Eastern Slavs in the second half of the first millennium. Slavic tribes Slavs in the second half of the first millennium

Since the first centuries of our era, the Slavs occupied vast areas in Central and Eastern Europe [from the river. Don and upper reaches pp. Oka and Volga - in the east and up to the river. Elbe (Slavic Laba) and the basin of its tributary - the river. Zaaly - in the west; from the Aegean Sea, the northern Black Sea region and the Azov region - in the south and to the Baltic coast and Lake Ladoga - in the north]. According to their language, customs and their entire way of life, the Slavs, who were generally one people, were divided into many scattered tribes. These tribes sometimes entered into allied associations, from which, over time, in some cases tribal alliances were formed. History finds the Slavs in this exact state long before the formation of their first state associations, starting from the 7th-9th centuries.
The heterogeneity of the situation of the historical development of the ancient Slavs in the east, south and west of the vast territory they occupied, in a cultural, political, economic and ethnographic environment unique to each of the named areas, led the Slavic tribes over time to natural territorial isolation and territorial tribal groupings. As a result of this, three large territorial groups of Slavic tribes were formed - eastern, southern and western. By the time the first state associations emerged among the Slavs, the three main tribal groups had diverged significantly in their political and cultural development. This was in close connection with the international political, cultural and economic environment of each of them. This is how the modern three groups of Slavic peoples arose: the Eastern Slavs (Great Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians), the Western Slavs (Czechs, Slovaks, Lusatian Serbs, Poles and Pomeranian Koshubians with Slovinians) and the Southern Slavs (Slovenians, Croats, Serbs, Macedonians and Bulgarians) .

1. Tribal composition

Our oldest historical source, “The Tale of Bygone Years,” or the so-called Nesterov Chronicle, compiled in 1112, gives a completely definite picture of the ethnographic composition of the East Slavic population in the 8th-10th centuries.
1. In the area of ​​the middle reaches of the river. Dnieper, on its right bank up to the river. Rosi, they live in the fields; their administrative, organizational, trade and cultural center is the city of K and e v.
2. To the north and northwest of the clearings, up to the river. Pripyat, in the tributary basin of the river. Dnieper - r. Tetereva and tributaries of the river. Pripyat - pp. Ushi, Slavechny and Uborti, i.e. On the territory of the Volyn region, the Drevlyans, or Derevlyans, live, having their cities Iskorosten and Vruchy (Ovruch).
3. On the left side of the river. Dnieper, against the glades, in the river basin. Sula, Desna and Seym, in the Chernigov and Poltava regions live northerners, or from the north, with the cities of Pereyaslavl, Novgorod-Seversky, Kursk, Chernigov.
4. To the north of the Drevlyans, beyond the Pripyat and up to the Western Dvina in the north, live the Dregovichi, who had their cities as Slutsk, Kletsk and Drutsk.
5. To the east of the Dregovichi, between the upper reaches of the Dnieper and the Sozh River, within the Mogilev region, the Radimichi live; The Primary Chronicle (end of the 11th century) reports about them: “I was from the family of the Poles, and passed on to the whole world.”
6. North of Radimichi, in the very upper reaches of the river. Dnieper and Western Dvina, in the Pskov region, live the Krivichi; their cities are Izborsk and Smolensk.
7. To the west of Krivichi, north of Dregovichi and Radimichi and, along the middle course of the river. Western Dvina, Polotsk residents related to the Krivichi live (city of Polotsk).
8. North of Polotsk and Krivichi, in the lake basin. Ilmen and R. Volkhov in the Novgorod region, they live in Slovenia (city of Novgorod).
9. Upper and middle reaches of the river. The Oka River and its basin are occupied by the Vyatichi, identified by later chroniclers with the Ryazan people. According to A.A. Shakhmatov, the Vyatichi previously sat further south, in the river basin. Don.
10. In the basin of the upper reaches of the river. Western Bug, as well as the right tributaries of the river. The Buzhans live in Pripyat, they are also the Velynians, or Volynians; Dub lebs used to live here; at the end of the 8th or beginning of the 9th century. Dulebs moved across the river. Pripyat to the Dregovich region.
11. In the river basin Dniester, between the rivers. Bug and Dniester, right up to the mouths of the river. the Danube and the Black Sea coast, they live near the Glycha, or Ulichi, and Tivertsy; the streets had THEIR town of Peresechen (now the village of Peresechina in the former Orhei district of Bessarabia).
12. In the river basin On the territory of later Galicia, the Dniester is inhabited by Croats, who are also considered by the chronicler to be Russian Slavs.
The above-mentioned tribes, forming the Russian people as a whole, were, of course, not fenced off from each other by impenetrable walls or strictly isolated in their regions without any connections among themselves. The process of the formation of tribal formations and languages, as we already know, from time immemorial proceeded precisely in the order of tribal crossings. The tribal composition of the Russian people, as reflected on the pages of the chronicle, represents only one of the stages in the history of its ethnographic formation. This stage was preceded by a long process of formation of primary tribal formations on the same territory, rooted in the distant past, estimated at tens of thousands of years. Likewise, this stage of tribal formation did not end the process of the formation of the great Russian people. Our people grew out of intertribal crossings, dissolving the previous tribal heritage into a new tribal formation.
“The term “Slav” itself, like “Russian,” notes N.Ya. Marr, is equally not the contribution of historical eras within Russia. In the formation of a local Slav, a specific Russian, as, indeed, in all likelihood, the Finns, the actual prehistoric population should be taken into account not as a source of influence, but as a creative material force of formation: it served in the process of creating new economic conditions that forged a new society, and new tribal crossbreeding factored into the formation of both Russians (Slavs) and Finns. Prehistoric tribes, therefore - in speech they are all the same Japhetids, are equally present in the Russians of the Kostroma province, as well as in the Finns, as well as in the Volga Turks, who, together with the Finns, received a prehistoric Proto-Ural-Altai birth from a Japhetic family, of course - an earlier , than the Indo-Europeans received their Proto-Indo-European design from the same prehistoric ethnic environment, but specific peoples - Russian, Finnish and Turkish - of the Volga region can be placed chronologically in the order of events of historical significance, but not at all in the sense of phenomena of an ethnogenic nature, since we are talking about the genesis new species. The origin of new historical species proceeded not through influence, but through the inevitable crossing of numerous species of a prehistoric type, which inevitably arose on the economic basis of the concentration of ethnic masses, which have not reached us in a completely pure form throughout the entire vast region, if we do not even forget about the Chuvash.”
An excellent illustration of this basic position by N.Ya. Marr cites, among other things, in the article “Chuvash-Japhetids on the Volga.” This article, devoted to the issue of Russian-Finnish linguistic relations, contains, in particular, an interesting analysis of the word “south”, which is now in Finnish and Russian and was mistakenly considered until recently in the old ethnographic and linguistic science as “evidence once the former solid foreign (meaning Finnish) population of the region.”
So, a tribe is “a definite crossing of a number of tribes, a tribal formation proper based on the characteristics of class production, a class formation...”.
“This is the construction of one of the production and social groups that were part of it, from which its name was transferred to the entire tribe, it is also the sound signaling of magical power, the axis of the corresponding unification...”
Returning to the tribal composition of the Eastern Slavs in the 8th-10th centuries, as depicted by the chronicle, it is necessary to note several facts emphasized by the chronicler. These facts partly reveal the process of formation of tribal formations. This, firstly, is the testimony of the chronicle about the dulebs. Previously, they lived along the Bug, says the chronicler, where the Volynians, formerly called Buzhans, now live. It is known that at the end of the 8th or beginning of the 9th century. Dulebs moved out from the right bank of the river. Pripyat (present-day Ukraine) to the left, to the region of Dregovichi, i.e. to the territory of present-day Belarus.
Secondly, speaking about the Radimichi, who lived between the upper reaches of the river. Dnieper and r. Let's squeeze, i.e. in the eastern regions of present-day Belarus, the chronicler twice notes their Lyash origin. The appearance of people from the West, the Radimichi, in the area of ​​the Dregovichi A.A. Shakhmatov connected it with the collapse of the Avar state (IX century) and the advance of the Avars after their defeat by the Franks, led by Charlemagne and his son Pepin, starting in 791, to the northeast and east. In this regard, the appearance of the Radimichi tribe in the area of ​​Dregovichi A.A. Shakhmatov (without any hesitation calling the Radimichi a Lyash tribe) dates back to the 9th century. Under the pressure of Avar oppression, they then left Volyn for the river. Pripyat to the region of Dregovichi and further to the basin of the Western Dvina and the river. Great and duleba. This movement of the Dulebs from Volyn and Galicia, the original place of their settlement, to the north, to present-day Belarus and the Pskov regions adjacent to it from the north, is indicated, according to A.A. Shakhmatov, the name of the villages “Duleby”, on the one hand, in Volyn and Galicia, on the other, in Belarus and in the former. Pskov province.
The settlement of “Lash” tribes, according to Shakhmatov, in the region of the Dregovichi, i.e. on the territory of Russian tribes, the great-grandfathers of the current Belarusian language and the Belarusian people, explains the presence in the modern Belarusian language of a number of conventionally called Lyakhisms such as the whistling pronunciation of soft etc. In the same way, “Lash” elements penetrated into the East Slavic language of the western branch of the Krivichi (ancient -Pskov dialect): a mixture of the sounds shis, zhiz, chits (Polish “masurakanie”), Polish combinations dl and tl instead of the East Slavic sound l (v edli, from where v egli and instead of veli; zhad dl oh, where did the fire come from instead of the sting, etc.).
Thus, among the tribes that made up the single Russian people (Eastern Slavs or Russian Slavs), already in the 9th century. The embryos of later linguistic differentiation arise in the process of intertribal crossings. We are not even talking about the completely natural fact that individual East Slavs, i.e. Russian tribal languages ​​from time immemorial have had their own dialectical differences precisely because tribal formations and their languages ​​always arise in the process of intertribal crossings. The newly emerging tribal crosses, i.e. new tribal formations, like their languages, always preserve the relics and cultural heritage of their predecessors.

