Weapons, equipment and clothing. Roman armor: description, names and materials for making Military uniform of the Romans
MUNICIPAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION
"POLITICAL DEPARTMENT SECONDARY SCHOOL"
NIKOLAEVSKY MUNICIPAL DISTRICT OF VOLGOGRAD REGION
Research
on this topic:"Clothing and weapons of a Roman legionnaire"
Ancient world history
Completed:
5th grade student
Volkov Evgeniy
Supervisor:
Volkova L.N.,
history and social studies teacher
With. Political Department - 2016
Content
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..2
1. The concept of “Roman legionnaire”……………………………………………………4
2. Composition of the Roman army…………………………………………………….....5
2.1. Legionnaires……………………………………………………………………………….5
2.2. Command staff…………………………………………………………...8
3. Clothes of Roman legionnaires……………………………………………………………10
4. Types of weapons used in the Roman army……………………………...16
Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………….20
List of sources and literature……………………………………………………………22
Appendix…………………………………………………………………………………24
Introduction
In the history lessons of the Ancient World, we became acquainted with the conquests of the Roman state. Thanks to these conquests, the state inIV. BC. and the beginningIAD turned into a huge Roman Empire, which included the entire Mediterranean coast, the modern territory of Western Europe, North Africa, and Asia Minor. There is evidence that the Romans more than once tried to conquer the first Slavs, whom they called “Vends”.
The “great” empire was able to achieve fame and status only thanks to its loyal and brave warriors, who bore on their shoulders all the burdens of long, distant and dangerous campaigns.
Hiking means leaving families for a long time, living in the field, eating what grew and lived in these territories. What about clothes? After all, according to the territory, the climate changed, which means that the clothing of a Roman soldier should be:
Convenient for long hikes;
Have means of protection in case of cold weather or, if exposed to the rays of the hot sun, protect from the scorching heat;
- and the most important thing - reliable protection against enemy attacks.
In addition, I was interested in the question of the armament of legionnaires. The ancient world knew the capabilities of metal processing, but did not know firearms. This means that the weapons of the Romans were iron products.
Relevance of the work: The points that interested me in the organization of the Roman army made me want to learn more about the clothing and weapons of the Roman legionnaires, since the history textbook only talks about campaigns and conquests. Having collected information, I can introduce my classmates to these interesting facts and visualize to them what a Roman legionnaire looked like.
Research problem is the opportunity to get acquainted not only with the conquests of the Roman army, but also with the appearance of Roman soldiers and the types of weapons with which they achieved victories for the empire.
An object of this work: Roman legionnaire, his appearance.
Item of this work: clothing and weapons of a Roman legionnaire.
Purpose of the study: learn about the appearance of a Roman legionnaire and his weapons.
To achieve the goal, a number oftasks:
Define the concept of “Roman legionnaire”;
Consider the composition of the Roman army;
Study the clothing and weapons of a Roman legionnaire.
Research methods:
theoretical: literature analysisand sourceson the research problem;
practical: collection andregistration of the received information in a folder - portfolio.
Stages of work on the project:
Studying the literature and collecting the necessary information on the chosen topic;
Analysis and structuring;
Folder design - portfolio;
Presentation of the finished work.
Practical significance: This work can be presented as additional information in Ancient History lessons, as well as in a school design competition.
Project product: newspaper "Roman Legionnaire".
1. The concept of “Roman legionnaire”
The Roman legionnaire takes its name from the name of the branch of troops in Ancient Rome.
Legion (lat. legio, gen. legionis), (lat. legio, gen. legionis, from lego - collecting, recruiting) - the main organizational unit in the army . The number of the legion at different times was about 3-8 thousand people. Initially, the legion was the name given to the entire Roman army, which was a collection of armed citizens of Rome. This Roman "militia" (this is the original meaning of the word) was assembled only in times of war and for military training. The legion was assembled according to the curiat principle, each clan ( ) fielded 100 warriors ( ) and 10 horsemen, so the total number of the legion was 3,300 people. A warrior who joined the army was called -legionnaire (Fig. 1).
Fig.1
Roman horseman of the 1st century AD e.
He sits in the saddle without stirrups, since they haven’t been invented yet
2. Composition of the Roman army
2.1. Legionnaires
At the beginning of its existence, Rome was a city in which every man was a warrior. Citizens served either as infantry or cavalry. Everything depended on the financial situation. Wealthier people mounted horses, and poor people became heavily armed foot soldiers.
Subsequently, the military organization of the republic began to be based on universal conscription. Citizens from 17 to 46 years of age were obliged, according to their centuries list, to attend parades or go on a campaign; sometimes, in wartime and for senior officers, service was extended to 50 years. After 45 to 60, they served in fortresses. Persons who participated in 20 campaigns in the infantry and 10 in the cavalry were exempt from service. Service life also changed over time.
Physical defects, as well as the performance of magistrate and priestly positions, were exempted from military service. An attempt to avoid military service without legitimate reasons led in the early days to sale into slavery, and later to large fines and confiscation of property. Desertion, flight from the battlefield, etc. constituted special military crimes and were almost always punished by exile or death.
At the beginning of the conquests, Rome collected troops by rank based on the qualifications presented (i.e., the presence of property and monetary status).
But, pafter the victorious wars of the IV-III centuries. BC. All the peoples of Italy came under the rule of Rome. To keep them in obedience, the Romans gave some peoples more rights, others less, sowing mutual distrust and hatred between them. It was the Romans who formulated the law of “divide and conquer.”
And for this, numerous troops were needed. Thus, the Roman army consisted of:
a) legions in which the Romans themselves served, consisting of heavy and light infantry and cavalry assigned to them;
b) Italian allies and allied cavalry (after granting citizenship rights to the Italians who joined the legion);
c) auxiliary troops recruited from the inhabitants of the provinces.
The main tactical unit was the legion.
The legion was divided into maniples (Latin for a handful), centuries (hundreds) and decurii (tens), which resembled modern companies, platoons, and squads (Fig. 2).
Fig.2
Handle structure:
Rice. 3
Light Infantry -velites (literally - fast, agile) walked ahead of the legion in loose formation and started a battle. In case of failure, she retreated to the rear and flanks of the legion. There were 1200 people in total.
First line of the legion -hastati (from the Latin “hasta” - spear) - spearmen, 120 people in a maniple.
Second line -principles (first) – 120 people in the manipula.
Third line -triarii (third) – 60 people in a manipula. The triarii were the most experienced and tested fighters. When the ancients wanted to say that the decisive moment had come, they said: “It has come to the triarii.”
Rice. 4
1 – Roman triarium, 2 – Roman hastat, 3 – Roman velite.
Each maniple had two centuries. In the century of hastati or principles there were 60 people, and in the century of triarii there were 30 people.
The legion was assigned 300 horsemen, making up 10 turmas. The cavalry covered the flanks of the legion.
2.2. Command staff
During the republic, the consuls commanded, dividing the troops in half, but when it was necessary to unite, they commanded alternately (Fig. 5). If there was a serious threat, then a dictator was chosen, to whom the chief of the cavalry was subordinate, as opposed to the consuls. The dictator had unlimited rights. Each commander had assistants who were entrusted with separate parts of the army.
Individual legions were commanded by tribunes (Fig. 5). There were six of them per legion. Each pair commanded for two months, replacing each other every day, then giving way to the second pair, etc. The centurions were subordinate to the tribunes. Each century was commanded by a centurion. The commander of the first hundred was the commander of the maniple. Centurions had the right to punish a soldier for misconduct.
In tsarist times, the commander was the king.
Fig.5
1 – Roman tribune, 2 – Roman standard bearer, 3 – Roman consul.
So, having examined the composition of the Roman army, I learned that the Roman army was numerous with a complex military organization. Each category of troops had its own specific type of activity. And having become acquainted with the illustration, we can confidently believe that the type of their clothing and weapons were also different. We'll explore this in the next chapter.
3. Clothes of Roman legionnaires
The military affiliation of the soldiers was determined not by the uniform - the soldier's tunic and cloak differed little from civilian clothing - but by the military belt ("balteus") and shoes ("kaligi").
"Balteus" could take the form of a simple belt worn at the waist and decorated with silver or bronze overlays, or two crossed belts tied at the hips. The time of appearance of such crossed belts is unknown. They may have appeared closer to the reign of Augustus, when additional protection appeared in the form of leather stripes on the sleeves and waist ("pterugs") (metal plates for such strips were found near Kalkriese, where Varus was defeated). Probably, during the reign of Tiberius, blackening on silver, lead or copper began to be widely used in the manufacture of decorative belt overlays with a complex mosaic pattern. Such a belt was evidence of military status. The sources describe the soldiers as “armed and belted people.” Deprivation of "balteus" meant exclusion from the military class for a soldier. The belt was taken from the soldier who had dishonored himself. In Rome in 69 AD. There was a case when some jokers, using sharply sharpened knives, cut off the belts of several soldiers in the crowd. When the soldiers realized what had happened, they flew into an indescribable rage and killed several civilians, including the father of one of the legionnaires.
Military shoes"kaligi" was another important attribute of belonging to the soldier class (Fig. 6). The exact time of their introduction is unknown. They were the standard footwear for Roman soldiers from the reign of Augustus until the beginning of the 2nd century. AD These were strong sandals. The creaking of nailed soles indicated the presence of soldiers as well as the jingling of their belts. Archaeological finds throughout the empire indicate a high degree of standardization in the form of "kalig". This suggests that the models for them, and possibly other items of military equipment, were approved by the emperors themselves.
