The language of logic. Natural and artificial languages. For or against artificial languages

The language was created by Canadian Sonia Lang and claims to be the simplest artificial language. There are only about 120 roots in his vocabulary.

Constructed languages are languages ​​in which vocabulary, phonetics and grammar have been developed for specific purposes. These are not real languages ​​invented by one person. Today there are already more than a thousand of them, and new ones are constantly being created. The reasons for creating an artificial language are: facilitating human communication, giving realism fiction and fictional worlds in cinema, linguistic experiments, language games, the development of the Internet and the creation of languages ​​understandable to all peoples of the planet.

1. Grammelot. A style of language used in the theater of humor and satire. This is a kind of gibberish with onomatopoeic elements along with pantomime and mimicry. The grammelot was popularized by the Italian playwright Dario Fo.
2. Esperanto. The most widespread artificial language in the world. Today it is spoken fluently by more than 100,000 people. It was invented by Czech ophthalmologist Lazar Zamenhof in 1887. Esperanto has a simple grammar. Its alphabet has 28 letters and is based on Latin. Most of vocabulary taken from Romance and Germanic languages. There are also many international words in Esperanto that are understandable without translation. 250 newspapers and magazines are published in Esperanto, 4 radio stations broadcast, and there are articles on Wikipedia.
3. Vendergood. It was developed by teenage prodigy William James Sidis based on Romance languages. Sidis knew about 40 languages ​​and translated fluently from one to another. Sidis created Vendergood in a book entitled The Book of Vendergood, which he wrote at the age of 8. The language is built on Latin and Greek vocabulary and grammar, and also contains elements of German, French and other Romance languages.
4. Aui. Created by John Weilgart. It is based on the philosophical concept of the formation of all concepts from a small number of elementary concepts, and the elementary concept of language. Its very name translates as “language of space.” Each sound in aui is associated with the concept it denotes. All vocabulary is built by combining basic concepts.
5. Nadsat. The fictional language spoken by teenagers in Anthony Burgess's novel A Clockwork Orange" In Nadsat, part of the vocabulary is English, part is fictitious, created by the author based on the Russian language. Most often, Russian equivalents are written in Latin and have some distortion. The grammar system is based on English language. In addition, there is slang from French and German, Malay and Gypsy, Cockney, and words invented by Burgess himself.
6. Leetspeak. Used in online games, chats, SMS and other electronic communication channels. The language was created as a cipher that could be read by users who knew the key to it. In the litspeak, numbers and symbols replace letters. They also make intentional mistakes, there are phonetic variations of words and neologisms.
7. Talossan. An artificial language created in 1980 by the 14-year-old founder of the virtual microstate of Talossa, Robert Ben-Madison. Talossan is built on the basis of Romance languages.
8. Klingon. Linguist Marc Okrand invented Klingon at the request of Paramount Pictures for the series and then the films of the Star Trek cinematic universe. It is spoken by aliens. In addition to them, the language was adopted by numerous fans of the series. Currently, in the United States there is a Klingon Language Institute, which publishes periodicals and translations of literary classics in Klingon.
9. Tokipona. The language was created by Canadian Sonia Lang and claims to be the simplest artificial language. There are only about 120 roots in his vocabulary. The names of animals and plants are missing. But in the unofficial dictionary there are designations for countries, nations, languages ​​that are written with a capital letter. Everything in Toki Pona is simplified: vocabulary, phonology, grammar and syntax.
10. Na'vi. This fictional language was developed by linguist Paul Frommer for the James Cameron Productions for the film Avatar. According to the scenario, native speakers of the Na’vi language are the inhabitants of the planet Pandora. Today there are more than 1000 words in his dictionary. Work on the Na'vi language continues. By the way, in its grammatical and lexical structure, Na’vi is reminiscent of Papuan and Australian languages.

Constructed language- a sign system created specifically for use in areas where the use of natural language is less effective or impossible. Constructed languages ​​vary in their specialization and purpose, as well as in the degree of similarity to natural languages.