Nikolai Sevastyanovich Derzhavin "The Origin of the Russian People"

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There are a lot of problems in the modern world. One of them is the problem... . It is this question that cannot but worry modern people that concerns... . It should be noted that this problem has existed for a long time, but is still relevant today. And I, a resident of modern society, cannot help but worry about this question.

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Slavic languages ​​belong to the Indo-European language family. This was established back in the 19th century. based on a number of common features in the languages ​​of peoples who are today thousands of kilometers apart from each other, but who once had common ancestors. Based on the percentage of matching roots in related languages ​​and the correlation of common words (denoting production activities) with archaeological finds, it is possible to establish the time of the beginning of the collapse of the ancient Indo-European community - approximately at the turn of the 4th-3rd millennium BC. But where did the Indo-European tribes begin to move and with what famous archaeological cultures in Europe

3rd millennium BC can you identify them? All this causes scientific controversy: some scientists believe that the ancestral home of the Indo-Europeans was the southern Russian steppes, others place it in the Balkans, and still others in Asia Minor.

Established by the 12th century. BC. on the territory of Europe from France to Kievan Rus, the cultural-historical community (a group of cultures similar in type) of “burial fields” became the basis for the formation of such European peoples as the Celts, Germans, Italics, etc., as well as Latvians, Lithuanians and Slavs. The latter until about the middle of the 1st millennium BC. represented a single Balto-Slavic community. Another milestone can be distinguished - the V-VI centuries. AD - when between the Oder and the Dnieper, on the territory of modern Poland, the Czech Republic, Belarus, Ukraine, Russia, several archaeological cultures are formed (Prague, Penkov, “long mounds”, etc.), which are considered unconditionally Slavic. At the same time, the Slavs as a special ethnic group began to be mentioned in written sources - by the Gothic historian of the 6th century. AD Jordan and Byzantine writers and chroniclers.

Ethnogenesis of the Slavs between the 10th century. BC. and VI century. AD, marked by the movement of various tribes and peoples, the rise and decline of entire cultures, still remains the subject of scientific debate (especially since it is not entirely clear which peoples the ancient authors of the 1st-4th centuries AD had in mind, calling them Ants and Wends). Some historians believe that the ancient Greek historian Herodotus wrote about the ancestors of the Slavs - “Scythian plowmen”, or “kolots” in the 5th century. BC.; The Slavic ones include the Zarubinets (1st century BC - 2nd century AD) and Chernyakhov (II-IV centuries AD) archaeological cultures in the Middle Dnieper region. Sedentary agricultural tribes of the Scolots in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. were part of a powerful ethnopolitical association - the Scythian kingdom and, together with other peoples, came into contact with the ancient world of the Northern Black Sea region.

Here, starting from the 6th century. BC, in the process of the great Greek colonization, small settlements began to appear, many of which then turned into prosperous city-states of Olvia, Chersonesos (Sevastopol), Feodosia, Gorgippia (Anapa), Dioscuria (Sukhumi), Fasis

(Poti) or to powerful Greek-barbarian states - such as the Bosporan kingdom with its capital in Panticapaeum (Kerch). The flourishing of the ancient centers of the Black Sea region was caused by their diversified economy and well-established trade relations. Grain, salted and smoked fish, as well as slaves were exported from the shores of the Black and Azov Seas to Athens and other cities of Greece. In exchange, local residents received wine, olive oil, non-ferrous metals, dishes and jewelry (precious objects made in Greek workshops for the Scythian nobility now decorate the treasuries of the Hermitage and other museums). However, there were also difficult times when the ancient city-states experienced the onslaught of barbarians. The Scythians in the Black Sea steppes were replaced by the warlike Sarmatians; in the II-III centuries. AD The Goths moved from the southern shores of the Baltic to the northern shore of the Black Sea. Until the beginning of the 3rd century. AD Crimea remained the extreme northeastern outpost of the Roman Empire: its soldiers guarded Chersonesos, and warships were based at the Charax fortress in the area of ​​​​the modern Swallow's Nest near Alupka. However, in the 4th century. AD Constant invasions of barbarians led to the death of the empire. The extensive Hun union of nomadic tribes that formed in Central Asia in 370 AD. crossed the Volga, defeated the Black Sea centers, defeated the Sarmatians and Goths, pushing them, along with the “Chernyakhovites” and other peoples, to the west.

Other historians point to the sharp gap between the cultural traditions of the rich Chernyakhov culture (with pottery, the use of glass, Roman coins and jewelry, which indicates the strong economic ties of this culture with the Roman Empire) and the much poorer Slavic monuments of the 6th century. AD Scientists believe that the process of Slavic ethnogenesis took place to the north, on the territory of modern Poland and Belarus within the boundaries of the culture of under-klesh burials (IV-I centuries BC) and the Przeworsk culture (II-V centuries AD); in the west, the pre-Slavic tribes came into contact with the best metallurgists of that era - the Celts and used their achievements, mastering the production of chain mail, locks with keys, saws, files; From the Germans, words such as “sword” and “helmet” entered the language of the Slavs.

During the era of the collapse of the ancient world, the “great migration of peoples” also captured a certain part of the Slavic population. In the VI century. AD The Slavs are already independently entering the international arena. Since the middle of the century, they have systematically invaded the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium) across the Danube, besieged and plundered Constantinople, Thessalonica and Athens, and undertaken naval expeditions to Crete and Southern Italy.

In the middle of the 1st millennium AD. The Rhine and Danube became borders, on both sides of which the formation of medieval society in Europe took different paths.

On the territory of the former Roman Empire, this process had the character of a synthesis: the barbarian newcomers and the “kingdoms” they created mastered the traditions and achievements of the previous ancient civilization: the system of communications, developed forms of land ownership, money circulation, and Mediterranean trade routes.