About the color of the militarytunic there was a lot of controversy (Fig. 7). Mentions of centurions paraded in white robes may indicate the use of canvas tunics. It is also likely that in this case the color of the ridges and “pterugs” was indicated. It is likely that centurions also wore woolen tunics dyed red, while lower-ranking officers wore white tunics.
Most legionnaires of the Empire period wore heavyarmor , although some types of troops did not use armor at all. Caesar used legionnaires without armor ("expediti") fighting as "anti-signani". These were lightly armed legionnaires who began skirmishing at the beginning of the battle or served as reinforcements for the cavalry. The relief from the Legionnaires' headquarters building in Mainz shows two legionnaires fighting in close formation. They are armed with shields and spears, but have no protective armor - even heavily armed legionnaires could fight "expediti".
Rice. 6 "Kaligi" and leggings (greaves)Fig.7 Roman toga and tunic.
The sandals had no socks and the leather was red.
Having looked at Fig. 9 where showncenturion, we see that he is wearing what at first glance appears to be a tunic. However, the cuts at the arms and hips indicate that this is a chain mail shirt (“lorica hamata”), the cuts of which are necessary in order to facilitate the movement of the warrior. Many of these monuments depict details in the form of rings. Chain mail was probably the type of armor that was widely used by the Romans. In the period we are considering, chain mail shirts had short sleeves or no sleeves at all and could fall much lower than the hips. Most legionnaires wore chain mail with additional chain mail pads on the shoulders. Depending on the length and number of rings (up to 30,000), such chain mail weighed 9-15 kg. Chain mail with shoulder pads could weigh up to 16 kg. Usually chain mail was made of iron, but there are cases when bronze was used to make rings. Scale armor (“lorica squamata”) was another common type, cheaper and easier to manufacture, but inferior to chain mail in strength and elasticity.
Such scale armor was worn over a shirt with sleeves, probably made of canvas lined with wool. Such clothing helped soften blows and prevented metal armor from being pressed into the legionnaire’s body. To such clothing they often added “pterugs” - canvas or leather protective strips that covered the upper parts of the arms and legs. Such stripes could not protect against serious injuries. Until the end of the 1st century. AD centurions could wear greaves, and even then, probably not in all cases (Fig. 6).
Rice. 8 Fig.9
Helmet
Legionnaires used various types of helmets. During the Republic, bronze and sometimes iron helmets of the “Montefortino” type became widespread, which became the traditional helmets of legionnaires from the 4th century. BC. They consisted of a single cup-shaped piece with a very small rear visor and side plates that covered the ears and sides of the face. Later versions of helmets, including the so-called “Kulus” type, were used until the end of the 1st century. AD They were equipped with large plates to protect the neck.
The legionnaires' helmets were quite massive. The wall thickness reached 1.5 - 2 mm, and the weight was about 2 - 2.3 kg. The helmets and their side plates had felt pads, and some helmets were designed to leave a small space between the head and the canopy to soften the blow. The Montefortino helmets were equipped with wide side plates that completely covered the ears, but the new Gallic Imperial type helmets already had cutouts for the ears. True, with the exception of those cases where helmets were custom-made for a soldier, the side plates could partially cover the legionnaire’s ears. The side plates covered the sides of the face well, but could limit peripheral vision, and the open front of the face became a target for the enemy.
Fig.10 
Fig.11
To attach the comb to the helmets, two holes were provided in which special holders were fixed. The crests were most likely worn only for parades and were rarely used in battle. The helmet itself was worn only before battle, but during the campaign it was hung on leather straps on the warrior’s chest.
Fig.12
Of all the uniforms of Roman soldiers, I would like to highlight the clothing of the Roman velite (Fig. 12). These warriors walked ahead of the entire Roman army and brought the fight to themselves. The goal of the velites was to throw darts at the enemy and quickly retreat behind the backs of well-protected infantry. They did not wear armor or chain mail; for protection they had a simple helmet and a round light . Some sources mention velites wearing wolf skins over their helmets so that their centurions could identify their soldiers as they retreated back.Probably, from the head of a wolf was a symbol of veneration of the god Mars. This god in Ancient Rome was not only the god of war, but was also considered the guardian of fields and herds from pests and wolves.
As for long campaigns with climate change, in cold weather the legionary wore a cloak-cape with a hood.It is known that different cloaks were used for different occasions, and some of them were defined as “military” only. For example, soldiers wore heavy military raincoats in winter, but wore light raincoats in summer. The soldiers did not take off their raincoats during lunch, so as not to expose their legs. INAll legionnaires wore red cloaks. Only the dictator and senior commanders had the right to wear purple cloaks.
There were also pants.They were worn tucked into boots.The pants were mostly dark in color: gray or chocolate brown.
In the 2nd century, the wearing of boots spread. Along with the boots came socks.
There were a kind of tights in which the legs turned into socks.
Boots with laces on the instep became very popular footwear in the 3rd century.
Thus, having examined the clothing of a Roman legionnaire, we can conclude that the warrior’s clothing on a campaign consisted of a tunic, armor or chain mail, a special belt and leather sandals. In winter, a cloak with a hood was thrown on, trousers or gaiters were put on, and boots were put on the feet. The legionnaire's head was protected by a helmet during the battle. Such a small amount of clothing was of strategic importance - a warrior must move quickly and easily during battle. But still, the bulk of them were weapons; they were always with the soldiers.
4. Types of weapons used in the Roman army
From time immemorialshield The legionnaire had an oval curved scutum. Its origin is not entirely known; some researchers attributed its appearance to the Sabines, others to the Samnites. Be that as it may, at the beginning of the 1st century. the outlines of the scutum change somewhat: it becomes rectangular, but with rounded corners. Later, apparently in the last quarter of the 1st century, the corners of the shield become straight.
The scutum was made from light aspen or poplar boards and covered first with linen and then with cowhide, the edges were upholstered with copper or iron, and in the middle on the outside it had a metal convex plate - umbo. In the recess of this lining on the inside of the shield, a warrior could store small items, such as money, etc. The outer side of the lining could be decorated with chasing or applied silver. Sometimes it depicted the personal emblem (amulet) of the owner of the shield. On the inside, there are records concerning the identity of the owner of the shield: his name, legion number, maybe century, etc.The weight of the shield was no less than 5.5 kg.
The surface of the shield was decorated with drawings. Zodiac signs could be found among the images. Most likely, this sign denoted the astrological cycle in which the legion or auxiliary cohort was formed or the emperor who created them was born. The most famous image - lightning and spindles of Jupiter - most likely belongs to the Praetorian cohorts.
During the campaign and in the camp, to cover the shields from moisture, which had a destructive effect on the skin and wood, they used leather covers that were removed before the battle. Josephus describes how, under the walls of besieged Jerusalem, the future Emperor Titus staged a ceremony for distributing salaries and food to soldiers: “According to the custom accepted in such cases, the army marched out with open shields, which were usually covered with covers, and in full armor. The surroundings of the city sparkled with a bright shine of gold and silver.” The ceremony lasted four whole days and made quite a strong impression on the besieged.
It must be said that the shield was used not only as cover from enemy attacks, but also as an offensive weapon. When training soldiers, they practiced direct strikes with the central convex pad of the shield, designed to throw the enemy off balance, as well as strikes with the edge of the shield.
TOoffensive weapons infantry included swords, pilums and throwing spears.
Roman sword of the imperial period (gladius) originates from a slightly longer Spanish sword (gladius hispaniensis) than the Roman one. After the Punic Wars, when the Iberian Peninsula was conquered, the Romans took advantage of the secrets of local gunsmiths, as a result of which their legions received these excellent weapons.
Gladius sword , the name of which in our time has passed on to the gladiolus flower, similar in shape, in the first half of the 1st century still had a long (50–56 cm) tapering blade. Later, the shape of the sword underwent some changes: both edges of its blade became parallel, and its pointed part became shorter. The total length of the blade decreased to 44–55 cm.
At the beginning of the 1st century. Legionnaires wore a sling over their left shoulder, on which the sheath of the sword was attached. Thus, the sword was located on the right, and the legionnaire could grab it without changing the position of the shield, which should always cover it as completely as possible.
In addition to the sword, the legionnaire hadcombat dagger (pugio). It was worn on the belt on the left side. Judging by the figures depicted on Trajan's Column, by the end of the 1st century. The dagger was most likely no longer used by the legionnaires. But officers could wear it.
From about the 4th century. BC e. Legionnaires served as throwing weaponspilums (pilum) - a type of throwing spear. Each legionnaire had two of them. Initially, one of them was lighter and intended for throwing over a longer distance. After the 80s I century n. e. Only heavy pilums began to be used.
The impact force of a skillfully thrown heavy pilum was quite strong: it could pierce the enemy’s shield. Therefore, the tactics of the legionnaires were based on the fact that they threw pilums at the enemy’s shields. The heavy tip got stuck, became bent from the force of the blow (soft metal was used), and the shaft pulled the enemy’s shield down. Then the Romans, with swords in their hands, attacked the opponents, who could no longer take full advantage of the shields with pilums stuck into them and most often threw the shield to the side, remaining without cover.
Traditionalthrowing weapon : sling, bow, dart - were the weapons of foreign warriors who served Rome.
The slingers, usually recruited in the Balearic Islands, had weaponsPrasha - double folded belt. Stones or lead bullets cast in the shape of an acorn were used for throwing.
The armament of the triarii, hastati and principles was the same: a shield, a sword, and only instead of pilums they used long spears - hasts.