The following types of artificial languages ​​are distinguished:

Programming languages ​​and computer languages ​​are languages ​​for automatic information processing using a computer.

Information languages ​​are languages ​​used in various information processing systems.

Formalized languages ​​of science - languages ​​intended for symbolic recording scientific facts and theories of mathematics, logic, chemistry and other sciences.

Languages ​​of non-existent peoples created for fictional or entertainment purposes. The most famous are: the Elvish language, invented by J. Tolkien, and the Klingon language, invented by Marc Okrand for the science fiction series "Star Trek" (see Fictional languages).

International auxiliary languages ​​are languages ​​created from elements of natural languages ​​and offered as aid interethnic communication.

According to the purpose of creation, artificial languages ​​can be divided into the following groups :

Philosophical and logical languages ​​are languages ​​that have a clear logical structure of word formation and syntax: Lojban, Tokipona, Ifkuil, Ilaksh.

Auxiliary languages ​​- intended for practical communication: Esperanto, Interlingua, Slovio, Slovyanski.

artificial language natural specialization

Artistic or aesthetic languages ​​- created for creative and aesthetic pleasure: Quenya.

Language is also created to set up an experiment, for example, to test the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (that the language a person speaks limits consciousness, drives it into a certain framework).

According to their structure, artificial language projects can be divided into the following groups:

A priori languages ​​- based on logical or empirical classifications of concepts: loglan, lojban, rho, solresol, ifkuil, ilaksh.

A posteriori languages ​​- languages ​​built primarily on the basis of international vocabulary: Interlingua, Occidental

Mixed languages ​​- words and word formation are partly borrowed from non-artificial languages, partly created on the basis of artificially invented words and word-formation elements: Volapuk, Ido, Esperanto, Neo.

The most famous artificial languages ​​are :

basic english

interlingua

Latin-blue-flexione

occidental

Simlian language

solresol

Esperanto

The most famous artificial language was Esperanto (L. Zamenhof, 1887) - the only artificial language that became widespread and united quite a lot of supporters. international language. Esperanto is based on international words borrowed from Latin and Greek language, and 16 grammatical rules that have no exceptions. This language has no grammatical gender, it has only two cases - nominative and accusative, and the meanings of the rest are conveyed using prepositions. The alphabet is based on Latin. All this makes Esperanto so in simple language that an unprepared person can learn to speak it quite fluently in a few months of regular practice. In order to learn any of the natural languages ​​at the same level, it takes at least several years. Currently, Esperanto is actively used, according to different estimates, from several tens of thousands to several million people. It is believed that for ~ 500-1000 people given language- native, that is, studied from the moment of birth. Esperanto has descendant languages ​​that do not have a number of shortcomings that exist in Esperanto. The most famous among these languages ​​are Esperantido and Novial. However, none of them will become as widespread as Esperanto.

For or against artificial languages?

Learning an artificial language has one big drawback - it is practically impossible to use it in life. This is true. In a note entitled "Artificial Languages", published in the Bolshoi Soviet Encyclopedia it is stated that: “The idea of ​​an artificial language common to all humanity is in itself utopian and unrealizable. Artificial languages ​​are only imperfect surrogates of living languages; their projects are cosmopolitan in nature and therefore flawed in principle.” This was written in the early 50s. But even in the mid-60s, the same skepticism was characteristic of some scientists.

Author of the book "Principles of Language Modeling" P.N. Denisov expressed his disbelief in the possibility of implementing the idea of ​​a universal language as follows: “As for the possibility of decreeing the transition of humanity to a single language created at least like the Esperanto language, such a possibility is a utopia. The extreme conservatism of the language, the impossibility of leaps and sudden shocks, the inextricable connection of language with thinking and society and many other purely linguistic circumstances do not allow this kind of reform to be carried out without disorganizing society."