The centers that emerged in antiquity (Cologne, Vienna, Paris, London, Marseille) turned into medieval cities. The structure and property of the Christian Church, independent of the state, has been preserved. Together with the barbaric laws - “truths” - Roman law was in force. Despite a certain decline, the Roman educational system (“seven liberal arts”) was preserved, and for many centuries Latin remained the language of science and culture.

The social stratification of barbarian society led already in the 7th-8th centuries. to the emergence of private estates - fiefdoms-seigneuries with dependent peasants - and the formation of vassal-fief relations with the hierarchy of feudal landowners, the center of power of which since the 10th century. The castles that dominated the rural area became dominant.

In eastern Europe, development followed a different path - new social structures and institutions grew directly out of “barbarian”, primitive tribal relations in the absence of significant cities and trade. The majority of the population here were free communal peasants who paid tribute to the state in the person of the prince and his squad.

The Slavs also moved east: a wave of migrations from the banks of the Vistula and the southern coast of the Baltic began in the middle of the 1st millennium AD, and in the 7th-9th centuries. another group of tribes came from the Danube. So the Slavic tribes began to develop the vast, sparsely populated territories of the East European Plain. Thanks to colonization, a huge multinational Russia with its colossal reserves of natural resources emerged. The abundance of undeveloped lands made it possible to exploit the country's natural resources for a long time - at the beginning in the form of fishing, hunting, forestry, and from the 17th century. and mining. However, it, together with other natural factors, stimulated the development of extensive rather than intensive farming, which subsequently became one of the serious problems in the modernization of the domestic economy. Large spaces and natural resources have given society a significant “margin of safety,” but at the same time they have created a situation where dozens of peoples with different levels of socio-economic and cultural development live on the territory of one country (sometimes even within one region or region).

Another feature of our historical development was the proximity of the world of settled farmers and townspeople to the world of nomadic tribes. A strip of steppes stretching for thousands of kilometers from the Altai Mountains to the Danube provided a road for nomadic peoples who, wave after wave, moved from the depths of Central Asia to the west. The more numerous the herds, the faster they eat and trample the grass, and the sooner they need to be driven further and further...

After his death in the middle of the 5th century. During the reign of the Hunnic Empire, the peoples previously designated by the common name “Huns” began to develop into independent political associations. Mentions of them appeared in Byzantine and Transcaucasian historical chronicles and in our Tale of Bygone Years. She preserved the news of the “torture” of the Slavic tribes by the “obra” - the Avar horde. In 626, the Avar army (which also included Slavic troops) besieged the capital of Byzantium, Constantinople. And at the end of the 8th century. The Avar Khaganate fell under the onslaught of the army of the Frankish king Charlemagne, and the ancient Russian chronicler, remembering this, considered it necessary to quote the proverb: “I died, like I died.”

In the VI century. AD In the Great Steppe, a huge Turkic Khaganate was emerging, which the largest states of that time - China, Iran, Byzantium - were forced to reckon with. After a bloody civil strife, the kaganate collapsed, and new formations began to emerge on its ruins. In the 30s VII century Great Bulgaria appeared in the Azov steppes - the state of nomadic Bulgarians. Under pressure from the Khazars, part of the Bulgarians migrated across the Danube, where, mixing with the local Slavic population, they laid the foundation for modern Bulgaria; the other part went north and settled in the Volga region. Here in the 10th century. At the crossroads of international routes - the Volga river and caravan routes, connecting Central Asia and Eastern Europe, Volga Bulgaria, the closest neighbor of Russia, was formed. The Bulgarians converted to Islam and in 986 sent their envoys to Kiev, urging Prince Vladimir to convert to the Muslim faith. Turkic-speaking Bulgarians formed the basis of new ethnic groups that were already being formed within the Golden Horde - the Chuvash and Tatars.

In the middle of the 7th century. The Khazars became the masters of the southern steppes, who created a huge multi-ethnic state that included the Eastern Crimea, the North Caucasus and the steppes between the Volga and Don. The Khazar Khaganate united nomadic and sedentary peoples - Khazars, Bulgarians, Mordovians, Alans, Slavs; in the cities of Phanagoria, Belendzher, Semander, Atila there were quarters of artisans and merchants, both “Russians” and Muslims and Jews. The Khazar authorities controlled trade routes along the Volga and Don, as well as the northern part of the Great Silk Road, which led from China to the cities of the Northern Black Sea region. At the court of the Khazar ruler, the Khakan, there were a Muslim guard and a special panel of seven judges to decide the affairs of his subjects according to their faith and law.

In alliance with Byzantium, Khazaria fought with the Arab Caliphate. She resolved the issue of choosing faith in her own way: in the 9th century. The Khakan and the nobility accepted Judaism. The Khazars never managed to create a strong state: the Kaganate did not have a unified legislation, culture and writing, but during its heyday the power managed to subjugate a number of Slavic tribes (Northerners, Vyatichi, Radimichi, Polans) and collected tribute from them.

In 898, the Hungarians stood under the walls of Kyiv. They came from “Great Hungary” to the Black Sea steppes, to the left banks of the Volga and Kama, from where, in turn, they were pushed to the west by new nomads, about whom the chronicler indicated under 915: “The first Pechenesi came to the Russian land.” Behind the Pechenegs in the middle of the 11th century. followed by the Torci, followed by the Polovtsians; then the Tatar-Mongol invasion began. Of course, the interaction between Rus' and the nomads cannot be ignored

you only lead to endless confrontation. However, over the centuries, it took a lot of effort and money to constantly strengthen the borders and slowly develop the fertile “Wild Field” (as the territory of Russia south of the Oka was called in the 16th-17th centuries). By the way, the last raid of the Crimean Tatars into Russian borders took place in 1769. The peoples of Western Europe did not experience such an impact, with the exception of the Austrian Habsburg powers, which reflected Turkish expansion in the Balkans, and the extreme west of the continent, where during the 9th-15th centuries. The Reconquista was underway - the displacement of Muslim Moors from the Iberian Peninsula.

Vyatichi - a union of East Slavic tribes who lived in the second half of the first millennium AD. e. in the upper and middle reaches of the Oka. The name Vyatichi supposedly came from the name of the ancestor of the tribe, Vyatko. However, some associate the origin of this name with the morpheme “ven” and the Veneds (or Veneti/Venti) (the name “Vyatichi” was pronounced “ventichi”).

In the middle of the 10th century, Svyatoslav annexed the lands of the Vyatichi to Kievan Rus, but until the end of the 11th century these tribes retained a certain political independence; campaigns against the Vyatichi princes of this time are mentioned.

Since the 12th century, the territory of the Vyatichi became part of the Chernigov, Rostov-Suzdal and Ryazan principalities. Until the end of the 13th century, the Vyatichi preserved many pagan rituals and traditions, in particular, they cremated the dead, erecting small mounds over the burial site. After Christianity took root among the Vyatichi, the ritual of cremation gradually fell out of use.

The Vyatichi retained their tribal name longer than other Slavs. They lived without princes, the social structure was characterized by self-government and democracy. The last time the Vyatichi were mentioned in the chronicle under such a tribal name was in 1197.

Buzhans (Volynians) are a tribe of Eastern Slavs who lived in the basin of the upper reaches of the Western Bug (from which they got their name); Since the end of the 11th century, the Buzhans have been called Volynians (from the area of ​​Volyn).

The Volynians are an East Slavic tribe or tribal union mentioned in the Tale of Bygone Years and in the Bavarian chronicles. According to the latter, the Volynians owned seventy fortresses at the end of the 10th century. Some historians believe that the Volynians and Buzhans are descendants of the Dulebs. Their main cities were Volyn and Vladimir-Volynsky. Archaeological research indicates that the Volynians developed agriculture and numerous crafts, including forging, casting and pottery.

In 981, the Volynians were subjugated by the Kyiv prince Vladimir I and became part of Kievan Rus. Later, the Galician-Volyn principality was formed on the territory of the Volynians.