The velites had a sword, javelins and a round shield (parma) about 90 cm in diameter. The darts, "hasta velitaris", were a smaller copy of the pilum; their iron part was 25 - 30 cm, and the wooden shaft was two cubits (approx. 90 cm) long and about a finger thick.
Thus, one can imagine the weight of combat equipment that a Roman legionnaire had to carry.
On the march, this weight also increased due to his luggage, which included cooking utensils, a bag of provisions, and spare clothes. All this property, the weight of which could exceed 13 kg, was placed in a leather bag with ropes and carried using a T-shaped pole on the shoulder. If necessary, the legionnaire also had to carry all the equipment for excavation work. This included a pickaxe, an axe, a saw, a chain, a leather belt and a basket for carrying earth. During the time of Julius Caesar, he made sure that a certain part of the legionnaires during the campaign were not burdened with a load and could quickly react in the event of an enemy attack.So, the weapons of a Roman warrior are not only military weapons, but also everything that a warrior needs to protect his body, and everything that he needs to survive on a long, long march (Appendix).
Conclusion
For many centuries, the Roman army was rightfully considered one of the strongest in the world. Moreover, its combat effectiveness did not decline, despite any political conflicts. The main role, of course, was played by soldiers - legionnaires who were ready to sacrifice themselves in the interests of the state. But a good warrior must correspond to his position, i.e. his military organization, weapons and clothing should be his assistants in military affairs.
The problem of this study was getting to know not only the Roman warrior as a conqueror, but also getting to know his appearance and the weapons with which he achieved victory for the empire.
Based on the goals and objectives, it was determined that the legionnaire received his name from the name of the organization of the Roman army - the legion.
The legion was divided into maniples (handfuls), centuries (hundreds), decurii (tens). It was also divided into warriors - legionnaires and command staff. The legionnaires' troops consisted of velites, who went first and invited the battle to themselves, hastati - spearmen, principles and, the most experienced warriors, triarii.
But the main objective of the study was to study the clothing and weapons of the Roman legionnaire. Expanding this problem, it was found that:
The main everyday clothing was the tunic;
A military belt - "balteus" - was worn around the waist;
Over their centuries-old history, the Romans created the most advanced weapons in antiquity, distinguished by their strength, reliability and high combat qualities. The legionnaire’s protective equipment was quite easy to use and did not restrict the fighter’s movements on the battlefield, although they required a lot of physical effort.
In the field of offensive and defensive weapons, they adopted a lot, and then improved it, from the neighboring Italics and, above all, the Etruscans, with whom their early history was connected, the Greeks, or rather the Macedonians, whose military organization during the Hellenistic period reached unprecedented heights, the Spaniards , Gauls, Sarmatians. Since the time of the Republic, the standard protective kit has included a helmet - "galea" or "cassis", a shell - "lorica", a shield - "scutum". The term "lorica" is used to describe the armor covering the chest, back, abdomen and sides to the waist.
This armor had three main types:
1. Composite - all-leather or all-metal, or consisting of overlapping leather belts.
2.Their curved iron plates connected by buckles and hinges. The plates could be sewn to the skin. Flexible metal belts were attached to the plates, covering both shoulders and the middle part of the body. The width of the plates is 5-6 cm.
3.Chain mail.
Lorica lintea
A type of soft armor used in the ancient Roman army. It was either a leather cuirass that protected the torso, made from 2-3 layers of boiled leather; or a kind of tunic also sewn from several layers of flax or wool, which was then boiled in salt and vinegar. Boiling added rigidity and strength to the skin or material, but still, the protective properties of Lorica lintea were very small. Lorica linthea was used by lightly armed warriors such as hastati or velites.
Lorica hamata
This is one of the types of chain mail armor that was used in the ancient Roman Republic and Empire mainly by auxiliary troops: archers, cavalry, spearmen. Roman legionnaires also used the lorica hamata, and later the hamata began to be worn by some legionnaires as a segmentata. The main theory says that ancient Roman craftsmen learned to weave chain mail from Celtic or Iberian tribes. For the most part, the washer-shaped riveted rings for the lorik hamat were made of bronze or iron, they had a diameter of approximately 5 - 7 mm, and the strips of rings were located horizontally, which gave this armor flexibility, strength and reliability.
For each type of troops there were their own versions of lorik khamat, specialized for one or another type of troops. Lorica hamata also had shoulder pads that protected the upper body, which were more similar to the Greek linothorax. These chain mail pauldrons were connected on the chest to the chain mail cloth with bronze or iron hooks, running from the chest over the shoulders to the middle of the back, where they were also connected to the hamata with hooks. The number of rings in Roman chain mail could reach 40,000. Hamata could weigh 9-15 kg (with shoulder pads - 16 kg). In its use, chain mail showed good results and could last for decades, and all due to the fact that due to friction, when wearing a lorik hamat, the rust itself was cleaned off from the rings, which accordingly increased its service life.
Despite the complexity of production, Lorica Hamata was cheaper than Lorica Segmentata, and ultimately in the 3rd - 4th centuries. AD, in the ancient Roman army, legionnaires again completely switched to the use of chain mail, however, the new versions differed from the original ones, which were approximately hip-length and with short and sometimes completely absent sleeves, later types of Roman chain mail were approximately knee-length, with slits at the bottom on the front and back, and also had long sleeves.
Lorica segmentata.
Since the 1st century. A shell made of iron plates, attached with copper fittings to a leather base of lorica segmentata, comes into use. However, auxiliary troops (auxilia), as well as some legions in Asia and Africa, retained the lorica hamata as their main armor.
The origin of Lorica segmentata is not entirely clear. Perhaps it was borrowed by the legionnaires from the weapons of the crupellarian gladiators who participated in the rebellion of Florus Sacrovir in Germany (21). This could explain the popularity of this type of protective equipment in the Rhine legions. The plate armor was several kilograms lighter than chain mail. If the chain mail was pressed into the body upon impact, then the plate armor, due to its special elasticity, “absorbed” the force of the blow.
If the lorica hamata was widely used by the auxiliary units of the Roman army, then this type of armor was not available to them. Lorica segmentata was worn only by legionnaires and personal bodyguards of emperors - praetorians.
The Latin name lorica segmentata appeared only in the 16th century (the ancient name of this armor is unknown). Lorica segmentata came into operation at the beginning of the 1st century and immediately met the hopes of Roman commanders. Lightweight, durable and much more resistant to chopping blows than Lorica Hamata, Lorica segmentata became a real symbol of the Roman army. The design of the lorica segmentata is quite interesting; it consisted of metal strips that were sewn onto leather straps. The stripes were more like halves of a hoop, which were fastened together on the back and chest; the upper part of the armor was strengthened with plates to cover the shoulders and upper body. The lorica segmentata was convenient to store and transport, and as parts (leather belts or metal plates) wore out, they could be easily and quickly replaced with new ones, which, naturally, made it possible, instead of buying new armor, to simply repair the worn-out one. The shell, already connected at the back, with certain skills, could be relatively quickly thrown over oneself, like a shirt, and then tied and buttoned in front.
This armor had different weights, due to the fact that the thickness of the metal varied from 1 mm to 2.5-3 mm, thus the weight of the armor itself varied from 9 to 16 kg or more. During its existence, the segmentata has undergone various modifications more than once. Initially, the connecting parts of the armor were made of brass, for example: fasteners and loops were later replaced with simpler bronze versions - rivets, and the belts were replaced with small hooks, one large strip replaced two small ones at the bottom of the armor.
Lorica plumata
This is one of the least common types of Roman scale (lamella) armor, which was used exclusively by officers of the Roman legion. Due to the low prevalence of this armor, information about it is extremely scarce, and it is collected bit by bit. Despite the fact that the design of this armor is known, it is not known for certain whether the plumata lorica was used by anyone other than officers. This armor was not only a good means of protection, but also a distinctive feature. There is an assumption that lorica plumata was forbidden to be used by ordinary soldiers; if this was a distinctive feature of officers, then it is quite logical that the use of plumata by ordinary soldiers caused some confusion in the ranks of their own troops.
Scale armor was one of the most practical and was in service in various European countries until the 14th century. It’s not difficult to guess where this type of armor came from; our ancestors simply looked at the protection of animals; in some tribes in ancient times they even made armor from the scaly skin of animals. When properly processed, the skin did not lose scales, but only increased in strength, and with the advent of metal weapons, lamellar armor became a rather interesting solution for protection. It was created on the principle of stitching small metal plates-scales together. However, Lorica plumata is, in a sense, a unique armor, because the scales in it were more reminiscent of bird feathers, and not fish scales or reptile scales.
The design of the loric plumate is quite complex, compared to the designs of most lamellar-type armor of that time; the scales in it were not sewn together and were sewn neither onto a fabric or leather base, but onto chain mail, which gave strength and practicality. In addition to these fighting qualities, she had a spectacular appearance, which had a positive effect on the morale of the soldiers during battle. Although its protective properties were very high - almost three layers of metal, given the chain mail and overlapping plates, it is unlikely that generals or tribunes would go on the attack in it. Most likely, this durable and beautiful armor was a sign of rank, and not real battle armor. Due to the complexity of its manufacture and the requirement for the craftsman to have special skills for its manufacture, the plumata was one of the most expensive pieces of armor in the Roman Empire. As with other types of Roman armor, the original name was lost, and a new one was introduced by modern scientists due to the similarity of the armor to the plumage of a bird.