Author of the book "Sounds and Signs" A.M. Kondratov believes that all existing native languages ​​can never be replaced by “any artificially invented “universal” language.” He still admits the idea of ​​an auxiliary language: “We can only talk about an intermediary language, which is used only when talking with foreigners - and that’s all.”

Such statements apparently stem from the fact that not one of the individual projects of a universal, or world international, language has become a living language. But what turned out to be impossible in some historical conditions for individual idealists and groups of the same idealists cut off from the proletariat, from the popular masses, may turn out to be quite possible in other historical conditions for scientific groups and the masses who have mastered the scientific theory of language creation - with support of revolutionary parties and governments. The ability of a person to be multilingual - this phenomenon of linguistic compatibility - and the absolute primacy of the synchrony of language (for the consciousness of those who use it), which determines the absence of influence of the origin of the language on its functioning, opens up for all peoples and nationalities of the Earth the path on which the problem of their problems can and should be solved. linguistic community. This will provide a real opportunity for the most perfect project of the language of the new humanity and its new civilization turn on all continents and islands globe live, controlled developing language. And there is no doubt that it will not only be alive, but also the most tenacious of languages. The needs that brought them to life are diverse. It is also important that these languages ​​overcome the polysemy of terms that is characteristic of natural languages ​​and unacceptable in science. Artificial languages ​​make it possible to express certain concepts in an extremely concise form and perform the functions of a kind of scientific shorthand, economical presentation and expression of voluminous mental material. Finally, artificial languages ​​are one of the means of internationalization of science, since artificial languages ​​are united and international.

The use of one of the national languages ​​as an intermediary language always gave an advantage to the nation for which it was native. This circumstance gave rise to numerous attempts to create an international artificial language, which, on the one hand, would be “nobody’s” and, therefore, would not give advantages to any nation, and on the other hand, would belong to all of humanity.

The first attempt to create an artificial language known to us was made in the 2nd century AD. Greek physician Galen. In total, over the history of mankind, about a thousand international artificial language projects have been created. However, very few of them have received any practical application.

The first artificial language that truly became a means of communication between people was created in 1879 in Germany by J.M. Schleyer, Volapuk. Due to the extreme complexity and detail of its grammar, Vopalyuk was not widely used in the world and by about the middle of the 20th century it completely fell out of use.

A much happier fate awaited L.L., invented in 1887. Zamenhof language Esperanto. Creating his own language, L.L. Zamenhof sought to make it as simple and easy to learn as possible. He succeeded. Esperanto spelling is based on the principle of “one sound - one letter”. Nominal inflection is limited to four, and verbal inflection to seven forms. The declension of names and the conjugation of verbs are unified, in contrast to natural national languages, where, as a rule, we encounter several types of declension and conjugation. Mastering the Esperanto language usually takes no more than a few months.

There is a rich original and translated fiction in Esperanto, numerous newspapers and magazines are published (about 40 periodicals), radio broadcasting in some countries. Esperanto, along with French, is official language International Postal Association.

Among the artificial languages ​​that have received some practical use are also Interlingua (1903), Occidental (1922), Ido (1907), Novial (1928), Omo (1926) and some others. However, they have not received wide distribution. Of all the currently existing artificial languages, only Esperanto has a real chance of becoming over time the main means of international communication.

All artificial languages ​​are divided into a posteriori and a priori. A posteriori are such artificial languages ​​that are composed “on the model and from the material of natural languages.” Examples of a posteriori languages ​​include Esperanto, Latin-sine-flexione, Novial, and Neutral idiom. A priori are those artificial languages ​​whose vocabulary and grammar are in no way related to the vocabulary and grammar of natural languages, but are built on the basis of principles developed by the creator of the language. Examples of a posteriori languages ​​are solresol and rho.

Along with attempts to create an international artificial language, attempts have been made more than once to create international system writing, with the help of which it was possible to create texts readable in any language. Such writing systems are called pasigraphy.

As an example of pasigraphy, we can cite the picto letter created by the Dutchman K. Jansen. Here are some signs of this letter: ⌂ “house”, Λ “go”, ∞ “talk”, “love”, I “I, me, me”, II “you, you, you”, III “he, him, his ”, .□ “in front, in front”, □. “behind”, |- verb “to be” in the present tense, .|- verb “to be” in the past tense, |-. verb “to be” in the future tense, |+ verb “to have” in personal form, Ō “city”.

In addition to this kind of simple drawing systems, numerous digital pasigraphy systems were also created, in which each word was encoded with a certain set of numbers. Neither pictorial nor digital pasigraphy became widespread, remaining only a curious experiment in the history of linguistics.

A.Yu. Garbage. Fundamentals of the science of language - Novosibirsk, 2004.

“Artificial language – 1. Any auxiliary language in contrast to natural, or language proper. 2. Sign system, intended for use in those areas of communication where the functioning of natural living language is less effective or impossible” [Nelyubin 2001, p. 60].

“Natural language – 1. Language in the proper sense, human language as a natural instrument of thought and a means of communication, in contrast to its artificially created substitutes. 2. Human language that emerged naturally and used in social practice" [Nelyubin 2001, p. 45]. “A substitute is the same as a deputy” [Nelyubin 2001, p. 182].

The first attempts to invent artificial languages ​​were made in the second half of the 17th century. The main directions in the creation of artificial languages ​​in the 17th-19th centuries were logical and empirical.

The logical direction was based on rationalist philosophy, which criticized natural language for its inconsistency. According to the English philosophers J. Dalgarno and J. Wilkins (Wilkins - 1614-1672), there is a direct correspondence between a concept and a word, so it is possible to create a language in which concepts and the words they denote are built logically. According to Wilkins' theory, division into parts of speech is not necessary for language. Wilkins proposed words as names, and verbs (i.e. words denoting properties and actions) could be formed from names using regular derivational devices.

The empirical direction was oriented towards natural language. Representatives of this direction proposed to improve any existing natural language. Thus, F. Labbe proposed Latin as a basis, I. Schipfer - French, Yuri Kryzhanich (1617-1674) - Pan-Slavic language.

But the languages ​​being created were looked at as curiosities, they were not seen as practical application. The most practical was the language created by the priest (German pastor) Johann Schleyer in 1879 and called "volapuk" - volapuk - a distorted form English words. The language was a means of communication for several dozen people. The language did not last long. According to researchers, the reasons for the fall of the language were the closed system of the language, the position of Schleyer himself, who did not allow anything to be changed in the language, and discord between distributors.

One of the most famous artificial languages ​​is Esperanto (Esperanto means “hoping”), created in 1887 by the Warsaw doctor Ludwig Zamenhof. To create the language, L. Zamenhof used Polish, Greek, Latin, and Hebrew. The Esperanto language has no national identity. Seven million people use this language for practical purposes. More than 100 magazines, about 7 thousand books, and textbooks are published in Esperanto.

The Esperanto language uses elements of English and German languages. Elements Latin language, Slavic languages occupy an insignificant place in the structure.

L. Zamenhof considered his goal to be the creation of an international easy language communication. Esperanto is characterized by the absence of homonymy, unity of writing and pronunciation, phonetic writing, and unity of roots regardless of position. Since the first syllable is always stressed, and words are mostly two-syllable, speech is monotonous. There are affixes in the language, but their number is small, so the language has little emotionality, it is not expressive, and the semantics of the phrase is conveyed approximately.

Despite negative qualities, the language has existed for more than a hundred years, published a large number of literature on it, circles and societies of Esperantists have been created in many countries, congresses of Esperantists are held, but it never became international. Esperanto is not a living language, it is monotonous, it is not expressive, it is not able to reflect all the situations in which a person finds himself.

In 1907, Louis de Beaufront created the IDO language, based on Esperanto, which is more logical and consistent. But this language did not become international either.