The Drevlyans are one of the tribes of the Russian Slavs, they lived in Pripyat, Goryn, Sluch and Teterev.
The name Drevlyans, according to the chronicler's explanation, was given to them because they lived in forests.

From archaeological excavations in the country of the Drevlians, we can conclude that they had a well-known culture. A well-established burial ritual testifies to the existence of certain religious ideas about the afterlife: the absence of weapons in the graves testifies to the peaceful nature of the tribe; finds of sickles, shards and vessels, iron products, remains of fabrics and leather indicate the existence of arable farming, pottery, blacksmithing, weaving and tanning among the Drevlyans; many bones of domestic animals and spurs indicate cattle breeding and horse breeding; many items made of silver, bronze, glass and carnelian, of foreign origin, indicate the existence of trade, and the absence of coins gives reason to conclude that trade was barter.

The political center of the Drevlyans in the era of their independence was the city of Iskorosten; in later times, this center, apparently, moved to the city of Vruchy (Ovruch)

Dregovichi - an East Slavic tribal union that lived between Pripyat and the Western Dvina.

Most likely the name comes from the Old Russian word dregva or dryagva, which means “swamp”.

Under the name of the Druguvites (Greek δρονγονβίται), the Dregovichi were already known to Constantine the Porphyrogenitus as a tribe subordinate to Rus'. Being away from the “Road from the Varangians to the Greeks,” the Dregovichi did not play a prominent role in the history of Ancient Rus'. The chronicle only mentions that the Dregovichi once had their own reign. The capital of the principality was the city of Turov. The subordination of the Dregovichi to the Kyiv princes probably occurred very early. The Principality of Turov was subsequently formed on the territory of the Dregovichi, and the northwestern lands became part of the Principality of Polotsk.

Duleby (not Duleby) - a union of East Slavic tribes on the territory of Western Volyn in the 6th - early 10th centuries. In the 7th century they were subjected to an Avar invasion (obry). In 907 they took part in Oleg’s campaign against Constantinople. They split into tribes of Volynians and Buzhanians and in the middle of the 10th century they finally lost their independence, becoming part of Kievan Rus.

The Krivichi are a large East Slavic tribe (tribal association), which in the 6th-10th centuries occupied the upper reaches of the Volga, Dnieper and Western Dvina, the southern part of the Lake Peipsi basin and part of the Neman basin. Sometimes the Ilmen Slavs are also considered to be Krivichi.

The Krivichi were probably the first Slavic tribe to move from the Carpathian region to the northeast. Limited in their distribution to the northwest and west, where they met stable Lithuanian and Finnish tribes, the Krivichi spread to the northeast, assimilating with the living Tamfinns.

Having settled on the great waterway from Scandinavia to Byzantium (the route from the Varangians to the Greeks), the Krivichi took part in trade with Greece; Konstantin Porphyrogenitus says that the Krivichi make boats on which the Rus go to Constantinople. They took part in Oleg and Igor’s campaigns against the Greeks as a tribe subordinate to the Kyiv prince; Oleg's agreement mentions their city of Polotsk.

Already in the era of the formation of the Russian state, the Krivichi had political centers: Izborsk, Polotsk and Smolensk.

It is believed that the last tribal prince of the Krivichs, Rogvolod, together with his sons, was killed in 980 by the Novgorod prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich. In the Ipatiev list, the Krivichi were mentioned for the last time in 1128, and the Polotsk princes were called Krivichi in 1140 and 1162. After this, the Krivichi were no longer mentioned in the East Slavic chronicles. However, the tribal name Krivichi was used in foreign sources for quite a long time (until the end of the 17th century). The word krievs entered the Latvian language to designate Russians in general, and the word Krievija to designate Russia.

The southwestern, Polotsk branch of the Krivichi is also called Polotsk. Together with the Dregovichi, Radimichi and some Baltic tribes, this branch of the Krivichi formed the basis of the Belarusian ethnic group.
The northeastern branch of the Krivichi, settled mainly in the territory of modern Tver, Yaroslavl and Kostroma regions, was in close contact with Finno-Ugric tribes.
The border between the settlement territory of the Krivichi and the Novgorod Slovenes is determined archaeologically by the types of burials: long mounds among the Krivichi and hills among the Slovenes.

The Polochans are an East Slavic tribe that inhabited the lands in the middle reaches of the Western Dvina in today's Belarus in the 9th century.

Polotsk residents are mentioned in the Tale of Bygone Years, which explains their name as living near the Polota River, one of the tributaries of the Western Dvina. In addition, the chronicle claims that the Krivichi were descendants of the Polotsk people. The lands of the Polotsk people extended from Svisloch along the Berezina to the lands of the Dregovichi. The Polotsk people were one of the tribes from which the Principality of Polotsk was later formed. They are one of the founders of the modern Belarusian people.

Polyane (Poly) is the name of a Slavic tribe, during the era of the settlement of the Eastern Slavs, who settled along the middle reaches of the Dnieper, on its right bank.

Judging by the chronicles and the latest archaeological research, the territory of the land of the glades before the Christian era was limited by the flow of the Dnieper, Ros and Irpen; in the north-east it was adjacent to the village land, in the west - to the southern settlements of the Dregovichi, in the south-west - to the Tivertsy, in the south - to the streets.

Calling the Slavs who settled here the Polans, the chronicler adds: “Sedyahu was in the field.” The Polyans differed sharply from the neighboring Slavic tribes both in moral properties and in the forms of social life: “The Polans, for their father’s customs, are quiet and meek, and are ashamed of their daughters-in-law and to sisters and to their mothers... I have marriage customs."

History finds the Polans already at a rather late stage of political development: the social system is composed of two elements - communal and princely-retinue, and the first is greatly suppressed by the latter. With the usual and most ancient occupations of the Slavs - hunting, fishing and beekeeping - cattle breeding, farming, "timbering" and trade were more common among the Polyans than other Slavs. The latter was quite extensive not only with its Slavic neighbors, but also with foreigners in the West and East: from the coin hoards it is clear that trade with the East began in the 8th century, but ceased during the strife of the appanage princes.

At first, around the middle of the 8th century, the glades who paid tribute to the Khazars, thanks to their cultural and economic superiority, soon moved from a defensive position in relation to their neighbors to an offensive one; The Drevlyans, Dregovichs, northerners and others by the end of the 9th century were already subject to the glades. Christianity was established among them earlier than others. The center of the Polish (“Polish”) land was Kyiv; its other settlements are Vyshgorod, Belgorod on the Irpen River (now the village of Belogorodka), Zvenigorod, Trepol (now the village of Tripolye), Vasilyev (now Vasilkov) and others.

Zemlyapolyan with the city of Kiev became the center of the Rurikovich possessions in 882. The name of the polyans was mentioned for the last time in the chronicle in 944, on the occasion of Igor’s campaign against the Greeks, and was replaced, probably already at the end of the 10th century, by the name Rus (Ros) and Kiyane. The chronicler also calls the Slavic tribe on the Vistula, mentioned for the last time in the Ipatiev Chronicle in 1208, Polyana.

Radimichi is the name of the population that was part of the union of East Slavic tribes that lived in the area between the upper reaches of the Dnieper and Desna.
Around 885 the Radimichi became part of the Old Russian state, and in the 12th century they mastered most of the Chernigov and southern part of the Smolensk lands. The name comes from the name of the ancestor of the tribe, Radim.

The Northerners (more correctly, the North) are a tribe or tribal union of Eastern Slavs who inhabited the territories east of the middle reaches of the Dnieper, along the Desna and Seimi Sula rivers.

The origin of the name of the north is not fully understood. Most authors associate it with the name of the Savir tribe, which was part of the Hunnic association. According to another version, the name goes back to an obsolete ancient Slavic word meaning “relative”. The explanation from the Slavic siver, north, despite the similarity of sound, is considered extremely controversial, since the north has never been the most northern of the Slavic tribes.