Lorica squamata
This is another type of ancient Roman lamellar armor, but, unlike the lorica plumata, it was used not so much by officers as by mounted warriors, although many centurions wore squamata. There is an assumption that Lorica squamata appeared in the Roman army under the influence of Parthian weapons, which at that time were dominated by the scaly type of armor.
Lorica squamata was produced according to the same principle as plumata. Metal plates in the shape of fish scales were attached to chain mail; often the scales were additionally fastened together with wire or a strong cord, so a scale could have from 4 holes to 12, and sometimes more. The plates were attached in horizontal rows and had a rounded shape, so lorica squamata looked more like fish scales. What is noteworthy is that the scales on one piece of armor could be made of different types of metal; most likely, this was used simply as a decorative component, without affecting the degree of protection.
The thickness of the plates varied from 0.5 mm to 0.8 mm, the size of the plate could vary from 6.5x9.5 mm to 5x8 cm, but on average the size of the plate was approximately 1.3x2.5 cm. But despite this difference , any lorica squamata provided excellent protection for the torso, since the plates overlapped each other perfectly in a checkerboard pattern, so the impact force was evenly distributed over almost the entire armor, while the armor almost did not restrict movement. The length of the squamata was the same as the hamata, because the hamata was often taken as the basis. The weight of this scale armor depended on the number of rings in the chain mail base and on the number of scales.
The only weak side of the armor was a piercing blow from the bottom up, the tip fell between the plates and tore the chain mail; with such blows (albeit rare, they still took place) the lorica squamata protected no better than the lorica hamata. Despite the cost, this type of armor became more common around the 3rd century. AD
Lorica musculata
This is an anatomically shaped ancient Roman shell that is derived from the ancient Greek thorax. The very first Roman armor looked like two plates (chest and back) held on over-the-shoulder straps, a kind of sword belt.
And only over time, after several contacts between Roman and Greek civilization, Lorica musculata appeared. This armor completely replaced the first armor of the Roman legionaries of the early republic, and was used as standard armor until the end of the 2nd and beginning of the 1st centuries. BC. The muscular Lorica showed itself all this time as a reliable and practical armor that did not greatly restrict movement, but a more interesting option appeared that gave greater freedom of movement, while not being much inferior in protective qualities.
Lorica Hamata was more expensive to produce than the Muscle carapace, but it lasted longer and repairs were cheaper, which is why Lorica Hamata became the standard protection. The muscular lorica remained as the armor of senior officers, in contrast to the plumate lorica, which was used by middle-ranking officers. During the Roman Empire, only generals, legates and the emperor himself could wear armor.
The first types of Roman thorax for soldiers of the republic were made of bronze and consisted of two parts (chest and back), which were fastened together using belts. They differed in length from the imperial versions only in that they covered the warriors' torso only up to the hips. Imperial officer's armor was very different because it was made not only from bronze (which became one of the rarest options at the time), but also from leather and iron (later versions began to be created from steel).
Also, leather strips, often with sewn metal plates, began to be attached to the lower part of the armor in a vertical position, which made the armor approximately knee-length, and in this case the protection extended not only to the torso, but also to the upper legs.
Among other things, some armor of the Muscle Lorik was made not only consisting of 2 parts, but also monolithic (of course, with the exception of leather strips). In any case, after being removed from service, the Muscle Lorica became more of a ceremonial armor than a combat one.
Lorica hamis serta
A shell made of bone (or metal) plates, not sewn onto a leather or fabric base, but connected to each other by metal hooks and rings.
Each plate (at its top edge) has two holes through which the fastener passes. When the plates are aligned, each fastener strip is covered and protected by the circular ends of the top layer plates.
Data about this armor is very limited.
An essential element of a legionnaire’s protective equipment was the helmet.
Apulo-corinthian
The type of helmet that came into the Roman army from the southern Italian Greeks and Etruscans, among whom it in turn was widespread in the 6th-4th centuries. BC e - Apulo-Corinthian (apulo-corinthian) - suggests that this type was originally produced mainly in Apulia. A standard Corinthian helmet was taken as a model and structurally it was turned into a helmet worn exclusively on the head, preventing the face from being covered. At the same time, the nose cutout and eyes began to serve a purely decorative function and, in at least one example, they were simply scratched into the metal of the helmet itself.
Structurally, this helmet is a high bronze helmet, beveled towards the front, with a straight edge along the lower edge and a small neck shield. Despite numerous drawn reconstructions, this helmet apparently did not have metal cheekpieces and was attached via a chin strap and a neck guard strap. The height of such helmets usually varies between 165-250 mm, its weight ranges from 670 to 1084 g. , although there are also options up to 1535 gr. Its characteristic features also include strongly protruding eyebrows embossed on the front side above the eye sockets, as well as a widening occipital part. The helmet was often decorated with notches and engravings on both sides, usually depicting boars, bulls or horses, and also (less often) lions, sphinxes and dogs. The thickness of these helmets was different, varying from 0.5 to 2.0 mm.
As an additional decoration, this type of helmet usually carried a vertical removable (or stationary) stand for attaching a horsehair comb and two stationary side tubes for feathers.
Chalcidian
The helmet is of Greek origin, also borrowed from the Italic Greeks, examples of which for Italy usually date back to the 6th-3rd centuries. BC e. Structurally, it was much more advanced compared to the Apulo-Corinthian type, having a fairly deep conical helmet, which initially had a high longitudinal rib, which was later (when the helmet became more rounded) replaced by an embossed hammered rib, ear cutouts with a slight bend in the metal, and fairly good protection for the cervical region. , which dropped significantly below the front edge. The helmet, the material for which was also bronze, had a slight rudimentary nosepiece on the front edge, and the helmet itself bore numerous knocked-out ribs that imitated the brow part (usually depicted on reliefs), forming curls on the temporal parts of the helmet, and also carried a rib separating the cervical region from the helmet itself.
The helmet had developed cheek pads, attached to the helmet on hinges, the shape of which became the model for late Roman variations of helmets. The cheekpieces had eye and mouth cutouts and created a satisfactory lateral view.
The helmet also carried a removable central post for the hair comb and side tubes (or spirals) for the feathers. The height of such a helmet was usually 190-220 mm, and the weight was 700-1200 g.
Montefortino
One of the most popular helmets, the history of which covers not only the entire period of the Roman Republic, but also almost the entire 1st century of the empire. It is usually considered to have been borrowed from the Gauls, although there are examples of such helmets from Apulia and even Sicily, dating back to the 5th century. BC e. Being the most numerous Roman helmet.
Structurally, it was a bronze (less often iron) domed or hemispherical (later) helmet, which had a massive top - either monolithic or drilled for attaching a comb made of feathers or horsehair. Some samples had additionally installed iron tubular fasteners (up to 5 pieces) for feathers. One example from a Gallic burial near Parma has side fastenings for fixing high and flat horns on the helmet.
The helmet itself of this type of helmet was made by casting (followed by forging) or forging. The helmet had a straight edge along the lower edge and initially a completely insignificant neck shield, bent out of the helmet itself, which in the center had a hole for fixing the hanging ring of the strap, through which the helmet was fixed on the wearer’s head. Accordingly, the thickness of such helmets was 2-3.5 mm for cast ones and 0.7-1.5 mm for forged ones. The weight of such helmets varied from 0.7 to 2.2 kg. The decorations on most of these helmets consisted of 5-6 sawn horizontal lines that repeated the lower edge, a twisted rim and a leaf-shaped ornament of the ridge knob on the top of the helmet. Sometimes there were additional decorations in the form of various figures.
The cheekpieces, attached to the helmet on hinges, were almost flat with a slight bend and wide enough to partially cover the ears of the wearer. They had eye and mouth cutouts, which on early models had strongly protruding parts. The helmet itself had excellent visibility, but completely insufficient protection for the cervical region, which had to be compensated for by the use of a long horsehair comb flowing down the back.
In the process of this type of helmet becoming widespread, it underwent changes towards simplification, losing almost all of its artistic design and, in addition, became lower - almost hemispherical, and the neck shield increased significantly. Some of the latest models, dating back to the 1st half of the 1st century, are already practically indistinguishable from the Coolus helmet, since they have a pointed pommel and brow reinforcement, while the latest (discovered near Cremona and dating from 69) already has a giant neck shield and simplified form of flat cheek pads.
Coolus
A helmet that originates from Gallic models, usually called Mannheim, and which appeared in the Roman army from the end. I century BC e. It was in service with Roman troops until the 3rd quarter of the 1st century.
The helmet had a hemispherical helmet shape, almost always made of bronze - there was only one iron version, but being in the Dortmundt Museum, it was destroyed during the Second World War.
Helmets of the coolus type had a straight cut along the lower edge (as in the case of montefortino), and also did not have ear cutouts and, accordingly, coverings for them. Initially, the helmet did not have a comb holder, but later they appeared - as did the side tubes for feathers. Early models also had a small neck plate, which later developed into fairly large and flat ones. The cheek plates had complex embossed ribs and were also large in size and had significant cutouts for areas near the eyes and mouth. A significant difference between this type of helmet was the constant reinforcing visor on the front of the helmet, designed to protect against a slashing blow to the head from the front. On the first models it had a complex profile, later it became lightweight and had an L-shaped profile. The thickness of the helmet varied from 0.9 to 1.5 mm (sometimes up to 2 mm), the estimated weight was up to 1.5 kg.
Imperial-Italic
One of the large groups of helmets, along with the Imperial-Gallic, which formed the basis for the helmets of the imperial army of the 1st-3rd centuries. It is considered to be based on previous models of Italian gunsmiths and at first, on this basis, it was argued that bronze models predominated in this group, although in fact their ratio is approximately half.