In the early 60s of the 20th century, the language LINCOS (“linguistics of space”) was created. The creator of the language is considered to be the Dutch mathematician G. Freudenthal, who received a prize for the monograph “LINKOS. Building a language for space communications" Nobel Prize. G. Freudenthal, using light and sound signals in a certain sequence, tries to outline the laws of mathematics, biology, physics, morality, and ethics. Linkos is the first attempt to create a space language for the exchange of information in extraterrestrial communication.

The phenomenon of an artificial language is a subject of debate among linguists, sociolinguists, sociologists, ethnographers and many representatives of other branches of knowledge related to language.

So, M.I. Isaev opposes the term “artificial language”. In one of his works he writes: “Artificial language” is a wrong term, or rather: Planned language.” M.I. Isaev writes: “Planned language (“artificial language”) - created for communication in international arena. The term “planned language” was proposed by E. Wüster (1955). As for the name “artificial language”, it is not acceptable, because suggests a contrast to “natural language,” which in fact occurs quite often. At the same time, the last term (“natural language”) is inadequate, because language is a social phenomenon, not a biological one.” It is not difficult to notice the desire of M.I. Isaev emphasize social character language as a means of communication. But the situation with international languages, which has developed over centuries, indicates that there is still no “planned language” in the understanding of M.I. Isaeva: languages ​​designed to communicate in the international arena are not created, as the author points out, but are selected from existing national languages.

The problem of artificial language still exists today; it is becoming increasingly relevant with the expansion of the Internet’s influence zones.

1. Types of dictionaries. The role of the dictionary in the work of a translator.

2. The problem of the origin of language. Hypotheses. Stages of development. The role of dialects in the formation of language.

Existing types dictionaries are very diverse. This diversity is explained, first of all, by the complexity and multifaceted nature of the object of lexicographic description itself, i.e. language. In addition, the numerous needs of society to obtain a wide variety of information about the language also complicate and expand the repertoire of dictionaries.

Exist:

· transferable

· sensible

The most important type of monolingual linguistic dictionary is an explanatory dictionary containing words with an explanation of their meanings, grammatical and stylistic characteristics. The first proper explanatory dictionary was the six-volume Dictionary of the Russian Academy, published in 1789-1794. and containing 43,257 words taken from modern secular and spiritual books.

The most important role in the history of lexicography Soviet era played the four-volume "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" edited by D. N. Ushakov, published in 1934-1940. In the dictionary, which contains 85,289 words, many issues of normalization of the Russian language, ordering of word usage, formation, and pronunciation have been resolved. The dictionary is built on vocabulary works of art, journalism, scientific literature.

· dialect and regional dictionaries

The first dialect (regional) dictionaries of the Russian language began to be published in the middle of the 19th century. These were the “Experience of the Regional Great Russian Dictionary”, containing 18,011 words (1852) and the “Addition to the Experience of the Regional Great Russian Dictionary”, containing 22,895 words (1858). IN late XIX- early 20th century A number of dictionaries of individual dialects and dialects were published. IN Soviet time"Don Dictionary" by A. V. Mirtov (1929), "A Brief Yaroslavl Regional Dictionary..." by G. G. Melnichenko (1961), "Pskov Regional Dictionary with Historical Data" (1967), etc. were published. Currently in progress a lot of work was done to compile the multi-volume “Dictionary of Russian Folk Dialects”, which includes about 150 thousand folk words unknown in

modern literary language (from 1965 to 1987, 23 issues were published - until Oset)

· slang dictionaries

· historical

The main historical dictionary of the Russian language was the three-volume “Materials for a dictionary of the Old Russian language based on written monuments” by I. I. Sreznevsky (1890-1912), containing many words and about 120 thousand excerpts from monuments of Russian writing of the 11th-14th centuries. (the last, reprint, edition was published in 1989). The Dictionary of the Russian Language of the 11th-17th centuries is currently being published. In 1988, the 14th issue (before Persona) was released. Since 1984, the “Dictionary of the Russian Language of the 18th Century” began to be published. edited by Yu. S. Sorokin. To date, 5 issues have been prepared (1984, 1985, 1987, 1988 and 1989).

· neologisms

· etymological

In 1961, "Brief" was published etymological dictionary Russian language" by N. M. Shansky, V. V. Ivanov and T. V. Shanskaya, edited by S. G. Barkhudarov, containing an etymological interpretation of common words of the modern Russian literary language (3rd edition, supplemented - in 1975 ).

· catchphrases and many others

In 1890, S. V. Maksimov’s collection “Winged Words” was published. The collection was republished in 1899 and 1955.

In 1955, the collection “Winged Words. Literary Quotations. Figurative Expressions” by N. S. Ashukina and M. G. Ashukina was published (4th edition - in 1988). The book includes a large number of literary quotations and figurative expressions, arranged in alphabetical order.

THE ROLE OF THE DICTIONARY IN THE WORK OF A TRANSLATOR.

No matter how qualified a translator is, he cannot do without dictionaries. A dictionary is necessary for both a student taking his first steps in the field of translation and a professional translator.

Carrying out translation requires the availability of the most different words areas and reference books. Without this, it is difficult to achieve high-quality translations quickly.

Dictionaries are used not only when they do not know the meaning or translation of a foreign language unit, but also for selection best option from a number already known to the translator.

But dictionaries also have disadvantages:

1) Another disadvantage of bilingual dictionaries is that they, as a rule, do not include words that entered the language relatively recently, as well as units widely used in the media, journalism and fiction of our day.

Often the translator needs to reveal certain shades of the meaning of a word, and in this case it is important that these shades are presented in the dictionary. This is why different dictionaries have different value for a translator.

2) It is even more difficult for a translator when translating the contextual meanings of words, the correspondence of which a bilingual dictionary, as a rule, does not provide at all due to their low frequency.

In such cases, an experienced translator can select a contextual correspondence to a foreign language unit, starting from standard values words given in the dictionary, but this is usually extremely difficult.

3) On the other hand, TL words that more or less successfully translate individual meanings foreign words, may have their own additional meanings and shades that the corresponding foreign words do not have. And here there is a risk of transferring these meanings and shades to a foreign word.

Of particular note is the danger of using outdated bilingual dictionaries.

An outdated dictionary is the translator’s enemy!

1) Another advantage of using explanatory dictionaries is their great information content, reliability of information and the availability of encyclopedic information.

2) Advantage encyclopedic dictionaries– their great information content, larger number quotes and illustrations.

Modern encyclopedic dictionaries are published quickly and in an ever-increasing thematic variety, which is exactly what a modern translator needs.

The main goal of encyclopedic dictionaries is to provide comprehensive information about a word, concept, or phenomenon.

3) Variety of dictionaries.

Problems of the origin of language.

1. The concept of the national language. Forms of existence of the national language.

2. Homonymy as a linguistic phenomenon. Types of homonyms

The national language is the entire set of means necessary for communication among representatives of certain nations.

National language – a heterogeneous phenomenon, it exists in different forms. Scientists identify 4 forms (variants) of the existence of the national language, one literary and three non-literary:

1. Literary language

2. Territorial dialects

3. Urban vernacular

4. Jargons

Language - a complex phenomenon that exists in several forms. These include: dialects, vernaculars, jargons and literary language.

Dialects - local dialects of Russia, limited territorially. They exist only in oral speech and are used for everyday communication.

Vernacular – speech of people that does not correspond to the literary norms of the Russian language (ridiculitis, colidor, without a coat, driver).

Jargon - the speech of social and professional groups of people united by common occupations, interests, etc. Jargon is characterized by the presence of specific vocabulary and phraseology. Sometimes the word argo is used as a synonym for the word jargon. Argo - the speech of the lower classes of society, the criminal world, beggars, thieves and swindlers.