Slovenes (Ilmen Slavs) are an East Slavic tribe that lived in the second half of the first millennium in the basin of Lake Ilmen and the upper reaches of Mologa and made up the bulk of the population of Novgorod land.

Tivertsi are an East Slavic tribe that lived between the Dniester and Danube near the Black Sea coast. They were first mentioned in the Tale of Bygone Years along with other East Slavic tribes of the 9th century. The main occupation of the Tiverts was agriculture. The Tiverts took part in the campaigns of Oleg against Constantinople in 907 and Igor in 944. In the middle of the 10th century, the lands of the Tiverts became part of Kievan Rus.
The descendants of the Tiverts became part of the Ukrainian people, and their western part underwent Romanization.

Ulichi is an East Slavic tribe that inhabited the lands along the lower reaches of the Dnieper, Southern Bug and the Black Sea coast during the 8th-10th centuries.
The capital of the streets was the city of Peresechen. In the first half of the 10th century, the Ulichi fought for independence from Kievan Rus, but were nevertheless forced to recognize its supremacy and become part of it. Later, the Ulichi and neighboring Tivertsy were pushed north by the arriving Pecheneg nomads, where they merged with the Volynians. The last mention of the streets dates back to the chronicle of the 970s.

Croats are an East Slavic tribe that lived in the vicinity of the city of Przemysl on the San River. They called themselves White Croats, in contrast to the tribe of the same name who lived in the Balkans. The name of the tribe is derived from the ancient Iranian word “shepherd, guardian of livestock,” which may indicate its main occupation - cattle breeding.

Bodrichi (Obodrity, Rarogi) - Polabian Slavs (lower Elbe) in the 8th-12th centuries. - union of Vagrs, Polabs, Glinyaks, Smolyans. Rarog (from the Danes Rerik) is the main city of the Bodrichis. Mecklenburg State in East Germany.
According to one version, Rurik is a Slav from the Bodrichi tribe, the grandson of Gostomysl, the son of his daughter Umila and the Bodrichi prince Godoslav (Godlav).

The Vistula are a Western Slavic tribe that lived at least since the 7th century in Lesser Poland. In the 9th century, the Vistula formed a tribal state with centers in Krakow, Sandomierz and Stradow. At the end of the century they were conquered by the king of Great Moravia Svyatopolk I and were forced to accept baptism. In the 10th century, the lands of the Vistula were conquered by the Polans and included in Poland.

The Zlicans (Czech Zličane, Polish Zliczanie) are one of the ancient Czech tribes. They inhabited the territory adjacent to the modern city of Kourzhim (Czech Republic). They served as the center of the formation of the Zlican Principality, which covered the beginning of the 10th century. Eastern and Southern Bohemia and the region of the Duleb tribe. The main city of the principality was Libice. The Libice princes Slavniki competed with Prague in the struggle for the unification of the Czech Republic. In 995, Zlicany was subordinated to the Přemyslids.

Lusatians, Lusatian Serbs, Sorbs (German Sorben), Vends are the indigenous Slavic population living in the territory of Lower and Upper Lusatia - regions that are part of modern Germany. The first settlements of Lusatian Serbs in these places were recorded in the 6th century AD. e.

The Lusatian language is divided into Upper Lusatian and Lower Lusatian.

The Brockhaus and Euphron Dictionary gives the definition: “Sorbs are the name of the Wends and the Polabian Slavs in general.” Slavic people inhabiting a number of regions in Germany, in the federal states of Brandenburg and Saxony.

The Lusatian Serbs are one of Germany's four officially recognized national minorities (along with the Gypsies, Frisians and Danes). It is believed that about 60 thousand German citizens now have Serbian roots, of which 20,000 live in Lower Lusatia (Brandenburg) and 40 thousand in Upper Lusatia (Saxony).

Lyutichs (Wilts, Velets) are a union of Western Slavic tribes who lived in the early Middle Ages in the territory of what is now eastern Germany. The center of the Lutich union was the “Radogost” sanctuary, in which the god Svarozhich was revered. All decisions were made at a large tribal meeting, and there was no central authority.

The Lutici led the Slavic uprising of 983 against German colonization of the lands east of the Elbe, as a result of which colonization was suspended for almost two hundred years. Even before this, they were ardent opponents of the German king Otto I. It is known about his heir, Henry II, that he did not try to enslave them, but rather lured them with money and gifts to his side in the fight against Boleslaw the Brave Poland.

Military and political successes strengthened the Lutichi's commitment to paganism and pagan customs, which also applied to the related Bodrichi. However, in the 1050s, an internecine war broke out among the Lutichs and changed their position. The union quickly lost power and influence, and after the central sanctuary was destroyed by the Saxon Duke Lothar in 1125, the union finally disintegrated. Over the next decades, the Saxon dukes gradually expanded their possessions to the east and conquered the lands of the Luticians.

Pomeranians, Pomeranians - Western Slavic tribes who lived from the 6th century in the lower reaches of the Odryna coast of the Baltic Sea. It remains unclear whether there was a residual Germanic population before their arrival, which they assimilated. In 900, the border of the Pomeranian range ran along the Odra in the west, the Vistula in the east and Notech in the south. They gave the name to the historical area of ​​Pomerania.

In the 10th century, the Polish prince Mieszko I included the Pomeranian lands into the Polish state. In the 11th century, the Pomeranians rebelled and regained independence from Poland. During this period, their territory expanded west from the Odra into the lands of the Lutich. On the initiative of Prince Wartislaw I, the Pomeranians adopted Christianity.

From the 1180s, German influence began to increase and German settlers began to arrive on the Pomeranian lands. Due to the devastating wars with the Danes, the Pomeranian feudal lords welcomed the settlement of the devastated lands by the Germans. Over time, the process of Germanization of the Pomeranian population began.

The remnant of the ancient Pomeranians who escaped assimilation today are the Kashubians, numbering 300 thousand people.

A complete guide to preparing for the Unified State Exam

Series: Unified State Exam

Publishers: AST, Astrel, VKT, 2009

Hardcover, 320 pp.

The reference book, addressed to graduates and applicants, provides in full the material of the “History of Russia” course, which is tested on the unified state exam.

The structure of the book corresponds to the codifier of content elements in the subject, on the basis of which examination tasks - test materials for the Unified State Examination - are compiled.

The reference book presents the following sections of the course: “History of Russia from antiquity to the beginning of the 17th century,” “History of Russia in the 17th-18th centuries,” “Russia in the 19th century,” “Russia in the 20th - early 21st centuries.”

A brief form of presentation ensures maximum efficiency in self-preparation for the exam. Sample assignments and answers to them, completing each topic, will help to objectively assess the level of knowledge.

At the end of the book there is a reference chronological table and a dictionary of historical terms and concepts in the volume that is necessary for successfully passing the Unified State Exam.

Preface

Topic 1. Eastern Slavs in the second half of the first millennium

Topic 2. Old Russian state (9th – first half of the 12th century)

Topic 3. Russian lands and principalities in the 12th – mid-15th centuries.

Topic 4. The Russian state in the second half of the 15th – early 17th centuries.

Section 2. History of Russia in the 17th–18th centuries.

Topic 1. Russia in the 17th century.

Topic 2. Russia in the first half of the 18th century.

Topic 3. Russia in the second half of the 18th century. Domestic policy of Catherine II

Section 3. Russia in the 19th century.

Topic 1. Russia in 1801–1860. Domestic and foreign policy of Alexander I

Topic 2. Russia in the 1860-1890s. Domestic policy of Alexander II. Reforms of the 1860–1870s

Section 4. Russia in the 20th – early 21st centuries.

Topic 1. Russia in 1900–1916. Socio-economic and political development of the country at the beginning of the twentieth century.