The helmet helmet is mostly shallow, for the first time its occipital part began to fall below the front lower edge and there it began to be reinforced with knocked out ribs - usually in the amount of 3 to 5. The helmet itself had a good hemispherical shape, which later began to better fit the shape of the head; ear cutouts appeared on it - the covers of which on the first samples were bent out of the metal of the helmet itself, and later became overhead. The cervical shield was well developed almost from the very beginning and, as became natural, in later models it reached significant sizes. The shield itself also had knocked out ribs and had a slight downward bend, remaining almost flat. The reinforcing front visor initially looked like a solid block, but later became profiled in the shape of the letter G. The cheekpieces were usually quite narrow, with standard ribs and crescents embossed on them, as well as bends on the side of the neck and throat. There were cheek plates that were completely smooth.
In the following models of this type of helmet, reinforcing crossed overhead rims began to be used, crossing on the top of the head and protecting the helmet from slashing blows; The helmets themselves are sometimes equipped with a fairly large number of applied bronze decorations, and a small handle appears on the neck shield for wearing it. As a stand for the comb, a holder identical to the Coolus type was used, as well as a new model - a rotary type, where the comb fork itself was inserted into a slot in the patch plate on the top of the helmet and was fixed by turning. An additional means of fixing the ridge box were small hooks riveted onto the front and back of the helmet. Later models of the helmet had a corrugated bronze stripe on the brow as a decoration, and the edges of the neck shield and cheekpieces themselves often had a bronze edging to hide the poorly processed edges of the metal.
The thickness of this type of helmet varied from 0.8 to 1.5 mm, weight - up to 1.5 kg.
In general, this is a fairly high-quality helmet in terms of manufacturing, which provided excellent protection for the wearer’s head, on which all design features were tested and implemented, to which there was practically nothing to add later.
Scutum
The shield of the Roman legionnaire was the foundation of the entire military art of Rome. This is a convex growth shield, about 120 centimeters high and up to 75 centimeters wide. We are most familiar with rectangular scutums, common during the Empire, but the armies of Republican Rome were more often armed with oval ones.
The shield was made of glued wooden planks (practically plywood) and covered with leather on the outside. The edges of the shield were edged with bronze or iron, and in the center there was a rounded bronze umbon. The Roman shield had only one horizontal handle in the center. Like the Argive shields, the scutums were very weighty - the rectangular ones weighed about six kilograms, and the oval ones were even heavier...
In battle, the legionnaire held the shield in front of his chest, almost pressed to his body, while the chest, stomach and thighs of the warrior were completely covered. Because of this, the Romans wore the gladius not on the left, but on the right side - it would have been very difficult to remove a sword, even a short one, from under such a shield. When attacking, the legionnaire pushed the enemy - and this was not a blow with his hand, but with his entire body, primarily with his shoulder pressed to the shield (this is how doors are planted) - and it was not an easy task to stay on his feet. In hand-to-hand combat, legionnaires often crouched, placing their shield on the ground - with a short sword in their hands, covered from the sides by their comrades, the fighter was well protected, and it was very difficult to get it. At the same time, the static nature of the battle line was more than compensated for by the maneuvers of individual formations.
The Roman soldiers of Septimius Severus looked little different from the soldiers of Augustus who lived two centuries earlier.
In the 3rd century, the Roman Empire experienced a period of political, military and financial turmoil. During the fifty years that elapsed between the assassination of Alexander Severus in 235 and the rise of Diocletian in 284, almost thirty emperors came to power, of whom only three died a natural death.
The straightforwardness of the “soldier emperors,” many of whom came from the rank and file, was reflected in the military uniform the Roman army, which during this period for the first time achieved noticeable uniformity.
In the 3rd century, the long-sleeved tunic became widespread. This tunic spread thanks to the influence of numerous German mercenaries who served in the Roman army.
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German scout, early 3rd century. |
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Germanic warrior, Thorsberg, 3rd century. |
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Palmyra scout. III century. |
| Information | |
In Roman icons of the 3rd century and later, Roman soldiers were depicted wearing a tunic with long narrow sleeves, a cloak and trousers.
It can be assumed that the wearing of northern European clothing in the Roman army first spread among the soldiers of auxiliary units, then the imperial bodyguards began to dress in this way, and, finally, all legionnaires serving on the northern border of the empire began to wear barbarian clothing.
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Constantius II was the third son of Constantine the Great (306-337). At first he ruled the Eastern Empire, but by 358 he had concentrated power over both parts of the Roman Empire. |
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Protector Sacri Lateris, imperial guard, mid-4th century. |
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Horseman, Equites Catafractarii, mid-4th century. |
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Information: “Military clothing of Rome: from the North to Stilicho. 200-400 ne" |
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Emperor Caracalla (Marcus Aurelius Anonius Bassian), according to eyewitnesses, continued to wear Germanic clothing even in Syria and Mesopotamia.
The Roman army had a large number of irregular units, whose warriors were called numerii and cuneii.
The latter were federati (foederati) - German settlers who received land on the territory of the Empire in exchange for an obligation to perform military service.
All irregular units were led by national commanders, usually chiefs, and wore traditional clothing for their tribe. As a result, such units often became trendsetters in new fashions and trends in the imperial army.
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Emperor Alexander Severus, (222-235). |
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Emperor Caracalla (211-217) |
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Emperor Probus (276-282) |
| Information: “Military clothing of Rome: from the North to Stilicho. 200-400 ne" | |
When the Danubian army of Septimius Severus marched on Rome, the civilian population, who had only seen these legionnaires on the column of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius, was horrified by how the soldiers looked (Dio, LXXV.2.6).
Indeed, the soldiers looked like real barbarians: long-sleeved tunics and trousers (bgasae), which for centuries were considered completely unacceptable clothing for the Romans.
Among other complaints leveled against unpopular emperors like Elagabalus and Komodo was their preference for long-sleeved tunics.
Documents from Egypt written in Greek (the official language of the Eastern Empire) indicate the wearing of various tunics.
The military tunic, known as the sticharion, was decorated with colored stripes (clavi). In addition, the dalmatica tunic had long sleeves, although, judging by the documents, it was worn less often than the sticharion. The name Dalmatic leaves no doubt that this tunic originates from Dalmatia. The soldier emperors who ruled Rome in the 3rd century preferred to wear just such a tunic.
The vast majority of tunics in manuscript illustrations are red or white. Green and blue tunics are much less common. It is generally accepted that the tunics of ordinary legionnaires were white, while the centurions wore red tunics.
| Army of the North | |
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Legionnaire, 193. |
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Praetorian Guard, 193. |
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Roman Falangist, 21 |
| Information: “Military clothing of Rome: from the North to Stilicho. 200-400 ne" | |
Another item of clothing that should be mentioned is the camisia. Apparently, this was the name of a tight-fitting linen shirt. The name of this shirt came into Latin from the Germanic language through the Gaulish language.
Later, the camisia was often worn by priests, but before that it was very popular among soldiers.
On the eastern borders of the Roman Empire, clothing decorated with embroidery, often made with gold or silver thread, was popular. Initially, the Romans despised such fashion as barbaric, but gradually this style of clothing became common for emperors, their court and bodyguards.
Some examples of military uniforms were very richly decorated. For example, Claudius Herculanus, an imperial horse guard under Aurelian (270-275), is depicted on his tomb wearing a tunic or cloak decorated with an image of a sun with rays. Apparently, this decoration is somehow connected with the cult of the sun god propagated by Aurelian. The design was obviously embroidered with gold thread, which gave it an impressive appearance.
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Tribune of the auxiliary detachment, mid-3rd century. |
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Vexillary of the auxiliary detachment, mid-3rd century. The reconstruction was carried out based on the findings at Dura-Europos. The vexillum is depicted in accordance with one found in Egypt and currently in the collection of the Museum of Fine Arts in Moscow. |
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Centurion of the auxiliary detachment, mid-3rd century. |
| Information: “Military clothing of Rome: from the North to Stilicho. 200-400 ne" | |
All Aurelian's guards could wear such a pattern. In general, the custom of that time was for the emperor to bestow expensive clothing on his supporters in order to emphasize his favor in particular and the greatness of the regime in general.
The rectangular cloak (sagum) was the most popular type of cloak among Roman legionaries for centuries. The image of this cloak is often found in the visual arts of that time.
But there were other versions of the cloak, some of which were used in the army. Among the alternatives, mention should be made of a cloak with a hood (paenula). This cloak was common in the early period, but by the end of the 2nd century its image almost completely disappears on military tombstones, although it continues to be found on the tombstones of civilians.
In addition, soldiers wearing penules are depicted on the wooden door of the Cathedral of St. Sabina in Rome, dating from the 5th century. It is possible that the penula was the cloak of the Praetorian Guard, since it is very often found on monuments dedicated to the guard. The temporary disappearance of these cloaks may be explained by the disbandment of the Praetorian Guard by Septimius Severus, who replaced the guard with a detachment of bodyguards recruited from provincial soldiers.
Later authors mention another cloak with a hood, the so-called birrus or byrus. In Diocletian's edict on prices this cloak appears as byrus Britannicus. Probably, the birrus also looked like a penula, but had an additional flap covering the neck, which made it different from the penula, which had to be worn with a scarf.
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Centurion, III century. |
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Mithraist, Hadrian's Wall, 3rd century. |
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Sailor of the British fleet, 3rd century. |
| Information: “Military clothing of Rome: from the North to Stilicho. 200-400 ne" | |
It is known that different cloaks were used for different occasions, and some of them were defined as “military” only. For example, Saturninus' soldiers wore heavy military cloaks in winter, but wore light cloaks in summer. Saturninus insisted that the soldiers do not take off their cloaks during lunch, so as not to expose their legs...
