are often found, the number of links of which is more than 4 components:

“Having landed the first automobile landing force in the east of the country last year, blitzkrieg reaching the Volga and luring large VAZ dealers in Togliatti to their side, this year the Chinese have filled Moscow and are already setting up a camp on our western borders - the Kaliningrad Avtotor is in full swing with them negotiations on the assembly of a number of models. Of course, the battle for such a tasty segment of the domestic market by Chinese automakers has not yet been won” (The Chinese are coming // MKmobile. - 09/05/2005)

The above example illustrates a six-member expanded metaphor, represented by the words: landing, landing, blitzkrieg, luring to one's side, captivated, becoming a camp.

An expanded metaphor gives a special evaluative expressiveness to the text and is aimed at a certain reader resonance. Most of the presented metaphorical model consists of verbs and concepts that characterize active offensive military operations. A figurative and associative idea appears of Chinese manufacturers as enemies who started the war in Russia and are occupying its territories.

Having carried out a structural classification of military metaphors, we can conclude that in newspaper publications the most common are verbal and substantive metaphors, represented by binary phrases (i.e., a closed metaphor). “Riddle-metaphors”, in which there is no defined word, are almost uncommon in journalism. Extended metaphors, in which the metaphorical image is realized in several sentences, give newspaper articles particular expressiveness, accuracy and expressiveness.

6. Newspaper metaphors and political persuasion: An experimental study.

Metaphor is often used by politicians and reporters to simplify complex political phenomena. Metaphors achieve this by blending people's varied life experiences with commonly known truths. But the way metaphor is used can do more than simply improve news comprehension. When a metaphor is used to frame a political issue or event in some way, it is likely to draw attention to those aspects of the topic that may benefit a particular group. As a result, the choice of metaphors used to convey political information can have a powerful influencing effect on news audiences. This article examines the effect that metaphors used in newspapers have on readers in three different dimensions: 1) what information readers receive; 2) whether the audience accepts a dominant metaphorical model (frame) when thinking about the content; 3) whether the metaphor affects readers’ ideas about the corresponding problem. Experimental evidence provides support for the view that metaphor influences political thinking in all three of these domains.

First, if, as the theory claims, metaphors do indeed distill complex information into formats that are easier to understand (Lakoff, 1987), then it follows that metaphors should facilitate knowledge acquisition. Thus, the presence of metaphors in the content of communication should increase the amount of factual information that a person is able to obtain from communication. To test whether this is indeed the case, a test will be conducted on the number of facts that the individual is able to recall from the summary. Accordingly, the following hypothesis is proposed regarding the role of metaphor in acquisition:

Acquisition Hypothesis: Individuals who receive information containing metaphors will be able to recall more information about a topic than individuals who receive the same information without metaphors.

The second element in the definition of persuasion is related to the process of modeling (framing). The theory of the persuasive power of metaphor advanced here posits that metaphor distills complex material, and through this process, models it in a specific way. For example, the metaphor “Saddam is Hitler” implies a “conflict” frame. The conflict frame is created because the metaphor uses Hitler as a metaphorical shell that conveys a core set of characteristics that includes the reference model of "war" as well as the model of "good versus evil."

Research on the use of problem modeling in the media has shown that individuals who have been exposed to particular problem models are more likely to accept those models when thinking about the issue (Entman, 1993; Gamson, 1992). To discover whether a frame is actually accepted by an individual, William Gamson analyzed the terminology used by individuals when explaining the problem at hand to other individuals (Gamson 1992, pp. 17–27). Extending Gamson's argument about metaphor, if individuals are able to select more information from summaries containing metaphors as a consequence of modeling, then, to a certain extent, the individual's frame adoption should be evident when discussing those summaries. Researchers studying the effect of metaphor have termed audience acceptance of such language the “assimilation effect” (Johnson and Taylor, 1981; Ottati, Rhoads and Graesser, 1999; Zhou, 1995). Accordingly, the frame assimilation hypothesis is proposed: Frame Assimilation Hypothesis: Individuals who receive information that includes metaphors that activate a particular frame will use that frame when discussing facts about a topic and their significance more often than those individuals who have not received information that includes such metaphors .

Conclusion

This work examined the features, functions, classifications and varieties of metaphor as an integral part of literature and the language of modern journalism. As a metaphor, they are actively used in military vocabulary and in political beliefs. The universality of metaphor and its, often unconscious, use in the media and in the speech of public politicians with the aim of specifically influencing the reader, as well as numerous modern attempts at a professional approach to metaphor as a structured technology, prompted us to turn to this topic: only a comprehensive study of such a powerful tool what a metaphor is, makes it possible to competently and effectively use this tool, guided not by “intuition” (at least, not only intuition), but having at one’s disposal a clear and understandable mechanism, a technology with the help of which the formation of a political metaphor will become directed and effective , and perception is analytical, revealing the original thesis and motives for using specific coding.

While the arguments presented here appear to be compelling, several caveats are in order. This study only scratches the surface of the potential depth and versatility of metaphor.

List of letterstours

Nikitin M.V. On the semantics of metaphor // Questions of linguistics. - 1979. - No. 1.-S. 91-102.

Aristotle. About the art of poetry. - M., 1997. - 183 p.

Arutyunova N.D. Metaphor // Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary. - M., 1990. - P. 296-297.

Arutyunova N.D. Metaphor and discourse // Theory of metaphor: collection.-Moscow, 1990

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Introduction

metaphor newspaper political article

It is the universality of metaphor and its, often unconscious, use in the media and in the speech of public politicians with the aim of specifically influencing the reader, as well as numerous modern attempts at a professional approach to political metaphor as a structured technology that are of particular interest to us in this work. A comprehensive study of such a powerful tool as metaphor enables a journalist working in political discourse to competently and effectively use this tool, guided not by intuition, but by having at his disposal a clear and understandable mechanism, a technology with the help of which the formation of a political metaphor will become directed and effective , and perception is analytical, revealing the original thesis and motives for using specific coding.