Topic 2. Russia in 1917–1920. Revolution of 1917. From February to October. Dual power

Topic 3. Soviet Russia, USSR in the 1920-1930s. Transition to a new economic policy

Topic 4. The Great Patriotic War of 1941–1945. Main stages and battles of the Great Patriotic War

Topic 5. USSR in 1945–1991. USSR in the first post-war decade

Topic 6. Russia in 1992–2008. The formation of a new Russian statehood

Reference chronological table

Dictionary of historical terms and concepts
Preface
This guide is addressed to schoolchildren and applicants. It will allow you to repeat the main content of the school course on the history of Russia and qualitatively prepare for the unified state exam in history.

The structure of the book corresponds to the codifier of content elements in the subject, on the basis of which examination tasks are compiled - test materials for the Unified State Examination.

The reference book presents the following sections of the course: “History of Russia from antiquity to the beginning of the 17th century,” “History of Russia in the 17th–18th centuries,” “Russia in the 19th century,” “Russia in the 20th – early 21st centuries.”

Each topic of the book contains a brief historical background, presented in a concise and accessible form, as well as sample tasks used in the Unified State Exam test materials. These are closed tasks with the choice of only one correct answer out of four possible (part 1 (A); tasks to establish the correct correspondence and establish the correct sequence of letters or numbers, open-type tasks with a short answer in the form of one or two words (part 2 (B) ; essay assignments that require writing a detailed answer (part 3 (C). All sample assignments are compiled in accordance with the content and structure of the Unified State Exam test materials in history.

Answers to assignments will help you objectively assess your level of knowledge.

At the end of the book there is a chronological reference table and a dictionary of concepts and terms to the extent necessary for successfully passing the Unified State Exam.

The book will also allow history teachers to organize a final repetition of educational material in graduating classes, which is necessary for successfully passing the Unified State Exam in Russian history.

Long answer tasks (Part C) involve writing a short written work. They allow graduates to demonstrate in-depth knowledge of a subject, often beyond basic training. During the exam, the results of this part of the work are assessed by a special expert commission. Based on pre-developed criteria, experts make a decision on evaluating the work.

The tasks of part C are different in their form and focus. The first three tasks are based on any historical source and test the ability to analyze a historical document (determine the time, place, circumstances, reasons for creating the source, the position of the author, etc.). For each correct answer to tasks on a historical source, 1–2 points are given. The maximum score is 6 points.

Part C tasks are aimed at testing various types of educational activities: 1) characterize, systematize, 2) analyze and argue various historical versions and assessments, 3) the ability to compare historical events, phenomena, processes. It is important to remember that when assessing the answer to the task of analyzing historical versions and assessments, experts pay attention to their own attitude to the proposed controversial issue. The maximum score for each of the tasks in Part C is up to 4 points. Thus, the total maximum score for completing tasks in part C is 22 points.

When assessing answers to tasks with a detailed, complete answer, the validity of ideas with facts and arguments or generalization of facts with concepts is taken into account. It is necessary to present only the most essential facts related only to this specific issue, without going beyond its scope. If a historical term appears in a question, be sure to explain its meaning in a clear and concise manner. In this case, the student answer can be written concisely, in free form or in the form of abstracts, in a proposed or other sequence of tasks.

It is important to remember that answers should not be verbose. As a rule, the answer to each task should not exceed a few sentences. You should not write down lightweight formulations that do not reflect the content of the educational material being asked - this will take time, but will not add points to the answer. The work must be built in a certain logic. If there is not enough time, you need to indicate the main thing in a brief form, but in such a way that the experts understand the logic of the person answering. It is better not to allow abbreviations of words other than generally accepted ones (RF, USSR, Sovnarkom).

When assigning points, experts take into account only correctly presented facts, arguments, concepts, etc. For incorrectly specified elements of the answer (errors) 0 points are given, i.e. incorrect answers are not taken into account when assigning the final score (they are not subtracted from the total score) . Grammatical errors are also not taken into account, but even in conditions of lack of time we must strive to avoid them.
^ Section 1. History of Russia from antiquity to the beginning of the 17th century.
Topic 1. Eastern Slavs in the second half of the first millennium

East Slavic tribes and their neighbors.

In the VI–VIII centuries. The Eastern Slavs were divided into tribal unions and inhabited vast areas of the East European Plain.

The formation of large tribal associations of the Slavs is indicated by a legend contained in the Russian chronicle, which tells about the reign of Prince Kiy with his brothers Shchek, Khoriv and sister Lybid in the Middle Dnieper region. The city of Kyiv, founded by the brothers, was allegedly named after his older brother Kiy.

The Eastern Slavs occupied the territory from the Carpathian Mountains in the west to the Middle Oka and the upper reaches of the Dnieper in the east, from the Neva and Lake Ladoga in the north to the Middle Dnieper in the south. Tribal unions of the Eastern Slavs: Polyans, Novgorod (Ilmen) Slovenes, Drevlyans, Dregovichi, Vyatichi, Krivichi, Polochans, Northerners, Radimichi, Buzhans, Volynians, Ulichs, Tivertsy.

The Slavs, developing the East European Plain, came into contact with a few Finno-Ugric and Baltic tribes. The neighbors of the Slavic tribes in the north were the peoples of the Finno-Ugric group: Ves, Merya, Muroma, Chud, Mordovians, Mari. In the lower reaches of the Volga in the VI–VIII centuries. settled by a nomadic people of Turkic origin - the Khazars. A significant part of the Khazars converted to Judaism. The Slavs paid tribute to the Khazar Khaganate. Slavic trade passed through Khazaria along the Volga trade route.

Occupations, social system, beliefs of the Eastern Slavs. The main occupation of the Slavs was agriculture. Arable farming developed on black soil lands. The slash-and-burn farming system was widespread in the forest zone. In the first year, trees were cut down. In the second year, the dried trees were burned and grain was sown using the ash as fertilizer. For two or three years the plot produced a high harvest for that time, then the land was depleted and it was necessary to move to a new plot. The main tools of labor were an axe, as well as a hoe, plow, harrow and spade, which were used to loosen the soil. They reaped (harvested) the harvest with sickles. They threshed with flails. The grain was ground with stone grain grinders and hand millstones. Arable farming, called fallow farming, developed on the black soil lands. In the southern regions there was a lot of fertile land, and plots of land were sown for two to three or more years. As the soil became depleted, they moved (transferred) to new areas. The main tools used here were a plow, a ralo, a wooden plow with an iron ploughshare, i.e., tools adapted for horizontal plowing.

The main producer was the free community peasant (smerd) with his own tools. The Slavs were also engaged in animal husbandry, horse breeding, iron mining and processing and other crafts, beekeeping (beekeeping), fishing, hunting, and trade.

In the VI-VII centuries. among the Slavs there was a process of disintegration of clan relations, inequality arose, and the place of the clan community was replaced by a neighboring community. The Slavs retained remnants of the primitive communal system: veche, blood feud, paganism, peasant militia consisting of warriors.

By the time the state was formed among the Eastern Slavs, the clan community was replaced by a territorial, or neighborhood, community. The community members were now united primarily not by kinship, but by a common territory and economic life. Each such community owned a certain territory on which several families lived. There were two forms of property in the community - personal and public. House, personal land - personal, meadows, forests, ponds, fishing grounds - public. Arable land and meadows were to be divided between families.

At the head of the East Slavic tribal unions were princes from the tribal nobility and the former clan elite. The most important issues of life were decided at public meetings - veche gatherings. There was a militia (“regiment”, “thousand”, divided into “hundreds”). A special military organization was the squad, which appeared, according to archaeological data, in the 6th–7th centuries.

Trade routes passed mainly along rivers. In the VIII–IX centuries. the famous trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” was born, connecting Northern and Southern Europe. It arose in the 9th century. From the Baltic Sea along the Neva River, merchant caravans reached Lake Ladoga (Nevo), from there along the Volkhov River to Lake Ilmen and further along the Lovat River to the upper reaches of the Dnieper. From Lovat to the Dnieper in the area of ​​Smolensk and on the Dnieper rapids they crossed by “portage routes”. The western shore of the Black Sea reached Constantinople (Constantinople). The most developed lands of the Slavic world – Novgorod and Kyiv – controlled the northern and southern sections of the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks.”