Emperor Aurelian (270-275) opposed silk and gold-trimmed clothing; he owned the aphorism: “The gods forbid fabric that costs as much as gold.” But at the same time, Aurelian did not forbid his soldiers to wear beautiful clothes, and his guard wore especially beautiful golden armor and dresses.
From the 3rd century onwards it is very difficult to determine whether a bare-legged man is depicted or a man in tight trousers. The paint on the sculptures has long faded and washed away, but the surviving frescoes and mosaics make it possible to determine that tight-fitting trousers were worn tucked into boots.
The pants were mostly dark in color: gray or chocolate brown. The biographies of the Augustans say that Emperor Alexander Severus wore white trousers instead of the scarlet trousers common at that time.
In addition, the legs could be protected with the help of different types of gaiters. In mosaics and frescoes, gaiters were often worn by hunters and those who worked outdoors.
Among the list of required equipment and normal rations for Gaius Messiah (probably a mounted warrior) discovered at Masada, as well as a similar list for Quintus Julius Proclus, a mounted warrior from Alexandria, there is mention of such a garment as a fascia, that is, a winding. In both cases, windings are mentioned after boots, which suggests that these are windings or foot wraps.
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Soldiers, IV century. |
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Senior military leader, IV century. |
| Information: “Military clothing of Rome: from the North to Stilicho. 200-400 ne" | |
Gaiters were rectangular in shape and made of cloth or felt. The clasp below the knee and at the ankle is visible in most images.
In the 2nd century, the wearing of boots spread. Along with the boots came socks. A 3rd century tombstone from Apamea shows a soldier with his socks rolled up over the tops of his boots.
There were a kind of tights in which the legs turned into socks.
Boots with laces on the instep became very popular footwear in the 3rd century.
Until the end of the 3rd century, Roman warriors were rarely depicted wearing headdresses. Therefore, the words of Vegetius, written at the end of the 4th century, that in former times they always wore hats, are surprising. This was done for training so that the helmet put on the head before the fight did not seem too heavy.
| Cavalry from Luxor | |
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Commanders, III-IX centuries. |
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Heavily armed mounted warrior, III-IV centuries. |
| Information: “Military clothing of Rome: from the North to Stilicho. 200-400 ne" | |
This type of headdress was called a pillei and apparently came in two main varieties.
Externally, the pille was a low, borderless cylinder with a smooth or rough texture. The smooth texture obviously corresponded to leather or felt pills, and the rough texture corresponded to sheepskin.
The Edict of Diocletian speaks of pills. made from sheepskin. The Roman pilleum probably goes back to the Persian tiara.
Many warriors wore balaclavas, which softened blows to the head.
The Romans also used armored clothing - thoracomachus, which was an analogue of the medieval aketon.
According to modern reconstructors, thoracomachs were made from linen fabric stuffed with wool. If the thoracomach got wet, it became unpleasant to wear and took a long time to dry.
The appearance of the first armor occurred long before the advent of war and military affairs. Armor is often associated with metal, but leather and cloth were much more common materials for its manufacture. Stone Age people first learned to make simple armor from animal skins, which became the prototype for the first leather and fabric armor. Animal skins protected people not only from the cold, but also from the sharp claws and teeth of predators that attacked during the hunt. Of course, such armor could not save the hunter from serious wounds, but people learned to sew durable clothing from animal skin that covered the entire body. With the advent of the first melee weapons - a sharp knife, dagger, battle ax, and ranged weapons - a throwing spear, arrows with metal tips, it was necessary to take care of more reliable protection for the warrior. First of all, the warrior needed a reliable helmet, shield, and leather chest armor.
Ancient warriors of the Crete-Mycenaean civilization
The period of the first civilizations marked the beginning of an era of wars between new states, an army appeared and weapons were improved.
In ancient times warriors of the Minoan civilization of the island of Crete
wore bone horned helmets and were armed with spears and shields. Bronze double-edged short swords of this period had thin blade about 80 cm long, around the 9th century BC
Iron began to be used to make swords, and the blade began to be made wider and shorter.
People learned to process not only fabric, skin and bones of animals, but also metal; in the Bronze Age, opportunities arose to create military armor that gave the warrior real protection. Leather armor, as well as fabric armor, were considered light armor, but they were not abandoned in the era of heavy knightly armor. They learned to process metal a long time ago, but truly strong and heavy armor appeared only in the late Middle Ages.
Ancient Hellas, successor of the Crete-Mycenaean civilization , greatly improved methods of war and military weapons. The duty of a citizen of any free ancient Greek city was to perform military service; they had to take care of their own weapons.
Ancient Greek warriors hoplites (ancient Greek ὁπλίτης) were heavy infantry, armed with heavy (about 8 kg.) round "Argive" shields - hoplon (ancient Greek ὅπλον), which protected the warrior from the neck to the knees. The first hoplite warriors appeared in the Spartan army. Hoplites During the war, citizens with average incomes became citizens; they could provide themselves with weapons and equipment at their own expense. The best armies of the Greek city-states consisted of wealthy citizens, heavily armed hoplite infantrymen, united in phalanxes.
Light infantry in ancient Greece were called – peltasts (ancient Greek πελταστής), who were the skirmishers of the battle, they threw darts at the enemy. Peltasts were called by the name of the shield - pelta (ancient Greek πελτα) - a light leather shield used by Thracian velite infantrymen (peltasts), shaped like a crescent. The pelta shield was made from light wood, or wickerwork from reeds or wicker.
Sling -
throwing edged weapons, used by the slinger-warriors of Assyria, Persia, Greece, Rome and Carthage. The sling consisted of a rope or belt, with a loop at the end through which the slinger's hand was threaded. A stone or metal projectile was placed in the center of the sling.
Lead sling bullets with the inscription - “Catch”. 4th century BC
The slinger rotated the sling with the projectile in a horizontal or vertical plane, intensifying the circular movements, and at the moment of the strongest swing, he released the free end of the sling and the projectile flew out of the sling at high speed. Although the bow was a more accurate weapon, slingers with metal projectiles were valued over archers, since the lead bullets retained greater killing power.
Xiphos (ancient Greek ξίφος) a straight, double-edged short sword with a leaf-shaped blade about 60 cm long, borrowed by the Hellenes from the Scythians. The Scythian method of burial was borrowed by the Greeks. (McPherson's book "Antiquities of Kertch", 1857)
Scythian warriors.
In the Northern Black Sea region before the arrival of the ancient Greeks There lived many tribes, related in language, religion, culture, who had a common style of fine art, which modern art historians call “animal style.” Ancient Greeks who founded on the shores (Black Sea) their colonies encountered local tribes and did not at all distinguish the characteristics of these tribes, and therefore, they called all foreigners who did not speak Greek and lived outside of Greece barbarians. The Greeks called the nomads and farmers of the Northern Black Sea region Scythians, and their vast territories of residence - Scythia.
The name "Scythian" comes from the Greek about words "xiphos" - ξιφωζ - thorn - that's what the Greeks called short Scythian sword 60 cm long.- a formidable Scythian weapon in hand-to-hand combat. Scythian blade, short sword, the Scythians called akinak, and in Greek blade -σπαθί - “save.”
Scythian warriors were armed with powerful new type of bow , made from several layers of wood and sinew. Scythian bow was much more powerful than a regular wooden bow, as the different layers of wood increased the power and striking force released from Scythian arrow bow with a triangular tip.
In mounted combat, the Scythians used squads of archers who simultaneously fired hundreds of deadly arrows within a few minutes. At the end of the 6th century AD. e. Byzantine writer
described the deadly power of mounted Scythian archers who did not stop fighting until the enemy was completely destroyed. 
The weapon of the Scythians who fought on foot was a battle ax with a narrow, long, sharp blade - an ax (labrys). In hand-to-hand combat, the Scythian infantry fought as bravely and fiercely as the Scythian horsemen.
Despite the fact that in these times bronze processing had reached a very high level, bronze armor was not as popular as fabric armor; it cost a lot of money.
Included in the armor The Scythian warrior included a shield with an armor covering. The width of the Scythian shield is 93 cm, in the lower part (in the middle) it is divided by a cutout 17 cm long and 10 cm wide. Such a shield was very convenient for the rider late 5th - early 4th centuries. BC.
Scythian helmet of a round shape with a small bump on the top, the prototype of the Old Russian helmet.
Scythian armor
represents sleeveless leather shirt,
fastening on the right side (kosovorotka).
The front part of the armor is tailored so that the shoulder parts, separated by a collar cutout, extend forward in the form long stripes-shoulders with a plate set.
The mantles covered not only the shoulder, but also the forearm, and were attached to the back of the armor using iron collars and laces. The iron plates of the set are sewn onto a leather base in horizontal rows from bottom to top.
in such a way that the right edge of each plate was pushed onto the left edge of the adjacent one, resulting in a continuous coating that did not give any clearance when the base was stretched at the bends. The armor left room for body movements, providing the warrior with the maximum possible mobility. The front part of the armor reaches only to the waist, that is, it is cut for the rider. In the lower part of the hem of the armor there are two ruffles, to which they were attached with laces. trousers that served as leggings and leggings (length 60 cm, width 30 cm), the trousers were rectangular pieces of leather with a plate set. They were wrapped around the legs and connected on the inside. There was no plate set in the knee area for ease of control of the horse. 
Ancient Greek warriors.
In addition to the shield, Greek hoplite wore a helmet, There are two types of ancient Greek helmets known. Corinthian helmet completely closed with slits for eyes and mouth, T-shaped. The helmet was often decorated with a short horse's mane.
Illyrian helmet did not cover the warrior’s face, and did not have protection for the nose, the warrior’s ears were also open, the warrior received a better view, and this made it lighter and more comfortable than the Corinthian one. Subsequently, the Corinthian helmet changed and became more similar to the Illyrian one.
Linnothorax - battle armor made of several layers of dense fabric, most often used by hoplites, as well as light infantry and cavalry. Linnothorax did not restrict the movement of a warrior who relied in battle on his strength, dexterity and speed of movement. Bronze armor was called hippothorax , they repeated the anatomical pattern of the muscles. Ancient warriors wore bracers and leggings, protecting arms and legs from injury. Scale armor never gained a foothold in the ancient Greek army, apparently due to its heaviness, the war that hampered movement, and the very hot climate; the metal of the armor became hot because of the heat.
In ancient Egypt Due to the unbearable heat and the high cost of making even fabric armor, ordinary soldiers almost never wore armor. The Egyptians used a shield and wore traditional Egyptian wigs, which were made of hard leather and decorated with bone or bronze overlays. A helmet and skillful use of a shield softened the blow of an ax, mace or club. Bronze axes and swords were the weapons of wealthy warriors and military leaders; ordinary soldiers were armed with a shield, a spear and a short blade. Over many years of excavations in Egypt, almost not a single metal shell was found, which indicates the high cost of its production and, possibly, low efficiency. The Egyptian army, and many armies of the ancient era, had cavalry and chariots. All noble, well-trained warriors fought with arrows and chariots, acting as mobile cavalry. Accuracy of archery during the rapid movement of the chariot required considerable skill; such noble chariot warriors were valued and they wore fabric or leather armor.
Roman army is a kind of continuation and development of the ideas of the phalanx. At this time the Iron Age begins. Battle armor made of bronze and fabric is replaced by iron, the Roman legionaries are armed with short swords, helmets and massive shields, allowing them to come close to the enemy, strike and break formations. In the Iron Age, the sword became more durable and longer, and there was a need for armor that could effectively stop slashing blows. The spear was the weapon of the hoplite and many armies of this time.
So the heavy armor of the hoplite is replaced chain mail – lorica hamata. Chain mail is not very effective against a spear, but can stop a slash from a sword or axe. Legions often fought with tribes that did not have a formation , many barbarians from the north were armed with axes; a reliable shield was needed to protect against slashing weapons.
Large growth (tower) ancient Roman shield with a central handle and umbo, called scutum (lat. scutum), was widespread in Italy back in the Bronze Age. Roman shield had only one horizontal handle in the center.
SCUTUM - is the predecessor of the oval shieldauxilium *, which began to supplant the scutum around the 2nd century. Auxilium (lat. auxilia) - an auxiliary unit of the ancient Roman army, recruited from foreigners.
scutum among the Etruscans. In Etruria
, near Vetulonia, in one of the graves of the Poggio alla Tuardia necropolis, 8th century BC. e., a sculptural image of a shield-scutum was found. Around the beginning of the 4th century BC. e. began to be used by Roman legionaries instead of the Argive hoplite shield
Later, this type of shield was adopted by the Celts, Iberians and Illyrians from the Romans.
A loss shield For Roman a warrior was considered a disgrace no less than the loss of a sword.
The Roman scutum from the time of the Republic measured about 75 cm wide, about 120 cm high, and weighs 8-10 kg. According to Polybius, it was made from two wooden boards, covered first with coarse cloth and then with calfskin. The Roman Scutum was found in the Fayum oasis, the height of the shield is 128 cm, width 63.5 cm, made of birch boards.
During the battle, Roman soldiers held the shield along their left side and pressed the enemy, leaning on the shield with their shoulders and helping themselves with a short sword.
Later scutums decreased in width, but somewhat lengthened, which made it possible to almost completely close the shield from the enemy.
The ancient Roman shield-scutum served as reliable protection for legionnaires, and in combination with formation battle tactics, scutums created an insurmountable wall that reliably protected Roman soldiers; the enemy could not break through the Roman formation.
Judging by the fact that the armor of the officer depicted on the altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus (second half of the 1st century BC) is similar to that which appears on Trajan’s Column (beginning of the 2nd century AD), the “fashion” for armor of the late Hellenistic type was preserved in the Roman army throughout the first two centuries of our era. It can be assumed that the officers wore a short “muscular” cuirass, imitating the relief of the male “ideal” muscles (sometimes such armor is called “anatomical”), leggings (osgeae) and a helmet, also of the late Hellenistic type.
The officer's armament consisted of a sword, a spear and a round shield. Tribunus laticlavius wore a wide white scarf over his cuirass, tied under the chest, indicating that the tribune was considered a candidate for senator. The other five tribunes of the legion wore a narrower purple scarf.
Higher commanders wore a sword on a belt belt. Since they did not have to use a shield, they could carry a sword on the left. But there is no exact data about this, since emperors and high dignitaries in the images are shown without swords. They had swords, of course, but they played a symbolic role, like the swords of European military leaders of the 17th–19th centuries.
The centurions were distinguished by their silver-plated scaly armor and the fact that they often wore leggings that had fallen out of common use. The comb on the helmet of the centurions was attached transversely. The insignia of centurions and at the same time an instrument of punishment was a vine - a cane (vitis). One of the ancient authors mentions that for his addiction to the use of this attribute, one of the centurions of the German legions was nicknamed “Give another”, since the vine often could not withstand contact with the backs of his charges. The centurions carried the sword on the left, the dagger on the right.
Legionnaires
Before Maria's reform, legionnaires were divided into categories differing in age and weapons. The first two lines of the legion's battle formation consisted of principles and hastati, young warriors armed with pilums, the third line - of triarii, veterans armed with simple spears. After the reform, all legionnaires were armed in the same way.
At the beginning of the 1st century. The first state workshops, producing weapons and armor for the army, arose in different parts of the empire. Of course, there was no strict uniformity in the products they produced. By the beginning of the 1st century. On the territory of the Roman state, several types of weapons and armor were produced, which had become traditional by this time.
The legionnaire's defensive equipment (arma) consisted of a helmet, armor and shield. At the beginning of the new era, Gallic workshops began to produce two new types of helmets with a tangible local influence of Gallic traditions in helmet making. The first type (coolus) included round bronze helmets with a small rear visor, the second - iron helmets with a large rear visor (“Port” - after the name of the place in Switzerland where one of them was found), subsequently modified into the classic “imperial-Gallic” " type. Old bronze type helmets
“Montefortino” from the time of Julius Caesar was still used quite widely at the beginning of the new millennium, along with new models. As for “coolus” type helmets, they ceased to be used in the middle of the 1st century.
Modification of a Roman helmet in the first half of the 1st century. characterized by a gradual increase in the rear visor. During the same period, a horizontal stiffening rib appeared, attached to the supra-frontal part of the helmet (like a modern visor), protecting the face from the downward blow of a sword. By the second quarter of the 1st century. Inflatable semicircular protrusions appear on the helmets. All these details remained a characteristic feature of Roman infantry helmets in the 2nd century.
To attach the comb to the helmets, two holes were provided in which special holders were fixed. The crests were most likely worn only for parades and were rarely used in battle. The helmet itself was worn only before battle, but during the campaign it was hung on leather straps on the warrior’s chest.
The carapace (lorica) takes its name from the leather thongs (lorum) of which it was once composed. Roman soldiers used several types of this shell.
Lorica squamata (scale shell) was a canvas or leather shirt covered with rows of metal scales.
Until the middle of the 1st century, judging by the images on tombstones, legionnaires continued to wear lorica hamata (or hamis serta) - chain mail that weighed approximately 12–15 kg. In the eastern provinces of the empire, their use was perhaps longer than in the western ones, where shells were made in Gallic workshops, in the 30s and 40s. I century switched to the production of a completely new type of plate armor, lorica segmentate, consisting of metal strips fastened from the inside with leather straps. A modified lorica segmentata with simplified details was used by Roman soldiers until the 3rd century. and later. It is worth noting that the trend of simplifying details, not only the shell, but also other elements of military equipment, did not stop throughout the 2nd and 3rd centuries.
Since time immemorial, the legionary's shield has been an oval, curved scutum. Its origin is not entirely known; some researchers attributed its appearance to the Sabines, others to the Samnites. Be that as it may, at the beginning of the 1st century. the outlines of the scutum change somewhat: it becomes rectangular, but with rounded corners. Later, apparently in the last quarter of the 1st century, the corners of the shield become straight.
The scutum was made from light aspen or poplar boards and covered first with linen and then with cowhide, the edges were upholstered with copper or iron, and in the middle on the outside it had a metal convex plate - umbo. In the recess of this lining on the inside of the shield, a warrior could store small items, such as money, etc. The outer side of the lining could be decorated with chasing or applied silver. Sometimes it depicted the personal emblem (amulet) of the owner of the shield. On the inside, there were records concerning the identity of the owner of the shield: his name, legion number, maybe century, etc. The weight of the shield was no less than 5.5 kg.
Group of Roman commanders and warriors (fragment of a bas-relief of Trajan's Column)
The surface of the shield was decorated with drawings. Zodiac signs could be found among the images. Most likely, this sign denoted the astrological cycle in which the legion or auxiliary cohort was formed or the emperor who created them was born. The most famous image is lightning and spindles
Jupiter - most likely belongs to the Praetorian cohorts.
During the campaign and in the camp, to cover the shields from moisture, which had a destructive effect on the skin and wood, they used leather covers that were removed before the battle. Josephus describes how, under the walls of besieged Jerusalem, the future Emperor Titus staged a ceremony for distributing salaries and food to soldiers: “According to the custom accepted in such cases, the army marched out with open shields, which were usually covered with covers, and in full armor. The surroundings of the city sparkled with a bright shine of gold and silver.” The ceremony lasted four whole days and made quite a strong impression on the besieged.
It must be said that the shield was used not only as cover from enemy attacks, but also as an offensive weapon. When training soldiers, they practiced direct strikes with the central convex pad of the shield, designed to throw the enemy off balance, as well as strikes with the edge of the shield.
Offensive infantry weapons included swords, pilums, and javelins.
The Roman sword of the imperial period (gladius) originates from the Spanish sword (gladius hispaniensis), which is slightly longer than the Roman one. After the Punic Wars, when the Iberian Peninsula was conquered, the Romans took advantage of the secrets of local gunsmiths, as a result of which their legions received these excellent weapons.
The gladius sword, the name of which in our time has passed on to the gladiolus flower, similar in shape, in the first half of the 1st century still had a long (50–56 cm) tapering blade. Later, the shape of the sword underwent some changes: both edges of its blade became parallel, and its pointed part became shorter. The total length of the blade decreased to 44–55 cm.
At the beginning of the 1st century. Legionnaires wore a belt (balteus) over their left shoulder, on which the scabbard (vagina) of the sword was attached. Thus, the sword was located on the right, and the legionnaire could grab it without changing the position of the shield, which should always cover it as completely as possible.
In addition to the sword, the legionary had a combat dagger (pugio). It was worn on the belt (cingulum) on the left side. Judging by the figures depicted on Trajan's Column, by the end of the 1st century. The dagger was most likely no longer used by the legionnaires. But officers could wear it.
From about the 4th century. BC e. The legionnaires' throwing weapons were pilums, a type of throwing spear. Each legionnaire had two of them. Initially, one of them was lighter and intended for throwing over a longer distance. After the 80s I century n. e. Only heavy pilums began to be used.
The impact force of a skillfully thrown heavy pilum was quite strong: it could pierce the enemy’s shield. Therefore, the legionnaires’ tactics were based on throwing pilums at the enemy’s shields. The heavy tip got stuck, became bent from the force of the blow (soft metal was used), and the shaft pulled the enemy’s shield down. Then the Romans, with swords in their hands, attacked the opponents, who could no longer take full advantage of the shields with pilums stuck into them and most often threw the shield to the side, remaining without cover.
Auxiliary Infantry
During the imperial period, the weapons and armor of the auxiliary infantry became monotonous, and judging by the bas-relief on Trajan's Column, already at the beginning of the 2nd century. they are not much different from legionnaires.
Infantrymen wore chain mail or linen-based scale armor and a helmet reminiscent of a legionnaire's helmet, but more simplified. Chainmail and scaly armor eventually gave way to plate armor - loriki.
The main external difference between the "oxylarii" and the legionnaires was a flat oval or hexagonal shield, similar to that used by the Germanic tribes, although some cohorts had legionary shields (scutums). The “oxylarii” were armed with two spears (lancea) and a sword (gladius). They could also use a heavy spear (gaesum).
Traditional throwing weapons: sling, bow, dart - were the weapons of foreign warriors who served Rome.
The slingers (funditores), usually recruited on the Balearic Islands, had a weapon (funda) - a double folded belt. Stones (lapides missiles) or lead bullets (glandes) cast in the shape of an acorn were used for throwing. On Trajan's Column these warriors are shown without any armor at all and even without any shoes.
Archers (sagittarii) were usually recruited from the eastern provinces. They wore chain mail that was longer than that worn by cavalry or infantrymen, and were armed with a compound bow (arcus) with 12–24 arrows (sagitta).
Cavalry
The Roman cavalryman was protected by chain mail or scale armor and wore an iron or bronze helmet. The helmet resembled a legionnaire's helmet in almost every detail. Shoulders of cavalry chain mail in the 1st century. very reminiscent of Celtic shoulder pads. The chain mail had slits on the hips so as not to restrict the movements of the rider when he mounted his horse. Another, lighter type of mail, depicted on Trajan's Column, has scalloped edges on the sleeves and hem. Defensive equipment was complemented by a flat oval or hexagonal shield. On a hike, the shield was either attached to the saddle or thrown over the back. Of course, there were variations in equipment, sometimes very significant, especially with regard to helmets and their decorations.
The cavalrymen were armed with a longer sword (spatha) than the infantry, similar to the Celtic swords (glaives celtiques), as well as a long (tragula, hasta) or light throwing (lancea) spear. The long blade of the sword was necessary for striking from a horse. Before the advent of cataphracts, Roman cavalrymen did not use spears as a striking weapon. This is understandable, since without stirrups, and the Ancient World did not know them, a blow from a spear could simply throw the rider himself out of the saddle. But they wore spurs (calcaria), which were attached to “kaligs” (shoes) with leather straps.
Josephus, who describes the eastern mercenary cavalrymen of Vespasian, mentions quivers with 3-4 darts attached to the saddle.
Cavalry armor underwent an evolution opposite to that of the infantryman's armor. If the legionnaire's equipment continued to be simplified and made lighter, the cavalry's equipment became stronger and heavier until the cavalrymen turned into clibanarii, heavily armed mounted warriors.
At the beginning of the empire, horse armor was not used, but the harness was decorated with bronze pendants and discs (phalerae), also of Celtic origin.
The infantry of the mixed cohorts had the same equipment as the soldiers of the infantry cohorts, but all its details were simplified to the extreme, which indicated the lower position of this infantry in the military hierarchy.
Clothes and shoes
The legionnaire's clothing consisted of a woolen shirt (tunica) with short sleeves or without them, over which armor was worn. They tied a scarf around their neck to prevent it from being rubbed by the plates of the shell. The soldiers of the auxiliary troops also had the same headscarf, even if they wore chain mail as armor. The color of the tunic is most often depicted in books and historical films as red (the color of Mars), but due to the high cost of this dye, this color of clothing could only be afforded by the praetorian cohorts.
A distinctive feature of the musicians and standard bearers was that they usually wore an animal skin draped over their shoulders over their helmets. According to tradition, lion skins were used in the eastern legions and praetorian cohorts, and bear skins were used in the Germanic ones.
Roman soldiers wore a cloak (sagum), which was removed before battle. At a later time, a paenula, a long cloak with a hood, was worn to protect against cold and rain. The commander's military cloak (paludamentum), made of the best material, was purple with gold embroidery.
The footwear for ordinary soldiers and centurions was (since Republican times) low ankle boots (caligae) laced with straps, leaving the toes free.
Pants (bgassae) were borrowed from the Gauls. They were worn in the northern regions. In general, to protect against the cold, bandages (fasciae) were wrapped around the legs.
1. Bulgarian slinger.
2. "Barbarian" in Roman service.
3. Legionnaire in a chain mail armor lorica hamata (1st half of the 1st century) and a bronze helmet of the “coolus” type.
1. Lamellar legionnaire lorica segmentata (about 100 g).
2. Legionnaire on the march. In the left hand there is a pole for carrying luggage, in the right there are throwing spears - pilums. The shield is protected by a leather case.
3. Legionnaire (about 200).
All three legionnaires were wearing various modifications of iron helmets of the “imperial-Gallic” type, the characteristic details of which were wide cheek plates and a rear visor.
1. Sarmatian mercenary of the auxiliary cavalry (II century). Judging by the image on Trajan's Column, the horses of noble warriors could have been protected by scale armor.
2. Rider of the legionary cavalry (2nd half of the 1st century).
3. Signifer (signifer) of the auxiliary cavalry ala (2nd half of the 1st century).
1. Middle Eastern foot archer (based on the image on Trajan's Column).
2. Infantryman of a mixed cohort (about 100).
3. Cavalryman of a mixed cohort (about 100).
Warriors of mixed cohorts wore “cavalry” helmets with characteristic stiffeners crossing at the top of the head. The helmets of the auxiliary cohorts and al were made of bronze, but could be iron, and did not have decorations, unlike the helmets of the legionary cavalry.
1. Signifer (signifer) with the sign of the maniple.
2. Eagle Bearer of the Legion.
3. Praetorian with a standard (vexilum) in ceremonial vestments.
1. Soldier of auxiliary foot cohorts (2nd half of the 1st century - 2nd century),
2. Soldier of the Spanish auxiliary cohort - cohors Hispanorum scutata (about 100).
3. Helvetian auxiliary infantry in winter clothing, armed with a heavy throwing spear (gaesum). Beginning of the 3rd century
1. Optio praetorian cohort in combat ceremonial outfit. The comb on the helmet was secured with special holders that could easily be detached when the ridge was removed. In the left hand is a ceremonial staff.
2. Warlord V rank tribunus laticlavius. The insignia is a white scarf with gold tassels.
3. Centurion(2nd half i century).
1. Standard bearer (vexilarium) of the praetorian cavalry.
2. A soldier of the praetorian cohort in ceremonial clothing.
3. Musician (cornicin) of the praetorian cohort. Unlike soldiers who wore plate armor (lorica segmentata), musicians wore chain mail.
Notes:
The name clibanarii comes from the word clibanus - a small iron stove.