Political metaphor is one of the most common and effective tools of public policy and PR technologies.

Metaphor is considered by many scientists (literary scholars, linguists, cultural experts, etc.) to be the most important trope, while this word itself is sometimes used as a synonym for figurative speech, as an indication that words operate here not in a literal, but in a figurative sense. Metaphorical language is “allegorical” or “figurative” language. A review of the literature on the theory of metaphor, which is given in the works of Beztsennaya Zh.P., Blokhina N.G., Koksharova N.F. and so on, shows how wide the range of opinions is on all the main aspects of the theory. It should be immediately noted that the existing differences in approaches are not a consequence of a “wrong” understanding of the essence of the issue. Of course, there are controversial provisions in the positions of many researchers, but the main thing that determines fundamental differences in opinions is the complexity of the subject of research itself. Thus, the study of metaphor has become one of the most important areas of modern cognitive linguistics, which considers this trope as a “tool for analyzing the state of social consciousness.” A person not only expresses his thoughts with the help of metaphors, but also thinks with metaphors, creates with the help of metaphors the world in which he lives. The study of metaphorical models in political discourse allows us to identify general characteristics of attitudes towards reality, social and cultural phenomena. The relevance of the topic is determined by the general focus of the authors of linguistic works in recent years, dealing with the problem of means of expressiveness in language, the presence in linguistics at the moment of controversial and ambiguous opinions on the status of political metaphor in newspaper and journalistic style at the modern level, as well as the lack of research into the basic means of expressiveness (tropes) in language.

The topic of this study is “Political metaphor in modern media (using the example of an article).” It is no coincidence that the phenomenon of metaphor attracts the close attention of researchers. This is explained, first of all, by the general interest in the study of a political speech, manifesto, statement, as well as a journalistic text in general in the broad sense of this concept. Not the least role here is played by the desire to give linguistic justification and interpretation to various stylistic devices that create the expressiveness of the text. Researchers are also attracted to problems related to the mechanisms of manipulating public consciousness. In the modern approach, facts are not studied in isolation, but in a context that allows for a complete picture.

Of particular importance for researchers is working with samples of fiction, a special analysis of which will help assess their artistic value and expressiveness not at an arbitrary, intuitive level, but on the basis of a conscious perception of the expressive means of language.

The purpose of this work is to explore the use of metaphor in the text of the article and prove its significance for a more complete understanding of a specific situation, as well as the political situation in the country and the world.

The object of the study is a political metaphor. The subject of the study is the peculiarities of the use of political metaphors in the language of the media.

The purpose, object and subject of the study determined the following tasks:

study the features and functions of newspaper and journalistic style;

consider the role of metaphor in newspaper and journalistic style

consider the concept of “political metaphor”;

demonstrate the variety of classifications of metaphors;

identify cases of manifestation of metaphor in the text of newspaper and journalistic style;

analyze the contextual significance of political metaphors.

During the study, the following methods were used: continuous sampling and analytical methods in combination with the method of contextual analysis and stylistic analysis of the text.

The scientific and practical significance of the course work lies in the fact that the material presented in it can be used for further study of the peculiarities of the functioning of political metaphors in the language of modern media.

The purpose and objectives of this study determined its structure: the course work consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion and a list of references.

1. Stylistic features of newspaper and journalistic style

1 Features of newspaper and journalistic style

Journalistic style is one of the functional styles that serves political, economic, cultural, sports and other relations. The journalistic style is represented by the media - newspapers, magazines, radio, television, documentary films [Kazakova, Malerwein, Raiskaya, Frick: 21].

Scientific and business literature is focused on the intellectual reflection of reality, artistic speech is focused on its emotional reflection, while journalism strives to satisfy both intellectual and aesthetic needs [Kazakova, Malerwein, Raiskaya, Frick: 21].

In journalistic style, it is customary to distinguish three groups of genres:

) informational: note, report, interview, report;

) analytical: conversation, article, correspondence, review, overview, review;

) artistic and journalistic: essay, sketch, feuilleton, pamphlet [Kazakova, Malerwein, Raiskaya, Frick: 21].

This is the style of newspaper and magazine articles, interviews, reports, as well as political speeches, radio and television programs. It is characterized by:

) economy of linguistic means, brevity of presentation with informative richness;

) selection of linguistic means with an emphasis on their intelligibility;

) genre diversity and the associated diversity of linguistic means used;

) eclecticism - combining the features of a journalistic style with other styles;

) use of visual and expressive means;

) the syntax is mostly bookish, with detailed syntactic constructions; inversion is often used - rearrangement of words in a sentence [Raiskaya, 2009: 22].

The diversity of genres of journalism is due to the fact that works of this style are not homogeneous; they cover a huge variety of topics and spheres of public life, covering almost all problems and news [Raiskaya, 2009: 23].

The journalistic style has the goal of exerting a constant and profound influence on public opinion, convincing the reader or listener that the information presented by the writer or presenter is the only correct one, and also forcing him to accept the point of view expressed in a speech, essay or article not only through logical argumentation, but and emotional impact.

Journalistic style is characterized by brevity of presentation.

In journalism, colloquial words and phraseological units are also used (paint, get caught, strong in hindsight, with a blue eye) [Raiskaya, 2009: 23].

Often there are adjectives and adverbs with an evaluative meaning (serious, minor, contemptuous, great-power). The author’s clearly expressed personal position predetermines the frequency of personal pronouns [Raiskaya, 2009: 23].

Syntactic features of style are associated with the need to combine expressiveness and information richness: exclamatory sentences, interrogative sentences (including rhetorical questions), repetitions, changing the word order in a sentence to highlight a word: This is a short-sighted policy [Raiskaya, 2009: 23].

Modern media are saturated with borrowing words denoting new socio-economic, political, scientific, technical, cultural and everyday phenomena, such as broker, distributor, impeachment, inauguration, killer, croupier, display. Terms from various fields of knowledge are reinterpreted, most often economic, political, “computer”: wild market, stagnation, database [Raiskaya, 2009: 24].

The appeal to religious vocabulary is becoming increasingly relevant: righteous man, Orthodoxy, conciliarity, religious tolerance, churching. Book words are used that were previously rarely used, naming eternal spiritual values ​​- mercy, charity, patronage [Raiskaya, 2009: 24].

Colloquial and slang vocabulary is used quite intensively, which becomes a special expressive means: disassembly, scoop, chaos, chernukha [Raiskaya, 2009: 24].

A characteristic linguistic feature of journalism is the widespread use of journalistic standards, which are necessary in the media so that the reader perceives the text in blocks, spending a minimum of time and effort to assimilate the information [Raiskaya, 2009: 24]. As a result of prolonged and excessive use, journalistic expressive standards lose their expressiveness and expressiveness, “erased”, and begin to irritate and tire the recipients of journalistic texts. Thus, standards turn into cliches with which journalists have to fight [Raiskaya, 2009: 25].

In speech practice, styles are usually not found in their pure form; they, as a rule, are mixed in one proportion or another. Therefore, it is more appropriate to talk about the predominance of features of a particular style in speech segments [Raiskaya, 2009: 25].

Journalistic style is a style of media that serves socio-economic, political, and cultural relations [Blokhina, 2006: 105].

Blokhina N.G. and the features of the journalistic style of speech include logic, consistency, specificity, strict validity, accessibility, emotionality and appeal. In works of a journalistic style, socio-political and abstract vocabulary, professionalism, and figurative language with a strong emotional overtones are actively used. Complex syntactic constructions with introductory words and sentences, participial and adverbial phrases are often encountered [Blokhina, 2006: 105].

Shakhovsky V.I. identifies the following types of printed materials in newspaper and journalistic style:

brief news and official announcement; communique é);

Editorial article, headlines (headline);

Press reports

informative articles (articles purely informative in character)

According to Koksharova N.F. the style of journalism is an excellent example of the historical variability of stylistic differentiation of discourses. In ancient Greece, for example, the style of journalism was implemented mainly in oral form (oratorical style). Today, political, ideological, social statements and opinions of a journalist (publicist) are mainly expressed in writing [Koksharova, 2009: 62].

The author considers oral forms of expression of opinion: oratory/public speech, radio and television commentary. Written forms include: essay (ethical, philosophical, literary; review in a magazine, booklets), journal articles (political, social, economic) [Koksharova, 2009: 62].

The general features of the journalistic style, according to A.I. Gorshkov, determined by the unity of content and linguistic expression of journalistic texts, are as follows:

) expressiveness, determined by the requirement to influence the mass reader and listener,

) standard determined by the requirement for the speed of dissemination of information (corridors of power) [Gorshkov, 2006: 272].

Thus, the newspaper-journalistic style is expressed in the media - newspapers, magazines, radio, television, documentary films.

It has informational, analytical and artistic-journalistic genres.

1.2 Functions of newspaper and journalistic style

The sphere of use of the journalistic style is political-ideological, socio-economic and cultural relations [Gorshkov, 2006: 271].

In addition to the function of communication in this style, Gorshkov A.I. highlights the informative and influencing functions of language, which brings it closer to scientific and even official business styles [Gorshkov, 2006: 272].

Information in a journalistic style is intended not for a narrow circle of specialists, but for a wide range of readers or listeners and should be delivered to the addressee quickly and efficiently [Gorshkov, 2006: 272].

The impact is aimed not only at the mind, but also at the feelings of the recipient.

The journalistic style is focused both on communicating information and influencing the reader (viewer, listener), i.e., it carries out the functions of influencing and transmitting information [Raiskaya, 2009: 22].

Since journalistic works implement the function of influence, they are characterized by the use of figurative and expressive means of language (epithets, synonyms, antonyms, antitheses, metaphors, rhetorical questions, etc.) [Raiskaya, 2009: 22].

Thus, the newspaper-journalistic style has informative and influencing functions, each of which has its own characteristics.

1.3 The role of metaphor in newspaper and journalistic style

As you know, journalistic texts are traditionally characterized by the use of metaphors. On the pages of newspapers and magazines, metaphor is one of the characteristic means of so-called textual expression, which over time transforms into a standard, a stamp. Especially metaphorical nominations can be observed in journalism of the post-Soviet period.

The origins of modern political linguistics can be found in ancient rhetoric: in Ancient Greece and Rome they were actively involved in the problems of political eloquence [Chudinov, 2001: 123].

According to Beztsennaya Zh.P. “The role of metaphor in political discourse”, modern cognitive science considers metaphor as a basic mental operation, as a way of knowing, structuring and explaining the world. A person not only expresses his thoughts with the help of metaphors, but also thinks with metaphors, creates with the help of metaphors the world in which he lives [Beztsennaya 2007: 56].

In communicative activity, metaphor is an important means of influencing the intellect, feelings and will of the addressee.

Metaphor corresponds to a person’s ability to capture and create similarities between different individuals and classes of objects in reality.

Metaphoricalness is one of the most important features of modern propaganda and political speech.

Metaphor as a natural figure of thinking provides rich material for the cognitive understanding of language, the linguistic picture of the world, the interaction of linguistic phenomena and the human factor.

Interest in the problem of human manipulation has currently revived due to the paradoxical nature of the socio-psychological and political situation in Russian society, which is characterized by an extremely low political culture. A significant part of the population makes their political choice not on the basis of a rational assessment of the programs of certain political movements and their leaders, but on an emotional level [Beztsennaya 2007: 56].

Metaphor is one of the most effective means of manipulating consciousness [Chudinov, 2001: 123].

For political discourse, such a method of emphasizing metaphors as a metaphorical title is relevant, the use of which is subject to certain political techniques, including the effect of disappointed expectation, the effect of heightened expectation and the effect of justified expectation [Budaev, 2008: 32].

One of the most important functions of metaphor is modeling reality. In cognitive linguistics, metaphor is not only a trope, but also a way of thinking and moving towards the unknown. The creative properties of metaphor and its cognitive potential provide the possibility of using metaphor as a means of manipulative influence: political suicide (O. Morozov), the plague of the modern world (G. Zyuganov) [Beztsennaya 2007: 56].

The intensive development of information technology, the growing role of the media, and the increasing theatricalization of political activity contribute to increasing public attention to political discourse, a striking sign of which in the last decade has been the increasing metaphorical nature [Chudinov, 2001: 123].

Until recently, metaphor was considered as one of many means of decorating oratory speech, and now - as a leading way of thinking and an argumentation tool with a strong pragmatic effect. The study of the metaphorical arsenal makes it possible to identify the subconscious attitudes and aspirations of a political leader: to clear the territory, to soak in the toilet [Chudinov, 2012: 2].

In political metaphors, the motif of the path-road is very common, recreating step by step the stages in achieving goals: the side of capitalism, the path to nowhere, going your own (someone else’s) way, a brake on the way to something, a currency corridor [Chudinov, 2012: 3].

The use of metaphors often turns out to be a successful way for a political leader to “express a lot by saying a little,” and to subtly influence the mood in society. Studying the metaphorical repertoire of a politician helps to better understand the subconscious mechanisms of his activity and his true attitude to a particular problem [Budaev, 2008: 45].

Political metaphors are a significant tool for manipulating public consciousness [Chudinov, 2001: 123].

In the speech of political figures, the morbid (medical) metaphor prevails: the Balkan bacillus, a recipe for independence, shock therapy - and the nature-morphic metaphor: grow into power, the top of power, the seeds / fruits of a future rebellion, the constitutional field, a breeding ground for crime, a personnel field. The criminal metaphor shows a high degree of verbal aggression in society: thugs, specific boys, lawlessness, getting wet in toilets, the Kremlin-Putin group, the Yeltsin clan, attacks, kickbacks, showdowns, pressing, wiping off bloody snot, waving a penknife [Chudinov, 2012: 1 ].

Chudinov A.P. in his work “Russia in a Metaphorical Mirror” he identifies the following functions of political metaphor:

cognitive - the function of processing and processing information: The Communist Party of the Russian Federation, overgrown with fat, is not ready for such drastic steps;

nominative - the function of fixing knowledge, creating a name for the reality, awareness of the essential properties of this reality. This function also includes replenishment of the lexical and phraseological inventory of the language. For example: an obstacle course, a mountain ridge, a river bend.

communicative - the function of presenting new information in a concise and accessible form for the addressee. For example: the “Bear” party is perceived much easier than its official name “Interregional Movement “Unity”” or MDE.

pragmatic - (impact on the addressee): the function of forming the necessary emotional state and worldview in the addressee. For example, the party "Bear" is associated with the image of a bear, the name is perceived as "master of the taiga", "General Toptygin", a strong and good-natured hero of folk and literary fairy tales.

pictorial - the function of imparting imagery, brightness, clarity, and aesthetic significance to a message.

instrumental - a function that contributes to the mental activity of the subject, the formation of his own ideas about the world: the “occupation regime” of the administration of President B.N. Yeltsin.

hypothetical - the function of creating some assumption about the essence of a metaphorically characterized object: “perestroika”.

modeling (schematizing) - the function of creating a certain model of the world: pan-European, that is, the relationships that should, according to M.S. Gorbachev, to develop between European countries.

euphemistic - a function of transmitting information that the author does not consider appropriate to indicate using direct nominations.

popularization - the function of conveying a complex idea in a form accessible to a poorly prepared addressee [Chudinov, 2001: 123].

In addition to the listed functions, one can also highlight the conceptual function. In this function, metaphor is used to designate non-objective entities in the scientific, socio-political and everyday spheres: a circle of concepts, a grain of truth, a field of activity, a knot of contradictions, a stumbling block, a burden of thought [Chudinov, 2012: 2].

Every metaphor “lives” not on its own, but in a certain context, text, discourse. A metaphor can be correctly understood by the addressee only if he takes into account at least the context in which it is implemented. For example, in its isolated form the word bear is perceived exclusively as the name of an animal, but already minimal [Chudinov, 2001: 123].

The figurative designation of Russia with the word bear (or the phrase Russian bear) is quite traditional, and the context of the sentence in question is quite sufficient to understand the meaning of the metaphor [Budaev, 2008: 23].

At the same time, in some cases, in order to fully understand the actual meaning and associative potential of a political metaphor, it is necessary to take into account not only the immediate context, but also the text as a whole, as well as the specifics of political discourse at the corresponding stage of social development [Chudinov, 2012: 2].

To fully appreciate the meaning of the metaphors under consideration, “background knowledge” is needed [Chudinov, 2012: 1].

Chudinov A.P. examines the patterns of implementation of a political metaphor, first within a minimal lexical and grammatical context (usually within a sentence), then within an entire text (most often a newspaper or magazine article), then within the discourse of a significant political event (referendum, " coup", attempts to start impeachment proceedings, parliamentary and presidential elections) and, finally, within the decade under review (Yeltsin period) as a whole [Chudinov, 2001: 123].

So, the considered functions of metaphor, according to the author, are only relatively autonomous, they are closely intertwined with each other, and some of them can be considered as a specific version of the cognitive function.

Thus, a political metaphor is a tool for understanding, modeling and assessing political processes, a means of influencing public consciousness.

Among the functions of political metaphor there are cognitive, nominative, communicative, pragmatic and other functions.

2.2 Classification of political metaphors

Metaphors can be classified according to their auxiliary subject:

animalistic;

spatial.

Semantic categories of political metaphors:

anthropomorphic metaphor (man, parts of his body);

nature-morphic metaphor (weather, climate, subsoil, water);

sociomorphic metaphor (sports, theater);

artifact metaphor (vehicles, musical instruments, radio, television, photographic equipment) [Chudinov, 2001: 123].

Metaphors show how the picture of the world is reflected in the public consciousness. The basis of the structural classification is the consideration of the external structure of metaphor as a specific lexical and grammatical structure.

Semantic classification of political metaphors: - Medical metaphors: cancer of crime, chronic unemployment, healthy competition, symptoms of crisis, sitting on an oil needle. - Sports metaphors: market players, election race, political arena, oil relay race, finish line. - Financial metaphors: political capital, credibility, price jump, extract political dividends. - Construction metaphors: foremen of perestroika, laying the foundation of a common European house, making a fortune, working under a roof. - Theatrical metaphors: puppet regime, Yugoslav script, political show, behind-the-scenes games, political debut / duet / trio. - Meteorological metaphors: friendly atmosphere, political climate, freeze prices, sink the financial system. - Technical metaphors: settlement mechanism, relationship reset, financial release, release the brakes. - Military metaphors: assault on the heights of science, militant vanguard of the working class, ideological front, army of the unemployed [Budaev, 2008: 21],

You can also highlight an evaluative metaphor (about people: bear, snake), which is most typical for newspaper and colloquial metaphors. This metaphor in journalism is intended, first of all, to create an emotional and evaluative effect. Metaphorical models of journalism are created primarily in order to transfer the evaluative attitude from the source concept to the metaphorical meaning. The following evaluative phrases are quite common in modern newspapers: food war, gas war, industry headquarters, political capitulation, etc. [Budaev, 2008: 23]

Thus, the parameters of the classification of metaphors are determined by the originality of the plans of content and expression, dependence on the context and the functional specificity of the metaphorical sign. The analysis of metaphors can be carried out not only according to any one, but also according to combinations of the parameters discussed above.

2.3 Trends in the development of political metaphors in the language of the media

Characterized by dynamism in the field of vocabulary, word formation, gradually affecting more conservative levels of grammar, the development of the modern Russian literary language in the last three decades is accompanied by the development of new ways of fixing texts (for example, on the Internet), and the emergence of new forms of language functioning (a variety of genres in the media, advertising texts) [Vyatkina, Rudnev, 2006: 330].

According to I.B. Golub, many newspapers today clearly demonstrate a tendency towards a decrease in the style of newspaper articles. This leads to the use of jargon and argotism even in serious materials, and for short notes and reports, a style “colored” with reduced vocabulary has become common. For example: But I will not give you the corridor [Golub, 2010: 91].

Along with other technologies of speech influence, political metaphor is becoming an increasingly controlled phenomenon. An increase in the effectiveness of its application can be traced: the political metaphor is sensitive to events in the country and to linguistic fashion. Recently, in the media, one can increasingly observe the use of vocabulary that was previously unacceptable in the language of the media: youth slang, criminal argot, colloquial words, etc., ensuring the degree of effectiveness of speech influence [Beztsennaya 2007: 56].

The abundance of PR, marketing, image and other agencies in our country, as well as the conduct of linguistic, sociological and psychological research, leads to the creation of political metaphors by professionals.

Thus, the development of the modern Russian literary language in recent years has been accompanied by the development of such methods of recording information as the Internet. The trend towards a decrease in the style of newspaper articles leads to the use of jargon and argotism even in serious materials. Therefore, the creation of political metaphors today largely falls on the shoulders of professionals.

Conclusions on Chapter 2

In this chapter, we examined political metaphor as a tool for figurative designation, awareness, modeling and evaluation of political processes, a means of manipulation and influence on public consciousness. Studying the metaphorical repertoire helps to understand the subconscious mechanisms of a politician’s activity and the true attitude to a particular problem.

Political metaphor performs cognitive, nominative, communicative, pragmatic and other functions. In each function, the political metaphor is reflected depending on the context.

Metaphor has a very rich classification, the most significant is the classification according to the semantic plan, which distinguishes anthropomorphic, natural-morphic, sociomorphic and other metaphors. In turn, these categories of metaphors are divided into military, medical, sports, financial and other metaphors.

Regarding the development of the modern Russian literary language, the tendency to reduce the style of newspaper articles leads to the use of jargon and argotism even in serious materials. Therefore, the creation of political metaphors today mainly falls on the shoulders of professionals.

3. Practical study of political metaphor in the language of the media using the example of Karen Deyoung’s article “European allies join in criticism of republican letter to Iran”

To conduct the study, we selected and studied examples of political metaphors in the language of the media that are of direct interest in our study, expressing in their semantic load the evaluative characteristics of objects or phenomena, expression and imagery of speech.

Work on the practical part of this study was carried out on the article by Karen Deyoung “European allies join in criticism of republican letter to Iran.”

Let's analyze the use of political metaphors in the language of the media using the example of an article.

Suddenly, Iran can say to us: "Are your proposals actually trustworthy if 47 senators say that no matter what the government agrees to, we can subsequently take it off the table?" - German Foreign Minister Frank-Walter Steinmeier said during a visit to Washington - "It is not clear why Iran could tell us: 'Can we really trust your proposals if 47 senators say that no matter what the government decides, they will will they pretend that such a decision was not made?" - said German Foreign Minister Frank Water Staymaer during a visit to Washington. Metaphor take it off the table - they will put it in the table, a long drawer, out of sight. Here we are talking about 47 senators who wrote this letter to the Iranian President.In this example, the metaphor is artifactual.

Meanwhile, Iran"s supreme leader, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, took aim at Washington, saying that political divisions in the United States made Iranian negotiators question the Obama administration"s ability to follow through with any agreement - "At this time, as the Iranian Supreme Leader Outallah Alli Kaminai "took aim at Washington," saying political separatism in the US has prompted Iranian diplomats to question the Obama administration's ability to reach any kind of agreement. In this example, the metaphor is military, and in terms of semantic category it is artifactual.

"Of course I am worried, because the other side is known for opacity, deceit and backstabbing," Khamenei said Thursday, according to Iran"s Mehr News Agency - "Of course I am worried, because the other side is known for its opacity, deceitfulness and betrayal " Kamenay said on Thursday, according to Iran's Mehr news agency." The metaphor Back-stabbing in this context means a knife in the back. In this example, the metaphor is artifactual. According to the semantic classification, metaphor is medical.

President Obama has so far resisted demands from a bipartisan congressional majority to send lethal military equipment to Ukraine. Germany and France, which helped negotiate a sputtering cease-fire between the Ukrainian government and Russian-backed separatists, have said Western arms shipments would only escalate the conflict and undermine a possible solution - "President Obama, up to this time, has managed to resist the requests from the bipartisan congressional majority to send lethal weapons to Ukraine. Germany and France, which facilitated a "ceasefire" between the Ukrainian government and Russian-targeted separatists, that sending weapons by the West would only escalate the conflict and make any possible resolution to the problem impossible." Cease-fire metaphor - ceasefire is a military metaphor and means "cessation of hostilities." According to the semantic category, metaphor is nature-based. Metaphor performs a nominative function.

Republicans, in turn, have struck back at European criticism. Sen. Ted Cruz (R-Tex.) said that what he considered U.S. and European capitulation to Iran was reminiscent of Western appeasement of Adolf Hitler - "Republicans have responded to European criticism. Senator Ted Cruz said what he sees as a US-European capitulation to Iran is reminiscent of Western approval of the policy Hitler." In this example, the metaphor is anthropomorphic. Metaphor performs a communicative function - it presents new information in a concise and accessible form for the addressee.

Sen. John McCain (R-Ariz.) extended the World War II metaphor to Ukraine in a direct attack on Steinmeier."The foreign minister of Germany is the same guy that refuses, in his government, to enact any restrictions on the behavior of Vladimir Putin , who is slaughtering Ukrainians as we speak. He has no credibility - "Senator John McCain continued the World War II metaphor in relation to Ukraine in attacking the position of Steinmeier (German Foreign Minister) "The German Foreign Minister, the same person, who refuses "in his government" to apply any sanctions to the behavior of [Russian President] Vladimir Putin, who is slaughtering Ukrainians while we are now speaking. "We have no right to trust him." In this example, according to the semantic category, the metaphor is anthropomorphic. The metaphor also refers to the medical classification of metaphors. The metaphor is that V. Putin is Hitler, and the West is not taking enough action, just as it did nothing at one time to stop Hitler. The metaphor is presented in an instrumental function that contributes to the formation of the addressee’s own ideas about the world.

The letter warned Iran that any nuclear agreement signed by Obama could be revoked "by the stroke of a pen" by any future president, and that Congress could modify its terms "at any time - "The letter warned Iran that any agreement signed by Obama (the one relating to radioactive weapons) could be revoked "with the stroke of a pen" by the next American president, and that Congress could change the terms of the agreement at "any time". In this example, the metaphor is technical, and semantically it is artifactual. Metaphor is presented in a pictorial function aimed at imparting imagery, brightness, clarity, and aesthetic significance.

"For them to address a letter to the ayatollah who, they claim, is our mortal enemy and their basic argument to them is: Don"t deal with our president because you can"t trust him to follow through on an agreement," Obama said in an interview with Vice media that is expected to be released Monday, according to the AFP news agency - "The fact that they addressed the letter to Auto Allah, who they claim is our mortal enemy and their minor argument: don't mess with with our president, you can't trust him to sign a peace treaty," Obama said in an interview with the newspaper, expected to be released on Monday, according to the ANP news agency." In this example, the metaphor is anthropomorphic. According to the semantic classification, the metaphor is medical.

Earlier this week, Vice President Biden called the letter "a highly misleading signal to friend and foe alike that our commander-in-chief cannot deliver on America"s commitments" - a message that is as false as it is dangerous - "On this week, Vice President Biden called the letter "a very confusing message that will mislead friend and foe alike because our top commander cannot provide American assurances - a message that is as false as it is dangerous." In this example, the metaphor is anthropomorphic.

Following publication of the letter Sunday night, French Ambassador Gerard Araud, a diplomat of long experience in this country and a prolific user of social media, posted a Twitter link to the letter and his own comment that "for a foreigner, Washington can be full of surprise - "Following the publication of the letter on Sunday evening, French Ambassador Gerard Arrot, a longtime diplomat in that country and a successful social media user, tweeted a link to the letter and his personal comment that "for foreigners, Washington can be full of surprises ". In this example, the metaphor is sociomorphic. According to the semantic classification, metaphor is theatrical.

Conclusions on Chapter 3

This chapter examined examples of the use of political metaphors in the language of the media. From Karen Deyoung’s article “European allies join in criticism of republican letter to Iran,” 10 examples of political metaphors in newspaper-journalistic style were extracted and analyzed.

Metaphors were analyzed in accordance with the classification of political metaphors and their functions. In accordance with the classification by semantic category, the most common in this case are anthropomorphic metaphors associated with the concept of a person. According to the general semantic classification of metaphors, medical metaphors are the most common.

In accordance with their functional expression, metaphors are equally used in nominative, communicative, instrumental and other functions.

These political metaphors express the evaluative characteristics of objects or phenomena, the expression and imagery of speech of political discourse.

Conclusion

The creation and use of a political metaphor requires the journalist to be aware of modern sociological research, the political and economic situation, and have an idea of ​​the culture of his intended recipient, his standard of living.

The most common metaphors today are military, sports, construction, road and other metaphors, from which we can conclude about the importance of the meanings of these metaphors and the realities associated with them for modern Russian reality.

Journalistic style plays a significant role in the system of varieties of the modern Russian language. It is open to elements of official business and scientific styles; it uses colloquial modes of expression and artistic means (for example, imagery). Occupying an intermediate position between the scientific style and the language of fiction, the journalistic style has a noticeable influence on both of these varieties of the modern Russian language.

Modern political leaders must seriously think about their linguistic portrait and remember that language and thinking are inextricably linked.

This course work examined the features of political metaphor as an integral part of the language of modern journalism.

The study of literature has shown that journalism is a special kind of literature, unique in form, method of approach to reality, and means of influence. Journalism is thematically limitless, its genre range is enormous, and its expressive resources are great. In terms of the power of influence, journalism is not inferior to fiction, and in some ways even surpasses it. In order to have an emotional and aesthetic impact on the addressee, journalists use a wide variety of means of verbal expression (metaphors, metonymy, personification, etc., select vocabulary and phraseology, syntactic constructions, etc.), organically combining standard and expression. Metaphors are most popular in newspaper language. Metaphorization of special vocabulary (including military) is a characteristic feature of modern newspaper journalism.

Having analyzed the sources, we can say that in the modern newspaper and journalistic style, military metaphors are actively and productively used as a means of verbal expressiveness, increasing the informational value and imagery of the message with the help of associations caused by the figurative use of the word. Thus, military metaphors participate in the performance of the most important functions of journalism - persuasion and emotional impact on the addressee.

Based on the structural analysis of military metaphors, we can conclude that extended metaphors, in which the metaphorical image is realized in several phrases or sentences, give newspaper articles special expressiveness, accuracy and expressiveness.

The reason for the active use of military metaphors in sports publications lies in the historical relationship between war and sports, the similar nature of the rules of many sports and combat activities, and the desire for expression in the description of sports spectacles.

Military metaphors are also present in large numbers in socio-political language. The most active use of military metaphors was found in publications devoted to economic and political issues.

The practical part of this work illustrates the manifestation of political metaphor.

Thus, political metaphor is a very popular and productive means of speech expression in the language of modern newspapers, acting not only as a tool for describing and assessing reality, but also as a means of understanding it.

Having studied the use of metaphor in journalistic texts, we found out that metaphor is really necessary to create in the reader a figurative idea of ​​the situation, objects and characters, which, in turn, leads to a deeper and more complete understanding of the author’s intention and de-objectification of the meanings of the text. It should be noted that among a number of expressive means of language and stylistic devices, metaphor is particularly expressive, since it has unlimited possibilities for bringing together, often in unexpectedly similarizing, a variety of objects and phenomena, essentially comprehending the subject in a new way.

To create a political metaphor, a journalist needs to be aware of modern sociological research, the political and economic situation, and have an idea of ​​the subculture of his future readers, their standard of living. Otherwise, it will not be effective. An individual author's metaphor always contains a high degree of artistic information content, since it removes the word (and the object) from the automaticity of perception, since without the metaphorical richness of the text it is impossible to create associative images in the reader, without which, in turn, it is impossible to achieve a full understanding of the meanings of the text.

Like other technologies of speech influence, political metaphor is becoming an increasingly controlled phenomenon. The effectiveness of its application also increases: the political metaphor is sensitive to events in the country and to linguistic fashion. Recently, in political metaphor (as well as in other techniques of speech influence) in the media, vocabulary has increasingly been used that was previously unacceptable in the language of the media: youth slang, criminal slang, vocabulary of other “lower” levels of language. Such linguistic inclusion ensures a high degree of effectiveness of speech influence.

Of course, neither linguists nor anyone else can influence the activity of the considered or any other metaphorical models, or contribute to the activation of a metaphorical storm or the onset of a metaphorical calm. The metaphorical image reflects the unconscious worldview of society, formed under the influence of national traditions and the “spirit of the times.” But linguists are obliged to fix the system of basic metaphors that exists in the national consciousness at a certain stage of social development and try to draw conclusions about the origins and prospects of a particular model, as well as consider the factors that contribute to the activation of metaphorical storms or serve as signs of their attenuation.

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Metaphor

1. Metaphor (Greek metaphora - transfer) is the transfer of the properties of one object (phenomenon or facet of existence) to another on the basis of their similarity in some respect or contrast.

2. Using metaphors- this is the shortest path to the subconscious. Metaphors are most often a visual image, but there are also auditory and olfactory ones.

The metaphor does not have to be absolutely clear and logical. In fact, the best metaphor is one that leaves room for the subconscious to come to its own conclusions. That's why it's useful to leave the metaphor open-ended and let people figure it out for themselves. You don't have to strive for absolute clarity. The subconscious loves to be challenged. This is a well-known move to increase the impact and emotional depth of communication.

Journalistic metaphor determines the displacement characteristics of evaluative components derived from human experience, as a result of which the constant updating of imagery elements in the text is ensured.

Newspaper headlines

3. Most people read the headline rather than the body copy, so the headline should interest the reader and grab their attention. To attract attention, the headline must be original and contain information relevant to the consumer. The main thing is that the headline catches the attention of a representative of the target audience and automatically transfers it from viewer to reader.

Metaphor in newspaper headlines

4. In order to attract the reader's attention with a newspaper headline,

various means of expression, one of such means is metaphor.

Metaphor is one of the most powerful means of expression, designed to have a long-lasting impact. Metaphors are well remembered, stored in long-term memory and become the “building blocks” that are used to decorate speech. Using metaphor, the title text is made more imaginative and powerful, which arouses the reader's interest.

5. Metaphors visually decorate the text, but that is not the only reason they are used. They, like other tropes, have another noble task - to allegorically convey hidden meaning under conditions of some kind of caesura, for example, political or self-censorship. Let, for example, we have complaints against local authorities, but to speak out openly means to receive unpleasant consequences, even if what is said is true. A metaphor will allow us, on the one hand, to boldly express a seditious thought, and on the other hand, not to fear that they may be brought to trial for this.

6. Articles, headlines with political overtones, containing bold allusions to those in power in a metaphorical form, in fact, cannot be the object of criminal or civil prosecution, since they do not contain accusations or evidence in an explicit form. Of course, there is a limit to everything and it is important not to go too far, like newspapers with a tint of yellow. You shouldn’t get too carried away also for the reason that the method of using metaphors should be understandable and noticeable not only to the author himself, but also to the majority of readers. Otherwise, at best, we risk remaining misunderstood, at worst, being misinterpreted.

Example of metaphorical headings

7. 04/25/2011, Kommersant newspaper, article title: “The Mirony of Fate.” This title is based on a hidden comparison with the famous film “The Irony of Fate.” The article talks about the resignation of chairman Sergei Mironov, hence “Mironia” (Mironov and irony). According to some, Mironov has a reputation as a clown, which is why there is a comparison with the famous comedy.

8. 04/29/2011, Kommersant newspaper, article title “Shashlik, garden beds, let’s dance.” With this title, many people associate it with the phrase “Tea, coffee, let’s dance.” And the reader comes up with such bright and funny images.

03/30/2011, newspaper “Novye Izvestia”, article title “They will lead to clean vodka.” After reading the title, it becomes clear that it is written with a bit of humor and is intertwined with the catchphrase “Bring it out into the open.” There is laughter in the article itself, which talks about laws that do not work for us.

Conclusion

9. By using metaphors, both in the text itself and in headlines, we are definitely taking a risk. And, although risk is a noble cause, the figurative meaning generated by the metaphor is perceived differently by different people. It depends on their age, level of education, religious, political and other views. The ambiguity of an unsuccessful title will do a disservice, in some cases it will distort the original meaning of the entire article. If you are not sure that the title is successful, it is better to avoid using metaphors.

With skillful use of metaphors in article headings, they will decorate the text, prepare and interest, intrigue the reader, and also convey maximum information in a minimum volume. They will give him information that cannot always be expressed in words. The use of metaphors is one of the techniques of linguistic expressiveness, which always gives a guaranteed result, which, in fact, is what we are striving for.

Introduction 3
1. The role of metaphor in journalistic style 5
1.1 Features and functions of journalistic style 5
1.2 General characteristics and typology of metaphors 11
2. The use of metaphors in English-language media 20
2.1 Semantic classification 21
2.2 Structural classification 26
2.3 Cross-cutting metaphors 29
Conclusion 31
List of sources used 33
Sources of empirical material 34

Introduction

The life of society is constantly changing. The language serving this society quickly responds to any changes. Social transformations, as in a mirror, are reflected in language. The journalistic style, to a greater extent than all other styles of language, perceives these changes.
The journalistic style, as one of the functional styles of speech, has repeatedly attracted the attention of specialists, both domestic and foreign. In domestic linguistics these are the names of V.G. Kostomarova, V.V. Vinogradov, N.D. Arutyunova, V.P. Moskvina. Among foreign researchers, the names of Charles Bally, Francesca Rigotti, Michel Prandi and Patrick Bacri are significant.
The topic of our research is the role of metaphor in English-language media.
The relevance of the work is connected with the need to record those changes that arise in the language of journalism, including at the level of the use of means of artistic expression.
The purpose of the work is to analyze the role of metaphor in English-language media based on newspaper articles.
This goal defines the following tasks:

characterize the features of journalistic style;
define the concept of metaphor and identify the types of this means of artistic expression;
analyze the use of metaphors in the media.

The object of our research is metaphor as a linguistic device.
The subject of the study is the functioning of such a stylistic device as metaphor in newspaper texts.
In our work we used the following methods: analysis of literature on the topic, description, lexical-semantic analysis, contextual analysis, frequency statistical analysis, generalization. We partially resorted to the continuous sampling method. To compare the features of the use of metaphor in different types of print media, we used a comparative method.

2. The use of metaphors in English-language media

Obviously, both the number and types and functions of metaphors will vary depending on the specific media.
Let's look at a brief classification of newspapers and magazines. By territorial basis, the press is divided into:
- transnational newspapers. Distributed in several countries around the world. There are few such newspapers. The most famous is the English Financial Times;
- national (central) newspapers and magazines. Distributed throughout the country;
- magazines (generally popular and specialized);
- local (regional) publications. Distributed within a certain large populated area and adjacent territories;
- local newspapers. Distributed within one settlement or part thereof.
According to the content of newspapers and magazines there are:
- informational. Mainly contain editorial materials and belong to the traditional type of newspapers;
- advertising. In them, most of the publication is presented for advertising;
- Based on circulation (the total number of copies printed in the printing house), newspapers are divided into short-circulation (tens and hundreds of copies); large-circulation (from thousands to millions of copies). On average, it is believed that each issue of the newspaper is read by 3-4 people.
According to the frequency of publication, newspapers and magazines are:
- daily newspapers. Mainly focused on publishing news;
- weekly newspapers (often supplements to daily newspapers) and magazines. Review and comment on the events of the week. More attention is paid to news of culture, sports, and the entertainment industry;
- monthly magazines 12.
The British press is generally considered to be divided into two types of newspapers: broadsheet established newspapers, including established titles such as the Times and Sunday Observer, and the popular press, or tabloids. The idea of ​​tabloids is to make the newspaper convenient to read in city subway cars. Therefore, in order not to fill the reader’s head with serious thoughts, their pages were filled exclusively with criminal and scandalous chronicles. The Sun and Mirror newspapers, examples from which we will use, are called classics of their genre, i.e. a classic of the British tabloid press. We will also use examples from the English newspaper Guardian, which is a more serious publication that reviews socio-political phenomena 13 .
However, even as a preliminary hypothesis, based on the above classification, it can be assumed that the purposes and frequency of use of metaphors will vary depending on the type of publication.
Let's consider metaphors found in different types of print media and distribute them into groups depending on the type of metaphor. The division into groups will be based on semantic, structural and functional classifications.

2.1 Semantic classification

There are two subtypes here: classification according to the auxiliary subject and classification according to the formula for transferring meaning. Semantic classification allows you to highlight those images that lie on the surface of comparison, and therefore attract attention in the first place.
Thus, the auxiliary subject can be a metaphorical indication of the place of events. Consider this fragment of text from the Sun newspaper: 10 days of fury that left America near the brink of a racial civil war (
etc.................