The Eastern Slavs were pagans. At an early stage of their development, they believed in evil and good spirits. Gradually, a pantheon of Slavic gods emerged, each of which personified various forces of nature or reflected the social and public relations of that time. At the head of the pantheon of Slavic gods was the great Svarog - the god of the Universe, reminiscent of the ancient Greek Zeus. The Slavs revered the sun god Dazhdbog, the god and goddesses of fertility Rod and women in labor, and the patron god of cattle breeding, the god Veles. In the VIII–IX centuries. Iranian and Finno-Ugric gods “migrated” to the Slavic pantheon: Horse, Simargl, Makosh. As the communal system decomposes, the god of lightning and thunder, Perun, comes to the fore among the Eastern Slavs. The pagan Slavs erected idols in honor of their gods. The priests, the Magi, served the gods.
^ Sample assignments

A1. In the pre-state period, the Eastern Slavs developed two centers in

1) Novgorod and the Dnieper region

2) Volga region and Baltic states

3) Baltics and Black Sea region

4) Volga region and Don
Answer: 1.
A2. Neighbors of the Eastern Slavs

1) Germans

3) Romans

4) Khazars
Answer: 4.
A3. The transition from a tribal community to a neighboring one among the Eastern Slavs occurred as a result

1) formation of tribal unions

2) development of arable farming

3) the emergence of feudal estates

4) the need to defend against nomads

Answer: 2.
A4. The Slavs called the activity of breeding bees and producing honey

1) beekeeping

2) architecture

3) cooperage

4) pottery
Answer: 1.

A5. Read an excerpt from the work of a Byzantine historian and indicate what this evidence indicates.

“They believe that only God, the creator of lightning, is the ruler over all, and they sacrifice bulls to him and perform other sacred rites. They worship rivers and nymphs and all sorts of other deities, make sacrifices to all of them and, with the help of these sacrifices, perform fortune-telling.”

1) Christianity became established among the Eastern Slavs

2) among the Eastern Slavs the main occupations were fishing and navigation

3) pagan beliefs were widespread among the Eastern Slavs

4) the Eastern Slavs had no contacts with other countries
Answer: 3.

IN 1. Establish the correct correspondence between concept and definition.

Answer: 3512.
Place in the correct sequence from north to south the rivers and lakes that were part of the trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks.”
A) Lake Ladoga

B) Lovat

D) Ilmen

Answer: AGVB.
^ Topic 2. Old Russian state (9th – first half of the 12th century)
The emergence of statehood among the Eastern Slavs. In the IX - first half of the XII century. The process of formation of the early feudal state among the Slavs is taking place.

The history of the Old Russian state (Kievan Rus) can be conditionally divided into three large periods:

1) IX – mid-X century. - the time of the first Kyiv princes;

2) second half of the X - first half of the XI century. – the time of the principality of Vladimir I the Saint and Yaroslav the Wise, the era of the heyday of the Kyiv state;

3) second half of the 11th – second half of the 12th century. – transition to territorial and political fragmentation, or to appanage orders.

Norman theory. One of the sources of knowledge about the origin of the Old Russian state is the “Tale of Bygone Years,” created by the monk Nestor at the beginning of the 12th century. According to its legend, in 862 the Varangian prince Rurik was invited to rule in Rus'. Many historians believe that the Varangians were Norman (Scandinavian) warriors who were hired into service and swore an oath of allegiance to the ruler. A number of historians, on the contrary, consider the Varangians to be a Russian tribe that lived on the southern shore of the Baltic Sea and the island of Rügen.

According to this legend, on the eve of the formation of Kievan Rus, the northern tribes of the Slavs and their neighbors (Ilmen Slovenes, Chud, Vse) paid tribute to the Varangians, and the southern tribes (Polyans and their neighbors) were dependent on the Khazars. In 859, the Novgorodians “expelled the Varangians overseas,” which led to civil strife. Under these conditions, the Novgorodians who gathered for the council sent for the Varangian princes: “Our land is great and abundant, but there is no order (order) in it. Come to us and rule over us." Power over Novgorod and the surrounding Slavic lands passed into the hands of the Varangian princes, the eldest of whom Rurik, as the chronicler believed, laid the foundation of the Rurik dynasty.

In 882, another Varangian prince Oleg (there is information that he was a relative of Rurik) captured Kyiv and united the territory of the Eastern Slavs, creating the state of Kievan Rus. This is how the state of Rus' (also called Kievan Rus by historians) came to be, according to the chronicler. Thus, the cities of Kyiv and Novgorod the Great became the centers of unification of the Slavic tribes into a single state.

The legendary chronicle story about the calling of the Varangians served as the basis for the appearance in the 18th century. the so-called Norman theory of the emergence of the Old Russian state. Its authors were German scientists Miller and Bayer. M.V. Lomonosov opposed this theory. The dispute over the origin of the Russian state between historians continues to this day.

Rus' under the first princes. In 907 and 911 Oleg made campaigns against Byzantium and concluded profitable trade agreements with it. According to the agreements, Russian merchants had the right to live at the expense of the Greeks in Constantinople, but were obliged to walk around the city without weapons. At the same time, merchants had to have written documents with them and warn the Byzantine emperor about their arrival in advance. Oleg's agreement with the Greeks provided the possibility of exporting the tribute collected in Rus' and selling it in the markets of Byzantium.

Under Oleg, the Drevlyans, northerners, and Radimichi were included in his state and began to pay tribute to Kyiv. However, the process of incorporating various tribal unions into Kievan Rus was not a one-time event.

Under Rurik's son, Prince Igor (912–945), Rus' expanded even more, but in 945, during the collection of tribute - Polyudye - Igor was killed by the Drevlyans. Power passed to his wife Olga. She brutally took revenge for the death of her husband. But she also went for a kind of reform, establishing the order and size of the polyudye. “Lessons” were introduced, that is, clearly established amounts of tribute, and the places where the tribute was taken were established - “cemeteries”. The consequences of this simple measure were significant: under Olga, an orderly and organized taxation system began to take shape, without which the state could not function. "Pogosts" then became strongholds of princely power.

During the reign of Igor and Olga, the lands of the Tivertsy, Ulichs and finally the Drevlyans were annexed to Kyiv. Olga was the first of the Russian rulers to be baptized.

The son of Igor and Olga, Svyatoslav (964–972), during numerous campaigns, annexed the lands of the Vyatichi along the Oka River, defeated the Volga Bulgars and Khazaria. He tried to bring the borders of Rus' closer to Byzantium and went on a campaign to the Balkan Peninsula. However, the fight with Byzantium ended unsuccessfully. On the way to Kyiv in 972, Svyatoslav was ambushed and killed by the Pechenegs.

After the struggle for power, Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich ascended to the Kiev throne, who later received the nickname Saint. During his reign (980–1015), a defensive system was created for the southeastern borders of Rus' from the Pechenegs (zaseks and watchtowers), and in 988 Rus' was baptized according to the Byzantine model. The spread of Christianity often met resistance from the population, who revered their pagan gods. Christianity took hold slowly. On the outlying lands of Kievan Rus it was established much later than in Kyiv and Novgorod. The adoption of Christianity was of great importance for the further development of Rus':

1) Christianity affirmed the idea of ​​equality of people before God, which helped soften the cruel morals of the former pagans;

2) the adoption of Christianity strengthened state power and territorial unity of Kievan Rus;

4) the adoption of Christianity played a big role in the development of Russian culture, serving as a bridge for the penetration of Byzantine, and through it, ancient culture into Rus'.

A metropolitan appointed by the Patriarch of Constantinople was installed at the head of the Russian Orthodox Church; The church in certain regions was headed by bishops, to whom priests in cities and villages were subordinate.