Literary language – the highest form of the national language, processed by masters of words. It has two forms - oral and written. Oral speech is subject to orthoepic and intonation forms, it is influenced by the direct presence of the addressee, it is created spontaneously. Written speech it is graphically fixed, subject to spelling and punctuation norms, the absence of the addressee has no effect, it allows processing and editing.

In the lexical system of the Russian language there are words that sound the same, but have completely different meanings. Such words are called lexical homonymes, and the sound and grammatical coincidence of different language units that are not semantically related to each other is called homonymy (gr. homos - identical + onyma - Name).

For example, a key is a “spring” (cold key) and a key is “a metal rod of a special shape for unlocking and locking a lock” (steel key); onion - "plant" ( green onions) and bow - “a weapon for throwing arrows” (a tight bow). Unlike polysemantic words lexical homonyms do not have a subject-semantic connection, that is, they do not have common semantic features by which one could judge the polysemantism of one word.

The following types of homonyms are distinguished:

Full and lexical homonyms . These are words in the form of which different meanings coincided by chance.

Full homonyms - these are words that have different meanings, but have the same sound in all grammatical forms and spelling. H: key (source of water; to answer; device for opening doors).

Partial homonyms - these are words that have different meanings, but coincide in spelling or sound or in one or two grammatical forms. N: bow

Homophones (phonetic homonyms ) - words identical in sound composition (pronunciation), but different in letter composition (spelling): code and cat, mushroom and flu, fort and “Ford”, people and lyut, illuminate and consecrate;

Homographs (graphic, letter homonyms) - words identical in letter composition, but different in pronunciation: soar - soar, horns - horns, shelves - shelves, atlas - atlas;

Homoforms (matching grammatical forms different words or one word): summer time - time to go; hunting (wolves) and hunting (desire); window glass - glass on the floor (noun and verb); frozen meat - chocolate ice cream (adj. and noun); enjoy spring - return in spring (noun and adverb); seal a leak - flow across the floor (noun and verb).

Basic textbooks:

1. Alefirenko N.F. Modern problems of the science of language. - Teacher allowance. – M.: Flinta-Nauka, 2005. – 412 p.

2. Budagov R.A. Introduction to the science of language. M., 1958.

3. Vendina T.I. Introduction to linguistics. M., 2001.

4. Girutsky A.A.. Introduction to linguistics. Minsk, 2000.

5. Grechko V.A.. Theory of linguistics. – M.: graduate School, 2003. – 375 p.

6. Golovin B.N.. Introduction to linguistics. M., 1977.

7. Kodukhov V.I. Introduction to linguistics. M., 1979.

8. Maslov Yu.S.. Introduction to linguistics. M., 1975.

9. Nelyubin L.L. Essays on an introduction to linguistics. - Textbook. – M., 2005. – 215 p.

10. Reformatsky A.A. Introduction to linguistics. M.: Aspect Press, 1999. – 536 p.

11. Rozhdestvensky Yu.V.. Introduction to general philology. M., 1979.

12. Sorokina E.A. Fundamentals of linguistics. M., 2013.

13. Shaikevich A.Ya. Introduction to linguistics. M., 1995.

Additional benefits:

1. Barannikova L.I. Basic information about the language. M., 1982.

2. Baudouin de Courtenay I.A. Selected works on general linguistics. T. 1-2. - M.: Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1963. – 390 p.

3. Ganeev B.T. Language: Tutorial, 2nd ed., revised, additional. – Ufa: BSPU Publishing House, 2001. – 272 p.

4. Genidze N.K. Fundamentals of modern linguistics. Textbook village – St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg State Publishing House. University of Economics and Finance, 2003. – 201 p.

5. Grinev-Grinevich S.V., Sorokina E.A., Skopyuk T.G. Fundamentals of anthropolinguistics. Tutorial. - M.: Publishing Center "Academy", 2008. - 128 p.

6. Budagov R.A. Literary languages and language styles. M., 1967.

7. Ivanova I.N., Shustrova L.V. Fundamentals of linguistics. M., 1995.

8. Kamchatnov A.M., Nikolina N.A. Introduction to linguistics. M., 2000.

9. Krongauz M.A.. Semantics. – M.: Publishing Center “Academy”, 2005. – 352 p.

10. Kondratov A.M. Sounds and signs. M., 1978.

11. Kondratov A.M.. The land of people is the land of languages. M., 1974.

12. Kondratov A.M.. A book about letters. M., 1975.

13. Leontyev A.A. What is language? M., 1976.

14. Lakoff J., Johnson M. Metaphors by which we live. – M.: Editorial URSS, 2004. – 256 p.

15. Mechkovskaya N.B.. Social linguistics: A manual for students of humanities universities and lyceum students. 2nd ed., rev. M.: Aspect-Press, 1996. – 207 p.

16. Norman B.Y. Fundamentals of linguistics. Minsk, 1996.

17. Odintsov V.V.. Linguistic paradoxes. M., 1976.

18. Panov M.V.. But still she is good... M., 1978.

19. Sugar L.V. How our language works. M., 1978.

20. Languages ​​as an image of the world. – M.: LLC “AST Publishing House”; St. Petersburg: Terra Fantastica, 2003. – 568 p.

For or against artificial languages?

Learning an artificial language has one big drawback - it is practically impossible to use it in life. This is true. In a note entitled “Artificial Languages,” published in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, it is stated that: “The idea of ​​an artificial language common to all humanity is in itself utopian and unfeasible. Artificial languages ​​are only imperfect surrogates of living languages; their projects are cosmopolitan in nature and therefore they are vicious in principle." This was written in the early 50s. But even in the mid-60s, the same skepticism was characteristic of some scientists.

Author of the book "Principles of Language Modeling" P.N. Denisov expressed his disbelief in the possibility of implementing the idea of ​​a universal language as follows: “As for the possibility of decreeing the transition of humanity to a single language created at least like the Esperanto language, such a possibility is a utopia. The extreme conservatism of the language, the impossibility of leaps and sudden shocks, the inextricable connection of language with thinking and society and many other purely linguistic circumstances do not allow this kind of reform to be carried out without disorganizing society."

Author of the book "Sounds and Signs" A.M. Kondratov believes that all existing native languages ​​can never be replaced by “any artificially invented “universal” language.” He still admits the idea of ​​an auxiliary language: “We can only talk about an intermediary language, which is used only when talking with foreigners - and that’s all.”

Such statements apparently stem from the fact that not one of the individual projects of a universal, or world international, language has become a living language. But what turned out to be impossible in some historical conditions for individual idealists and groups of the same idealists cut off from the proletariat, from the popular masses, may turn out to be quite possible in other historical conditions for scientific groups and the masses who have mastered the scientific theory of language creation - with support of revolutionary parties and governments. The ability of a person to be multilingual - this phenomenon of linguistic compatibility - and the absolute primacy of the synchrony of language (for the consciousness of those who use it), which determines the absence of influence of the origin of the language on its functioning, opens up for all peoples and nationalities of the Earth the path on which the problem of their problems can and should be solved. linguistic community. This will give a real opportunity for the most perfect project of the language of the new humanity and its new civilization to turn into a living, controlled developing language on all continents and islands of the globe. And there is no doubt that it will not only be alive, but also the most tenacious of languages. The needs that brought them to life are diverse. It is also important that these languages ​​overcome the polysemy of terms that is characteristic of natural languages ​​and unacceptable in science. Artificial languages ​​make it possible to express certain concepts in an extremely concise form and perform the functions of a kind of scientific shorthand, economical presentation and expression of voluminous mental material. Finally, artificial languages ​​are one of the means of internationalization of science, since artificial languages ​​are united and international.