Plants begin to absorb less moisture, and the remaining water in the ground hardly evaporates due to lower temperatures. Spores of microorganisms floating in the air enter a favorable environment for them and begin to multiply intensively, forming a dangerous coating on the ground.

The main reasons leading to the appearance of colonies of fungi:

• Irregular watering.
• Watering with cold water from the tap.
• High humidity in the room.
• Stagnation of water in a flower pot due to poor drainage.
• Poor quality soil.

Mold Prevention

Every housewife wants her home garden to be not only beautiful, but also safe. If suddenly an uninvited guest appeared in your house - mold in a flower pot: how to get rid of it and prevent its reappearance?

On the production of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water and the course of reactions in plants

Karpunin Ivan Ivanovich

Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professor, Professor of the Department of the Belarusian National Technical University, Academician of MIA and MAIT.

The most likely final reaction for the formation of hexoses from carbon dioxide and water, apparently, is 6CO 2 + 6H 2 O \u003d C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2, pentose -10CO 2 + 10H 2 O \u003d 2C 5 H 10 O 4 + 11O 2 .

The influence of light sources on the course of physiological processes in vivo and on the biosynthesis of various substances in plants is described in the literature.

Carbohydrate composition and quantitative content of carbohydrates were determined using paper chromatography.

The analysis consisted of two parts: a) separation of monosaccharides using chromatography on paper; b) quantitative determination of separated monosaccharides.

It is known from literary sources that as a result of the assimilation of carbon dioxide by plants, d-glucose is formed, and formaldehyde is an intermediate product of this reaction: CO 2 + H 2 O \u003d CH 2 O + O 2, 6CH 2 O \u003d C 6 H 12 O 6 (glucose). The formation of formaldehyde as an intermediate product of photosynthesis is evidenced by experiments on the assimilation of carbon dioxide by purple bacteria containing a green pigment that resembled chlorophyll. As a result, the conversion of carbon dioxide was presented as an equation: CO 2 + 2H 2 A \u003d h (CH 2 O) + H 2 O + 2A, where H 2 A is a substance that supplies hydrogen for the CO 2 reduction reaction.

Moreover, if the substance supplying hydrogen is water, then oxygen is released. However, according to other researchers who used a radioactive isotope of carbon (C 11) to study the process of assimilation of CO 2, the first stage is the addition of carbon dioxide to aldehydes or alcohols. This reaction leads to the formation of hydroxy acids or ketone acids and proceeds without the influence of light (refers to reactions in the dark).

The second stage is the reduction of the ketone or carboxyl group. As a result, the first turns into a secondary alcohol group, and the second into an aldehyde group. In this reaction, where hydrogen gives up water, oxygen is released. This second reaction requires the influence of light to proceed.

Therefore, formaldehyde may not be an intermediate product in the synthesis of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water and, in particular, d-glucose.

Previously, we obtained carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water and proposed a technology for their production. At the same time, the type of catalyst used and the amount of its introduction into the reaction mixture were not indicated, and the intensity of UV light irradiation was not indicated, which is the subject of “know-how”. In order to further improve the technology for obtaining carbohydrates, we carried out the following:

1) the temperature for obtaining carbohydrates has been changed;

2) studies were conducted without the use of UV light irradiation;

3) the time of the process of obtaining carbohydrates has been changed;

4) for the reaction (instead of pure isolated chlorophylls), xanthophyll and carotene (in a certain ratio) were used together with chlorophyll (a and b) to simplify the technology, since obtaining pure chlorophyll complicates the technology.

As a result, the yield of carbohydrates was increased to 9-10% in relation to the water taken for the reaction.

At the same time, in order to further improve the technology for obtaining carbohydrates (in order to increase the yield of carbohydrates), it is necessary to further improve it.

Literature

1. Nikitin V.M. Lignin. M.: Goslesbumizdat, 1961.-586 p.

2. Biochemistry of phenolic compounds. Per. from English. Edited by N.M. Emanuel. M.: Mir.-1988.- 541 p.

3. Nikitin N.I. Chemistry of wood and cellulose. M.-L.- 1962.- 710 p.

4. Lignins (structure, properties and reactions). Under the reaction of Sarkanen K.V. and Ludwig K.H. Per. from English. M.: Lesn. prom.- 1975.- 632 p.

5. Karpunin I.I., Karpunin A.V. On obtaining carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water // Journal of graduate students and doctoral students. Kursk -2015, No. 3.- P.122.

6. Karpunin I.I. On the production of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water. Message 2 // Journal of postgraduates and doctoral students. Kursk -2015, No. 4.- P.132-133.

Glucose in Greek means "sweet". In nature, in large quantities, it is found in the juices of berries and fruits, including grape juice, which is why it is popularly called "wine sugar".

Discovery history

Glucose was discovered at the beginning of the 19th century by the English physician, chemist and philosopher William Prout. This substance gained wide popularity after Henri Braccono extracted it from sawdust in 1819.

Physical properties

Glucose is a colorless crystalline powder with a sweet taste. It is highly soluble in water, concentrated sulfuric acid, and Schweitzer's reagent.

The structure of the molecule

Like all monosaccharides, glucose is a heterofunctional compound (the molecule contains several hydroxyl and one carboxyl group). In the case of glucose, the carboxyl group is an aldehyde.

The general formula for glucose is C6H12O6. The molecules of this substance have a cyclic structure and two spatial isomers of alpha and beta forms. In the solid state, the alpha form predominates almost 100%. In solution, the beta form is more stable (it occupies approximately 60%). Glucose is the end product of the hydrolysis of all poly- and disaccharides, that is, the production of glucose occurs in the vast majority of cases in this way.

Getting a substance

In nature, glucose is formed in plants as a result of photosynthesis. Consider industrial and laboratory methods for obtaining glucose. In the laboratory, this substance is the result of aldol condensation. In industry, the most common way is to obtain glucose from starch.

Starch is a polysaccharide, the monoparts of which are glucose molecules. That is, to obtain it, it is necessary to decompose the polysaccharide into monoparts. How is this process carried out?

Obtaining glucose from starch begins with the fact that the starch is placed in a container of water and mixed (starch milk). Bring another container of water to a boil. It is worth noting that boiling water should be twice as much as starched milk. In order for the reaction to produce glucose to go to completion, a catalyst is needed. In this case, it is salt or The calculated amount is added to a container of boiling water. Then the starch milk is slowly poured in. In this process, it is very important not to get a paste, if nevertheless it is formed, boiling should be continued until it disappears completely. On average, boiling takes an hour and a half. In order to be sure that the starch is completely hydrolyzed, it is necessary to carry out a qualitative reaction. Iodine is added to the selected sample. If the liquid becomes blue in color, then the hydrolysis is not completed, but if it becomes brown or red-brown, then there is no more starch in the solution. But this solution contains not only glucose, it was obtained with the help of a catalyst, which means that acid also has a place to be. How to remove acid? The answer is simple: by neutralizing with pure chalk and finely crushed porcelain.

Neutralization is checked Next, the resulting solution is filtered. The point is small: the resulting colorless liquid should be evaporated. The formed crystals are our end result. Now consider the production of glucose from starch (reaction).

The chemical essence of the process

This equation for obtaining glucose is presented before the intermediate product - maltose. Maltose is a disaccharide consisting of two glucose molecules. It is clearly seen that the methods for obtaining glucose from starch and from maltose are the same. That is, in continuation of the reaction, we can put the following equation.

In conclusion, it is worth summarizing the necessary conditions for the successful production of glucose from starch.

The necessary conditions

• catalyst (hydrochloric or sulfuric acid);
• temperature (at least 100 degrees);
• pressure (atmospheric is enough, but increasing pressure speeds up the process).

This method is the simplest, with a high yield of the final product and minimal energy costs. But he's not the only one. Glucose is also obtained from cellulose.

Preparation from cellulose

The essence of the process almost completely corresponds to the previous reaction.

The preparation of glucose (formula) from cellulose is given. In fact, this process is much more complicated and energy-intensive. So, the product that enters the reaction is waste from the wood processing industry, crushed to a fraction, the particle size of which is 1.1 - 1.6 mm. This product is processed first with acetic acid, then with hydrogen peroxide, then with sulfuric acid at a temperature of at least 110 degrees and a hydromodule of 5. The duration of this process is 3-5 hours. Then, for two hours, hydrolysis takes place with sulfuric acid at room temperature and hydromodulus 4-5. This is followed by dilution with water and inversion for about an hour and a half.

Quantification methods

Having considered all the methods for obtaining glucose, methods for its quantitative determination should be studied. There are situations when only a solution containing glucose should participate in the technological process, that is, the process of evaporating the liquid until crystals are obtained is superfluous. Then the question arises, how to determine what concentration of a given substance in a solution. The resulting amount of glucose in solution is determined by spectrophotometric, polarimetric and chromatographic methods. There is also a more specific method of determination - enzymatic (using the enzyme glucosidase). In this case, the calculation is already the products of the action of this enzyme.

Application of glucose

In medicine, glucose is used for intoxication (it can be both food poisoning and infection activity). In this case, the glucose solution is administered intravenously using a dropper. This means that in pharmacy, glucose is a universal antioxidant. Also, this substance plays an important role in the detection and diagnosis of diabetes mellitus. Here glucose acts as a stress test.

In the food industry and cooking, glucose occupies a very important place. Separately, the role of glucose in winemaking, beer and moonshine production should be indicated. We are talking about such a method as obtaining ethanol. Let us consider this process in detail.

Getting alcohol

Alcohol production technology has two stages: fermentation and distillation. Fermentation, in turn, is carried out with the help of bacteria. In biotechnology, cultures of microorganisms have long been bred, which allow you to get the maximum yield of alcohol with the minimum amount of time spent. In everyday life, ordinary table yeast can be used as reaction assistants.

First of all, glucose is diluted in water. The microorganisms used are diluted in another container. Further, the resulting liquids are mixed, shaken and placed in a container with This tube is connected to another one (U-shaped). In the middle of the second tube is poured. The end of the tube is closed with a rubber stopper with a hollow glass rod having a drawn end.

This container is placed in a thermostat at a temperature of 25-27 degrees for four days. Turbidity will be observed in a tube with lime water, which indicates that carbon dioxide has reacted with it. As soon as carbon dioxide ceases to be released, fermentation can be considered finished. Next comes the distillation step. In the laboratory for the distillation of alcohol, reflux condensers are used - devices in which cold water passes along the outer wall, thereby cooling the formed gas and transferring it back to a liquid.

At this stage, the liquid that is in our container should be heated to 85-90 degrees. Thus, the alcohol will evaporate, but the water will not be brought to a boil.

The mechanism for obtaining alcohol

Consider the production of alcohol from glucose in the reaction equation: C6H12O6 \u003d 2C2H5OH + 2CO2.

So, it can be noted that the mechanism for producing ethanol from glucose is very simple. Moreover, it has been known to mankind for many centuries, and brought almost to perfection.

The value of glucose in human life

So, having a certain idea about this substance, its physical and chemical properties, use in various industries, we can conclude what glucose is. Getting it from polysaccharides already gives an understanding that, being the main component of all sugars, glucose is an indispensable source of energy for humans. As a result of metabolism, adenosine triphosphoric acid is formed from this substance, which is converted into a unit of energy.

But not all glucose that enters the human body goes to replenish energy. In the waking state, a person converts only 50 percent of the received glucose into ATP. The rest is converted to glycogen and stored in the liver. Glycogen breaks down over time, thereby regulating blood sugar levels. Quantitatively, the content of this substance in the body is a direct indicator of its health. The hormonal functioning of all systems depends on the amount of sugar in the blood. Therefore, it is worth remembering that excessive use of this substance can lead to serious consequences.

Glucose at first glance is a simple and understandable substance. Even from the point of view of chemistry, its molecules have a fairly simple structure, and the chemical properties are clear and familiar in everyday life. But, despite this, glucose is of great importance both for the person himself and for all spheres of his life.

Carbon Dioxide, Glucose and Carbon Life

At first glance, these concepts are completely unrelated. But this is only at first glance. But understanding these concepts is extremely necessary in order to better understand all the ongoing processes in organic life, as well as to understand the metabolic processes in the study of natural agriculture. This understanding will help you understand what life (carbon) itself is. This reservation is not accidental, because not all Life on planet Earth is represented only in carbon form, as was believed until recently. But more on that later.

All our life and the life of the "living" beings around us is possible thanks to the main chemical element of this life - carbon (C). Yes, we are creatures, like everyone else, half composed of coal - carbon. This is due to the versatility of this chemical element to enter into a wide variety of chemical reactions with almost all other chemical elements known to science. Its ability to form a variety of compounds with them, from the simplest, like glucose (compound of carbon with water), to incredibly huge polymers (having a large size, measure). Carbon is able to create endless shapes, chains and structures, and to enter into chemical reactions with almost everything that happens to be nearby.

By the way, various plastics can be an example of polymers in everyday life. All carbon compounds, their properties, in wildlife, are studied by a special section of chemistry - biochemistry, or in other words "the chemistry of life", and inanimate - organic chemistry.

But before I go further in my explanation, I must introduce you to some concepts. The process of combining chemical elements is otherwise called synthesis (this term is translated as “compound”). The process of decomposition, or dismemberment of complex chemical compounds into simpler ones, is called analysis (the term is translated as “decomposition”, “dismemberment”). But these processes in organic chemistry are not possible by themselves; uncontrollably, and nature has wisely invented special substances for this.

In the process of connection, or synthesis, special substances are used that control this process, accelerating it, and they are called catalysts. They interact with the initial substances of chemical reactions, but are not consumed and are not part of the synthesized products. These are a kind of neutral “accelerators”, without their presence, synthesis (combination) is either not possible or proceeds very slowly, but they themselves remain unchanged and are not consumed. The role of accelerators of chemical reactions in living cells is performed by substances of a slightly different structure, special proteins - enzymes. These are very complex specific compounds. These are also catalysts, but for processes in living cells, or wildlife. Biocatalysis, or enzymatic catalysis, is based on the same chemical laws as non-biological catalysis (acceleration of chemical reactions, their control). Enzymes, or biological catalysts, are present in all living cells. Not a single chemical reaction can do without them. They are kind of strict "controllers".

But their role is twofold. They are involved in both synthesis (compounding) and analysis (cleavage). This is their versatility. But each type of enzyme "accelerates" or catalyzes the transformation of certain substances, sometimes only a single one, in a single direction (synthesis or analysis). Therefore, numerous chemical reactions in the body of animals and plants are carried out by a huge number of different enzymes. So wisely conceived by nature, so that chemical reactions do not occur on their own, spontaneously, but are strictly regulated, depending on the needs of the body. This is the most general scheme of the order of biochemical processes, it is the regulatory basis of life.

So, we have understood that without enzymes - biological catalysts, nothing happens in organic life, no biochemical reactions and transformations. It is the basis of the biochemistry of animals, plants and fungi. But in the primary process of synthesis - the formation of a glucose molecule, as the basis of all organic life and an energy source, the role of a "catalyst" in plant leaves (if we allow such a comparison) is played by a green substance - chlorophyll. This process is complex, so as not to introduce confusion, I will not describe it. For a general understanding of this, it is not required, you just need to know that such a process is taking place. Further, all functions are transferred to enzymes, the main regulators of biochemical processes. All these concepts will be useful to us for further study of the processes of synthesis (formation) of humus and "digestion" or analysis (splitting) of decomposing organic residues (detritus) by microbes, fungi and worms under the action of enzymes.

But let's get back to carbon as the main chemical element that makes up organic life. And I have already mentioned that the primary organic substance in the composition of which carbon is included is glucose. Glucose (literally translated - “sweet”) is the most common monosaccharide in nature. Glucose in the free state is found in honey, nectar, tissues of plants and animals, starch, is an integral part of fiber and lignin (polymers that make up the backbone of plants). Glucose is the main source of energy in plants and animals. Carbon metabolism is very complex, but it all starts with the formation and ends with the breakdown of glucose.

Here's what it looks like in a simplified diagram. During synthesis, solar energy is absorbed by plant leaves, and under the action of chlorophyll, a glucose molecule is formed from carbon dioxide and water (this requires several molecules of carbon dioxide and water). When the glucose molecule is broken down under the action of enzymes, the reverse process occurs, energy is released and the formation of carbon dioxide and water molecules. During fusion, energy is absorbed; during splitting, energy is released. It is in this way that plants, animals and humans receive energy for their growth and movement throughout the body. And there is a very important point to understand here. These processes are accompanied by the release and absorption of oxygen molecules (part of the respiration process). During the synthesis of the glucose molecule, oxygen is released by the leaves of plants. We call this carbon "nutrition" of plants. When a glucose molecule is broken down, on the contrary, oxygen molecules are absorbed, and this process is called oxidation, and it is accompanied by the release of energy. All this is accompanied by metabolic processes - the absorption of oxygen and the release of carbon dioxide molecules, which is called respiration.

That is why air oxygen is so important in metabolic processes, without it the processes of respiration and oxidation are not possible, and as a result, obtaining the energy necessary for growth. No less important is the carbon dioxide of the air as a supplier of carbon nutrition to plants (and a source of oxygen in the synthesis of glucose molecules). These processes in nature mutually equalize each other, in a closed system, how many of these elements of carbon and oxygen are consumed, the same amount is released. These processes are constantly interconnected. And if some element is missing, there is a violation of life itself. With a lack of oxygen, plants, animals and humans suffocate. With a lack of carbon dioxide, plant growth stops. And this is a very important point to understand. Plants "like air" need carbon dioxide, without it they cannot grow, build their body tissues. And without oxygen, they cannot get the energy to grow.

But the content of carbon dioxide in the atmospheric air is very small, about 0.03%. On sunny days, plants absorb carbon dioxide so intensively that its concentration in the immediate vicinity of the leaves drops markedly. In calm weather, outdoor crops often experience carbon starvation, not to mention greenhouses, where access to atmospheric air is severely limited. The provision of carbon dioxide has a huge impact on plant growth, fruiting and health. If the concentration of carbon dioxide decreases by 3-6 times, then photosynthesis (the formation of glucose in the leaves) drops to a critical level and there is no increase in plant mass. Carbon starvation not only reduces the yield, but also weakens the immune system - the ability to resist infections.

How to correct the situation? No, we will not be helped by a fan and a carbon dioxide tank. Remember, I gave an example that plant biomass is created in a year, containing a carbon content several times higher than its content when burning all types of fuel in a year. It won't solve the problem. The main suppliers of carbon dioxide to the soil and atmosphere (especially its surface layer) are soil inhabitants: aerobic microbes, fungi, and animals (worms, etc.). It is they who "produce" the amount of carbon dioxide necessary for plants, as a source of carbon nutrition. Therefore, taking care of increasing the number of these invisible helpers - microbes, fungi and worms, we improve the living conditions for our plants, providing them with carbon - the main source of their nutrition.

So that's the first thing to take care of. Do not "fertilize" the soil with chemical fertilizers, they are a poison for microbes, fungi and worms, but on the contrary, do not use chemical fertilizers in any case. No matter how convincingly the supporters of such agricultural technology describe the usefulness of fertilizers in pursuit of the harvest, know this is self-deception. In pursuit of an increase in the harvest, people begin to think only with their heads, and not with their hearts, they forget that they themselves are part of nature, which they destroy with their unreasonable behavior.

Please don't be like fools. To get high yields and healthy products, fertilizers are not needed at all, for this it is enough to understand the true processes that occur in life. It is necessary, simply, to "breed" our helpers - microbes, fungi and worms in our garden and in the garden, like pets, taking care of their numbers and health. I talked about how to do this in a previous article, but I repeat. It is necessary to create a home for them - a thick layer of organic mulch, which at the same time provides them with food. That's the whole "secret" of big yields, and it's FREE. In nature, everything is balanced and interconnected, we should not forget about it.

So, I told you about the basic concepts of carbon life on Earth, about its basis - carbon and glucose. Having learned this, you will understand all the subtleties of natural farming.

At the end of a small digression from the topic. Until recently, carbon was thought to be the basis of life on Earth. But it turned out that the same universal chemical element is silicon, but standing in the periodic table of chemical elements is an order of magnitude lower than carbon. Silicon, like carbon, is able to enter into chemical reactions with almost all elements. It forms (by 87%) the main layer of the Earth's surface, its "crust" in the form of various minerals. Scientists admitted the theoretical possibility of the existence of such silicon life, but did not find evidence on Earth. There have been speculations about the existence of silicon life forms on other planets. But relatively recently, creatures were discovered on Earth that are based on silicon, and not carbon. These are deep-sea sponges that do not need sunlight at all, they are able to develop and live in pitch darkness. Scientists are now trying to study this manifestation of life. But the obvious follows from this example: the hypotheses that the stones are “living” have a real justification and confirmation.

By the way, computer "intelligence" is based on silicon compounds. This information has nothing to do with the topic of natural farming, except that it once again confirms the idea that the world around us is diverse and huge, and humanity still does not know even a fraction of what is actually happening in nature. And this is another argument in favor of the fact that if we, due to our limitations, do not understand something, this does not mean that it does not exist. Think about it. All the best to you and good luck in your endeavors.

Aleksandr Kuznetsov

Continued in the article

Other works of Alexander Ivanovich on the page