In general, the policy of Vladimir the Saint contributed to the development of statehood and culture of Rus', and the growth of its international authority.

After the death of Vladimir I, one of his sons, Yaroslav, who later received the nickname the Wise (1019–1054), defeated Svyatopolk the Accursed in the civil strife, who killed the brothers Boris and Gleb. Under the leadership of Yaroslav, the Pechenegs were finally defeated, St. Sophia Cathedral was erected in Kyiv, schools and a library were opened. At this time, the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery arose, chronicle writing and the compilation of the first written code of laws “Russian Truth” began. Dynastic marriages strengthened ties with European countries. The growth of power and authority of Rus' allowed Yaroslav for the first time to appoint a statesman and writer Hilarion, Russian by origin, as Metropolitan of Kyiv.

With the death of the last of the sons of Yaroslav the Wise, strife began again. The most popular in Rus' at that time was Yaroslav’s grandson Vladimir Monomakh (1113–1125), who in 1097 took the initiative to convene a congress of princes in the city of Lyubech. It was decided to stop the strife and the principle “let everyone keep his fatherland” was proclaimed. However, strife continued after the Lyubech Congress. In 1113, Vladimir Monomakh was invited to the Kiev throne, temporarily restored the weakened power of the Grand Duke, and pacified the Polovtsians. Vladimir II was an enlightened ruler, the author of Instructions for Children. In 1132, under the sons and grandsons of Vladimir Monomakh, Rus' finally broke up into separate principalities.

A common form of land ownership became patrimony, that is, paternal ownership, passed from father to son by inheritance. The owner of the estate was a prince or boyar. The entire free population of Kievan Rus was called “people”. The bulk of the rural population were called smerds. “Russian Truth” reflected the beginning of the process of enslavement of the peasants. The code of laws talks about “purchases” and “rank and file”. The impoverished peasants borrowed “kupa” from the master - grain, livestock, money. The purchase was supposed to work off the debt to its creditor, but was often unable to do this and became dependent forever. In other cases, peasants (ryadovichi) entered into an agreement - a “row” - according to which the prince or boyar undertook to protect them and help if necessary, and the peasants - to work. There were also serfs - a category of dependent population, close in position to slaves.

Culture of Ancient Rus'. Writing and enlightenment. Writing and the alphabet were known in Rus' even before the adoption of monotheism, and Christianization contributed to the further development of literacy and the spread of writing. This fact is confirmed by a large number of finds of birch bark letters with texts in various cities of Rus', especially in Novgorod the Great.

Literature. The chronicle genre is widespread in literature. The most famous is “The Tale of Bygone Years,” written by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor at the beginning of the 12th century. Metropolitan Hilarion in the middle of the 11th century. a work of a religious and journalistic nature, “The Word on Law and Grace,” was created. During the campaigns, epics were formed - solemn epic works telling about the fight against the steppe inhabitants, the courage and resourcefulness of merchants, and the courage of heroes.

Architecture. The church architecture showed a strong Byzantine influence. Ancient Rus' adopted the Byzantine type of cross-domed church. Such buildings include the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv. Soon after the construction of the Kyiv Cathedral, the St. Sophia Cathedral appeared in Novgorod the Great, the architecture of which already exhibits original features.

Painting. Painting also developed under significant Byzantine influence. The techniques of mosaic, fresco and icon painting came to Rus' from its powerful southern neighbor.

Applied arts. Jewelry art, using the techniques of granulation, filigree and enamel, reached a significant flourishing in Ancient Rus'. The grains were intricate patterns created from thousands of tiny soldered gold or silver balls. The filigree technique required the master to create patterns from thin gold or silver wire. Sometimes the spaces between these wire partitions were filled with multi-colored enamel - an opaque glassy mass.
^ Sample assignments
When completing tasks in Part 1 (A), in answer form No. 1, under the number of the task you are performing, put an “x” in the box whose number corresponds to the number of the answer you have chosen.

A1. The activities of Metropolitan Hilarion, Prince Yaroslav the Wise are connected with

Answer: 3.
A2. The main trading partner of the Old Russian state was

1) Byzantium

3) Tmutarakan

4) Scythia
Answer: 1.
A3. A pictorial work of art of small forms is called

2) screensaver

3) filigree

4) miniature
Answer: 4.

A4. The congress of princes in Lyubech in 1097 was convened with the purpose

1) organize a campaign against the Polovtsians

2) stop internecine wars

3) agree on the size of the tribute

4) accept the new Code of Laws
Answer: 2.
A5. The establishment of polyudye testified to

1) the beginning of the political fragmentation of Rus'

2) the existence of the custom of blood feud among the Slavs

3) the emergence of tribal unions of the Eastern Slavs

4) the emergence of the early feudal state of the Eastern Slavs
Answer: 4.
A6. Read an excerpt from the document and indicate during which event the treaty contained in the document was adopted.

“Why are we destroying the Russian land, creating enmity against ourselves... From now on, let us unite into one heart and protect the Russian lands. Let everyone keep his homeland... and on this they kissed the cross.”

1) concluding an alliance against Batu Khan

2) congress of princes in Lyubech

3) adoption of Christianity

4) adoption of “Russian Truth”

Answer: 2.
A7. Of the listed features characterize the Old Russian state

A) the process of turning vigilantes into landowners

B) gradual development of written legislation

C) the existence of the Zemsky Sobor

D) growth of cities, development of crafts and trade

D) vassalage of the Pechenegs

E) the increasing decline of culture
Please indicate the correct answer.
1) ABG

Answer: 1.
A8. Which of the following concepts denoted the categories of the dependent population of Ancient Rus'?

A) Cossacks

B) procurement

B) stinkers

D) slaves

Answer: 3.
The tasks of Part 2 (B) require an answer in the form of one or two words, a sequence of letters or numbers, which should first be written down in the text of the examination paper, and then transferred to answer form No. 1 without spaces or punctuation marks. Write each letter or number in a separate box in accordance with the samples given in the form.

IN 1. Establish a correspondence between the names of the princes and the events associated with their activities.

For each position in the first column, select the corresponding position in the second and write down the selected numbers in the table under the corresponding letters.


Transfer the resulting sequence of numbers to answer form No. 1 (without spaces or any symbols).
Answer: 1453.
AT 2. Place the events in chronological order.

Write down the letters that represent the events in the correct sequence in the table.

A) the unification of Kyiv and Novgorod under the rule of Oleg

B) the establishment of “lessons” and “cemeteries” by Princess Olga

B) the defeat of the Khazar Kaganate by Prince Svyatoslav

D) the murder of Prince Igor by the Drevlyans

Transfer the resulting sequence of letters to answer form No. 1 (without spaces or any symbols).
Answer: AGGB.
AT 3. Which three events, listed below, characterized the reign of the Grand Duke of Kyiv Vladimir Svyatoslavich?

1) defeat of the Khazar Kaganate

2) creation of a serif line on the southern borders of Rus'

3) the formation of a military-political union between Rus' and Byzantium

4) organization of the congress of princes in Lyubech

5) adoption of Christianity

6) defeat of the Pechenegs

Transfer the resulting sequence of numbers to answer form No. 1 (without spaces or any symbols).
Answer: 256.
To answer the tasks of Part 3 (C), use answer form No. 2. First write down the task number (C1, etc.), and then the detailed answer to it.

Tasks C4-C7 involve different types of activities: presentation of a generalized description of historical events and phenomena (C4), consideration of historical versions and assessments (C5), analysis of the historical situation (C6), comparison (C7). As you complete these tasks, pay attention to the wording of each question.

C5. Historians who put forward and supported the “Norman theory” of the origin of the Old Russian state believed that statehood was brought to Rus' from the outside, by the Varangians.

What other points of view on the issue of the origin of the Russian state do you know? Which point of view do you find more convincing? Name facts and provisions that can serve as arguments confirming your chosen point of view.
Answer: