Walter Scott is a black dwarf. Neutron stars What is a black dwarf

Big and small, hot and cold, charged and uncharged. In this article we will give a classification of the main types of stars.

One of the classifications of stars is spectral classification. According to this classification, stars are classified into one class or another according to their spectrum. The spectral classification of stars serves many purposes in stellar astronomy and astrophysics. A qualitative description of the observed spectrum makes it possible to estimate important astrophysical characteristics of the star, such as the effective temperature of its surface, luminosity, and, in some cases, features of the chemical composition.

Some stars do not fall into any of the listed spectra. Such stars are called peculiar. Their spectra do not fit into the temperature sequence O—B—A—F—G—K—M. Although often such stars represent certain evolutionary stages of completely normal stars, or they represent stars that are not entirely typical for the immediate surroundings (metal-poor stars, such as stars of globular clusters and haloes). In particular, stars with peculiar spectra include stars with different features of the chemical composition, which manifests itself in the strengthening or weakening of the spectral lines of some elements.

Hertzsprung-Russell diagram

A good understanding of the classification of stars allows Hertzsprung-Russell diagram. It shows the relationship between the absolute magnitude, luminosity, spectral type and surface temperature of the star. What is unexpected is the fact that the stars in this diagram are not located randomly, but form clearly visible areas. The diagram was proposed in 1910 independently by researchers E. Hertzsprung and G. Russell. It is used to classify stars and corresponds to modern ideas about.

Most of the stars are on the so-called main sequence. The existence of the main sequence is due to the fact that the hydrogen burning stage makes up ~90% of the evolutionary time of most stars: the burning of hydrogen in the central regions of the star leads to the formation of an isothermal helium core, the transition to the red giant stage and the departure of the star from the main sequence. The relatively short evolution of red giants leads, depending on their mass, to the formation of white dwarfs, neutron stars or.

Yellow dwarf

Being at various stages of their evolutionary development, stars are divided into normal stars, dwarf stars, and giant stars. Normal stars are main sequence stars. These, for example, include our Sun. Sometimes such normal stars are called yellow dwarfs.

The star may be called red giant at the time of star formation and in the later stages of development. At an early stage of development, the star emits gravitational energy released during compression until the compression is stopped by the onset of a thermonuclear reaction. At the later stages of the evolution of stars, after the burning of hydrogen in their cores, the stars leave the main sequence and move to the region of red giants and supergiants of the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram: this stage lasts ~ 10% of the time of the “active” life of stars, that is, the stages of their evolution , during which nucleosynthesis reactions occur in the stellar interior.

Giant stars

Giant star has a relatively low surface temperature, about 5000 degrees. A huge radius, reaching 800 solar radii and, due to such large sizes, enormous luminosity. The maximum radiation occurs in the red and infrared regions of the spectrum, which is why they are called red giants.

Dwarf stars are the opposite of giants and include several different subspecies:

• White dwarf- evolved stars with a mass not exceeding 1.4 solar masses, deprived of their own sources of thermonuclear energy. The diameter of such stars can be hundreds of times smaller than that of the Sun, and therefore the density can be 1,000,000 times greater than the density of water.
• Red dwarf- a small and relatively cool main sequence star with a spectral class of M or upper K. They are quite different from other stars. The diameter and mass of red dwarfs does not exceed a third of the solar mass (the lower limit of mass is 0.08 solar, followed by brown dwarfs).
• Brown dwarf- substellar objects with masses in the range of 5-75 Jupiter masses (and a diameter approximately equal to the diameter of Jupiter), in the depths of which, unlike main sequence stars, no thermonuclear fusion reaction occurs with the conversion of hydrogen into helium.
• Subbrown dwarfs or brown subdwarfs- cold formations whose mass lies below the limit of brown dwarfs. They are generally considered to be .
• Black dwarf- white dwarfs that have cooled and, as a result, do not emit in the visible range. Represents the final stage of the evolution of white dwarfs. The masses of black dwarfs, like the masses of white dwarfs, are limited above 1.4 solar masses.

In addition to those listed, there are several more products of stellar evolution:

• Neutron star. Stellar formations with masses of the order of 1.5 solar and sizes noticeably smaller than white dwarfs, about 10-20 km in diameter. The density of such stars can reach 1000,000,000,000 densities of water. And the magnetic field is the same number of times greater than the earth’s magnetic field. Such stars consist mainly of neutrons, tightly compressed by gravitational forces. Often such stars represent.
• New star. Stars whose luminosity suddenly increases 10,000 times. The nova is a binary system consisting of a white dwarf and a companion star located on the main sequence. In such systems, gas from the star gradually flows to the white dwarf and periodically explodes there, causing a burst of luminosity.
• Supernova is a star that ends its evolution in a catastrophic explosive process. The flare in this case can be several orders of magnitude larger than in the case of a nova. Such a powerful explosion is a consequence of the processes occurring in the star at the last stage of evolution.
• Double star- these are two gravitationally bound stars revolving around a common center of mass. Sometimes there are systems of three or more stars, in this general case the system is called a multiple star. In cases where such a star system is not too far from Earth, in

The largest of Thanos's generals, Black Dwarf seems to be the more ordinary (in terms of powers) of Thanos's generals, since his only special abilities are super strength and impenetrable skin. As a weapon, Black Dwarf sometimes carries a huge (almost as big as himself) mace.

While searching for his son, Thane, Thanos sent his generals to the Illuminati. Black Dwarf went to Wakanda, where he received a good rebuff from the Black Punters: T'challa and Shuri.

After losing, Black Dwarf begged for mercy from Thanos, but the mad titan slammed his face into the floor.

After defeating the builders, the Avengers set out to liberate the Earth. Thanos left Black Dwarf on Titan, where part of the team of earthly heroes and the Intergalactic Council in the person of Kl'rt - Super Skrull, Ronan - Accuser, Gladiator and Annihilus went. Black Dwarf hoped to defeat them in order to regain the respect of Thanos. Before the battle, Black Dwarf kills one of his soldiers for mentioning his shame in Wakanda.

When the heroes arrived, Black Dwarf scattered most of the Avengers with the exception of Shang-Chi, who was ready to fight the general one on one. The villain was impressed by the kung fu master's courage when a dialogue ensued between them:

Black Dwarf: - Why are you still on your feet?

Shang-Chi: - Falls... Does a tree fall... from the blow of the wind?

Black Dwarf: - Hmph! You die beautifully, man. But death is death, isn't it? Goodbye.

But at that moment the intergalactic council arrived, and the gladiator saves Shang-Chi by attacking the Black Dwarf and destroying his mace. A skirmish breaks out between Thanos' general and the intergalactic council. As a result, Ronan, shouting that it was time to condemn the Black Dwarf, crushed his skull, thereby killing him.

7. Black dwarfs

Black dwarfs- the last stage of evolution white dwarf, at which it stops emitting in the visible range. Currently, black dwarfs are classified as white dwarfs, but with the caveat that this is the final stage of their life. In order to understand what it is black dwarf, you need to understand the concept white dwarf.

What is a white dwarf and what is its nature?

Let's take ours as an example. Sun. During a thermonuclear reaction in the Sun, hydrogen turns into helium, and the star slowly expands, becoming heavier. Over time, when there is even less hydrogen and more helium, even heavier elements such as carbon, oxygen, and iron will be synthesized from the latter. The sun will swell, turning into red giant. Its outer layers will be far beyond the Earth's orbit.

When the mass of the star becomes critical, it will explode as a supernova, “throwing off” its outer layers. At the same time, the mass of our Sun will not be enough to form a black hole or become a neutron star. After the explosion the Sun will become white dwarf.

Having shed part of its mass, the star becomes unable to continue the process of generating thermonuclear energy. Now white dwarf slowly cools down, gradually turning into a discharge black dwarfs. At the same time, the star is very stable and will remain in this state for a very long time.

White dwarfs (and black dwarfs including) may differ in their composition, luminosity, mass and other parameters, but in general they are all stars whose mass is comparable to the mass of the Sun or slightly greater, and their diameter is tens of times less than the solar one. The light of such stars is much dimmer than it was before.

Closest to Earth a white dwarf is van Maanen's star, which is 14.4 light years away in the constellation Pisces. And perhaps the most famous white dwarf is the star Sirius B, which is one of the stars Sirius star system. Star mass Sirius B approximately equal to the Sun, this makes the star one of the largest stars among white dwarfs.

There are many different stars in the Universe. Big and small, hot and cold, charged and uncharged. In this article we will name the main types of stars, and also give a detailed description of Yellow and White dwarfs.

1. Yellow dwarf. A yellow dwarf is a type of small main sequence star with a mass of 0.8 to 1.2 solar masses and a surface temperature of 5000–6000 K. See below for more information about this type of star.
2. Red giant. A red giant is a large star with a reddish or orange color. The formation of such stars is possible both at the stage of star formation and at later stages of their existence. The largest of the giants turn into red supergiants. A star called Betelgeuse in the constellation Orion is the most striking example of a red supergiant.
3. White dwarf. A white dwarf is what remains of an ordinary star with a mass of less than 1.4 solar masses after it passes through the red giant stage. See below for more information about this type of star.
4. Red dwarf. Red dwarfs are the most common stellar-type objects in the Universe. Estimates of their number vary from 70 to 90% of the number of all stars in the galaxy. They are quite different from other stars.
5. Brown dwarf. Brown dwarf - substellar objects (with masses ranging from about 0.01 to 0.08 solar masses, or, respectively, from 12.57 to 80.35 Jupiter masses and a diameter approximately equal to the diameter of Jupiter), in the depths of which, in contrast from main sequence stars, there is no thermonuclear fusion reaction with the conversion of hydrogen into helium.
6. Subbrown dwarfs. Subbrown dwarfs, or brown subdwarfs, are cool formations that fall below the brown dwarf mass limit. Their mass is less than approximately one hundredth the mass of the Sun or, accordingly, 12.57 the mass of Jupiter, the lower limit is not determined. They are generally considered to be planets, although the scientific community has not yet come to a final conclusion about what is considered a planet and what is a sub-brown dwarf.
7. Black dwarf. Black dwarfs are white dwarfs that have cooled and, as a result, do not emit in the visible range. Represents the final stage of the evolution of white dwarfs. The masses of black dwarfs, like the masses of white dwarfs, are limited above 1.4 solar masses.
8. Double star. A binary star is two gravitationally bound stars orbiting a common center of mass.
9. New star. Stars whose luminosity suddenly increases 10,000 times. The nova is a binary system consisting of a white dwarf and a companion star located on the main sequence. In such systems, gas from the star gradually flows to the white dwarf and periodically explodes there, causing a burst of luminosity.
10. Supernova. A supernova is a star that ends its evolution in a catastrophic explosive process. The flare in this case can be several orders of magnitude larger than in the case of a nova. Such a powerful explosion is a consequence of the processes occurring in the star at the last stage of evolution.
11. Neutron star. Neutron stars (NS) are stellar formations with masses of about 1.5 solar and sizes noticeably smaller than white dwarfs, about 10-20 km in diameter. They consist mainly of neutral subatomic particles - neutrons, tightly compressed by gravitational forces. In our Galaxy, according to scientists, there may exist from 100 million to 1 billion neutron stars, that is, somewhere around one per thousand ordinary stars.
12. Pulsars. Pulsars are cosmic sources of electromagnetic radiation coming to Earth in the form of periodic bursts (pulses). According to the dominant astrophysical model, pulsars are rotating neutron stars with a magnetic field that is inclined to the rotation axis. When the Earth falls into the cone formed by this radiation, it is possible to detect a pulse of radiation repeating at intervals equal to the revolution period of the star. Some neutron stars rotate up to 600 times per second.
13. Cepheids. Cepheids are a class of pulsating variable stars with a fairly precise period-luminosity relationship, named after the star Delta Cephei. One of the most famous Cepheids is Polaris. The given list of the main types (types) of stars with their brief characteristics, of course, does not exhaust the entire possible variety of stars in the Universe.

Yellow dwarf

Being at various stages of their evolutionary development, stars are divided into normal stars, dwarf stars, and giant stars. Normal stars are main sequence stars. These, for example, include our Sun. Sometimes such normal stars are called yellow dwarfs.

Characteristic

Today we will briefly talk about yellow dwarfs, which are also called yellow stars. Yellow dwarfs are typically stars of average mass, luminosity, and surface temperature. They are main sequence stars, lying roughly in the middle on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram and following cooler, less massive red dwarfs.

According to the Morgan-Keenan spectral classification, yellow dwarfs mainly correspond to luminosity class G, but in transition variations they sometimes correspond to class K (orange dwarfs) or class F in the case of yellow-white dwarfs.

The mass of yellow dwarfs often ranges from 0.8 to 1.2 solar masses. Moreover, their surface temperature is for the most part from 5 to 6 thousand degrees Kelvin.

The brightest and most famous representative of yellow dwarfs is our Sun.

In addition to the Sun, among the yellow dwarfs closest to Earth it is worth noting:

1. Two components in the triple system Alpha Centauri, among which Alpha Centauri A is similar in luminosity spectrum to the Sun, and Alpha Centauri B is a typical orange class K dwarf. The distance to both components is just over 4 light years.
2. The orange dwarf is the star Ran, also known as Epsilon Eridani, with luminosity class K. Astronomers estimated the distance to Ran to be about 10 and a half light years.
3. The double star 61 Cygni, located just over 11 light years from Earth. Both components of 61 Cygni are typical orange dwarfs of luminosity class K.
4. The Sun-like star Tau Ceti, approximately 12 light years distant from Earth, has a G luminosity spectrum and an interesting planetary system consisting of at least 5 exoplanets.

Education

The evolution of yellow dwarfs is very interesting. The lifespan of a yellow dwarf is approximately 10 billion years.

Like most stars, intense thermonuclear reactions take place in their depths, in which mainly hydrogen burns into helium. After the start of reactions involving helium in the star's core, hydrogen reactions move increasingly towards the surface. This becomes the starting point in the transformation of a yellow dwarf into a red giant. The result of such a transformation may be the red giant Aldebaran.

Over time, the surface of the star will gradually cool, and the outer layers will begin to expand. At the final stages of evolution, the red giant sheds its shell, which forms a planetary nebula, and its core will turn into a white dwarf, which will further shrink and cool.

A similar future awaits our Sun, which is now in the middle stage of its development. In about 4 billion years, it will begin its transformation into a red giant, the photosphere of which, when expanding, can absorb not only the Earth and Mars, but even Jupiter.

The lifespan of a yellow dwarf is on average 10 billion years. After the entire supply of hydrogen burns, the star increases in size many times and turns into a red giant. most planetary nebulae, and the core collapses into a small, dense white dwarf.

White dwarfs

White dwarfs are stars with a large mass (on the order of the Sun) and a small radius (the radius of the Earth), which is less than the Chandrasekhar limit for the selected mass, and are a product of the evolution of red giants. The process of producing thermonuclear energy in them has been stopped, which leads to the special properties of these stars. According to various estimates, in our Galaxy their number ranges from 3 to 10% of the total stellar population.

History of discovery

In 1844, the German astronomer and mathematician Friedrich Bessel, while observing Sirius, discovered a slight deviation of the star from rectilinear motion, and made the assumption that Sirius had an invisible massive companion star.

His assumption was confirmed already in 1862, when the American astronomer and telescope builder Alvan Graham Clark, while adjusting the largest refractor at that time, discovered a dim star near Sirius, which was later dubbed Sirius B.

The white dwarf Sirius B has a low luminosity, and the gravitational field affects its bright companion quite noticeably, indicating that this star has an extremely small radius and a significant mass. This is how a type of object called white dwarfs was discovered for the first time. The second similar object was the star Maanen, located in the constellation Pisces.

How are white dwarfs formed?

After all the hydrogen in an aging star burns out, its core contracts and heats up, which contributes to the expansion of its outer layers. The star's effective temperature drops and it becomes a red giant. The rarefied shell of the star, very weakly connected with the core, dissipates in space over time, flowing to neighboring planets, and in the place of the red giant there remains a very compact star, called a white dwarf.

For a long time, it remained a mystery why white dwarfs, which have a temperature exceeding the temperature of the Sun, are small compared to the size of the Sun, until it became clear that the density of matter inside them is extremely high (within 10 5 - 10 9 g/cm 3). There is no standard mass-luminosity relationship for white dwarfs, which distinguishes them from other stars. A huge amount of matter is “packed” into an extremely small volume, which is why the density of the white dwarf is almost 100 times greater than the density of water.

The temperature of white dwarfs remains almost constant, despite the absence of thermonuclear reactions inside them. What explains this? Due to strong compression, the electron shells of atoms begin to penetrate each other. This continues until the distance between the nuclei becomes minimal, equal to the radius of the smallest electron shell.

As a result of ionization, electrons begin to move freely relative to the nuclei, and the matter inside the white dwarf acquires physical properties that are characteristic of metals. In such matter, energy is transferred to the surface of the star by electrons, the speed of which increases as they compress: some of them move at a speed corresponding to a temperature of a million degrees. The temperature on the surface and inside the white dwarf can differ sharply, which does not lead to a change in the diameter of the star. Here we can make a comparison with a cannonball - as it cools, it does not decrease in volume.

The white dwarf fades extremely slowly: over hundreds of millions of years, the radiation intensity drops by only 1%. But eventually it will have to disappear, turning into a black dwarf, which could take trillions of years. White dwarfs can well be called unique objects of the Universe. No one has yet succeeded in reproducing the conditions in which they exist in earthly laboratories.

X-ray emission from white dwarfs

The surface temperature of young white dwarfs, the isotropic cores of stars after the ejection of their shells, is very high - more than 2·10 5 K, but drops quite quickly due to radiation from the surface. Such very young white dwarfs are observed in the X-ray range (for example, observations of the white dwarf HZ 43 by the ROSAT satellite). In the X-ray range, the luminosity of white dwarfs exceeds the luminosity of main sequence stars: photographs of Sirius taken by the Chandra X-ray telescope can serve as an illustration - in them the white dwarf Sirius B looks brighter than Sirius A of spectral class A1, which is ~10,000 times brighter in the optical range brighter than Sirius B.

The surface temperature of the hottest white dwarfs is 7 10 4 K, the coldest ones are less than 4 10 3 K.

A peculiarity of the radiation of white dwarfs in the X-ray range is the fact that the main source of X-ray radiation for them is the photosphere, which sharply distinguishes them from “normal” stars: the latter have an X-ray corona heated to several million kelvins, and the temperature of the photosphere is too low for X-ray emission.

In the absence of accretion, the source of luminosity for white dwarfs is the stored thermal energy of ions in their interior, so their luminosity depends on age. A quantitative theory of the cooling of white dwarfs was developed in the late 1940s by Professor Samuel Kaplan.

A black dwarf is a white dwarf that has cooled to the temperature of the cosmic microwave background radiation (cosmic microwave background), and therefore has become invisible. Unlike red dwarfs, brown dwarfs and white dwarfs, black dwarfs are hypothetical objects in the universe.

When the star evolved into a white dwarf, it no longer had a source of heat and only shone because it was still hot. It's like something was taken out of the oven. If left alone, the white dwarf will eventually cool down to the temperature of its surroundings. Unlike today's dinner, which cools through convection, conduction, and radiation, the white dwarf cools only through radiation.

Since electron degeneracy pressure stops it from collapsing, which would lead to , a white dwarf is a fantastic conductor of heat (the physics of Fermi gases explains the conductivity of both white dwarfs and metals!). How quickly a white dwarf will cool is easy to calculate... it just depends on the initial temperature, mass and composition (most are carbon and oxygen; some are predominantly oxygen, neon and magnesium; others are helium). And at least part of the core of the white dwarf can crystallize, the cooling curve will have a small bump in this place.

Not a black dwarf... yet. White dwarf Sirius B.

The universe is only about 13.7 billion years old, so even a white dwarf formed 13 billion years ago (which is unlikely; those that became white dwarfs took a billion years or so) would still have a temperature of several thousand degrees. The coolest white dwarf observed to date has a temperature of just under 3000 Kelvin. It has a long way to go before it becomes a black dwarf.

It turns out that answering the question of how long it will take a white dwarf to cool down to the temperature of the cosmic microwave background radiation is quite difficult. Why? Because there are many interesting effects that may be important, scientists have not yet modeled their consequences. For example, a white dwarf will contain little, and some of it may decay over time intervals of quadrillions of years, generating heat. Matter is also not eternal; protons can also decay, generating heat. And the CMB gets colder over time because .

In any case, if we say, conditionally, that a white dwarf having a temperature of 5 Kelvin becomes a black dwarf, then it will take at least 10-15 years for it to become a black dwarf.

One more thing, there are no solitary white dwarfs; some have companions, forming together, for example, others can wander in a gas and dust cloud... the falling mass also generates heat, and if a sufficient amount of hydrogen accumulates on the surface, then this star can explode like a hydrogen bomb (this is called), slightly warming up the white dwarf.

Title of the article you read "Black Dwarf Star".