The volume of world trade in goods. Surveys of foreign trade. Theories of international trade

The totality of indicators of the development of international trade can be divided into seven groups:

1. volume (absolute) indicators,

2. resulting,

3. structural,

4. intensity,

5. efficiency,

6. speakers

7. comparisons

1. Volumetric (absolute) indicators

Export- the cost or natural volume of exported goods, works, services, results of intellectual property from the customs territory of the state abroad.

The fact of export is the moment of crossing the customs border.

The United Nations Statistical Commission defines export as the export of goods from the state:

1) produced, grown or mined in the country;

2) previously exported from abroad and processed in the customs territory or under customs control;

3) re-export - export of goods:

Previously exported, but not processed;

From the territory of free zones;

From assigned warehouses.

Import- the cost or natural volume of goods, works, services, results of intellectual property imported into the customs territory of the state.

The United Nations Statistical Commission understands import as the importation into the state of goods:

1) foreign origin from the country of origin or intermediary for the purpose of final consumption or processing for export or final consumption;

2) for processing under customs control;

3) from the territory of free zones and affiliated warehouses;

4) re-import - the export of goods previously exported, but not processed.

Country of export- country of origin of goods: production (subsequent processing), shipment, sale.

Country of import- the country of destination of the goods (consumption, supply, purchase).

The volume of export and import goods does not include:

1) supplies that are carried out on a free basis (humanitarian aid, gifts);

2) goods that are supplied on account of contributions to the technical assistance fund of the UN and other international organizations;

3) the cost of goods in transit;

4) personal luggage of individuals and parcels of a private nature.

Foreign trade turnover- the sum of the value of exports and imports of countries or a group of countries for a certain period.

WTO \u003d E + I (6.1)

Where E is the volume of exports (in value units);

And - the volume of imports (in cost units).

World trade- the sum of the value of imports and exports of all countries in the world.

General (general) trade- foreign trade turnover, taking into account the cost of transit goods.

GT = E + I + T(6.2)

where T is the cost of transit goods transported through the territory of the country.

Physical volume of foreign trade– assessment of exports or imports of goods at constant prices of one period (1 year) to obtain information on the movement of commodity mass without the influence of price changes.

Physical volume index:

where I f.o. – physical volume index;

P 0 - the price of goods in the base period;

q 1 - the amount of goods in the period that is being studied;

q 0 - quantity of goods in the base period.

2. Result indicators:

Trade balance

C t \u003d E t - And t (6.4)

where С t is the trade balance;

E t - the value of commodity exports;

And m is the cost of commodity imports.

If E > I - active balance, if E< И - пассивный баланс, Э = И – чистый баланс, нетто-баланс.

Import export coverage index

I e / i \u003d (6.5)

I e / i< 100 - торговый баланс пассивный, I э/и >100 - active trading balance.

Terms of trade index- the ratio of export and import prices of a certain product, country as a whole, group of countries.

1. The export price index is calculated:

where P e is the export price index;

x i is the share of each i-th product in the total value of exports in the base year;

p i is the ratio of the current export price of this product to its price in the base year.

2. The import price index is calculated:

where P and is the import price index;

j is the share of each i-th product in the total value of imports in the base year;

p j is the ratio of the current import price of this product to its price in the base year.

3. The terms of trade index is calculated:

I = , (6.8)

where I c.t. – index “terms of trade”;

P e - export price index (in units of national or other currency);

P and is the import price index.

If I ut =1 - the terms of trade have not changed, I ut > 1 - the terms of trade have improved, I ut< 1- условия торговли ухудшились.

Export concentration index (Hirschman index) and used for international comparisons. Shows how wide range of goods the country exports:

(6.9)

where H j is the export concentration index of country j (j is the index of the country);

239 - the number of types of products according to the UN classification;

i – product index (from 1 to 239);

x i is the value of exports of i-th goods by country j;

x is the total export value of country j, which is calculated using the formula:

If H tends to 0, then the trend is positive (a wide range of goods is exported); If H tends to 1 - a negative trend, a narrow range of exports.

The country's import dependence coefficient:

where AND ij is the volume of imports of the i-th product to the country j;

P ij is the volume of consumption of the i-th product in the country j.

(6.12)

where P ij is the volume of production of the i-th product in the country j;

And ij is the volume of imports of the i-th product in country j;

Eij is the volume of exports of the i-th product in the country j.

If P ij tends to 0 - an import-independent country; P ij tends to 1 - an import-dependent country.

Net trade index shows for each of the goods (product group) the level of excess of exports over imports (positive index value) or the level of excess of imports over exports (negative index value).

(6.13)

where I h.t. – indicator of net trade;

E i - export of goods i;

And i is the import of product j.

If I h.t. = -1 - the goods are only imported, I h.t. = +1 - goods are only exported.

3. Structural indicators

In international practice, they analyze the geographical and commodity structure.

Geographic structure- the distribution of trade flows between individual countries and their groups, allocated on a territorial or organizational basis.

Territorial structure- generalization of data on international trade of countries of one part of the world or an enlarged group of countries (industrial, developing).

Organizational structure– distribution of international trade:

Between countries belonging to an integration association;

Between countries allocated to a certain group in accordance with the analytical criterion (countries exporting oil, grain, net debtors)

Commodity structure- distribution of trade flows for individual goods. It is based on the UN Standard International Classification (SITC) or the Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System.

Distinguish:

The commodity structure of exports is a systematized set of goods that are exported from a country or region.

The commodity structure of imports is a systematized set of goods that are imported into a country, region.

The directions of systematization of commodity flows are presented in fig. 6.3.

Figure 6.3 - Systematization of commodity flows in the world market

Export diversification index– index of deviation of the export structure from the structure of world exports.

(6.14)

where I d.e. is the export diversification index of country j;

h ij - part of the i-th product in the total export of country j;

h i - part of the i-th product in total world exports.

If I d.e. tends to 1, then the structure is close to the world average, if I d.e tends to 0, then it differs significantly from the world.

Index of geographical concentration of exports or imports characterizes the state of the world market for a particular product on the following grounds: the number of exporters (importers) and the share of the main exporter (importer).

Herfindahl-Hirschman index:

(6.15)

where I k is the index of geographical concentration of exports (imports) of goods k;

x i k is the volume of exports (imports) of goods k by country i;

x k – world export (import) of goods k (x k = );

n is the number of exporting (or importing) countries.

The indicator grows as the share of one exporter grows (shows the level of market monopolization).

4. Intensity indicators

The volume of exports, imports, foreign trade turnover per capita:

(6.18)

where E D is export per capita;

I D - import per capita;

WTO D - foreign trade turnover per capita;

E - the value of national exports for the year;

I - the cost of national imports for the year;

WTO - foreign trade turnover of the country for the year (E + I);

P - the population of the country for the corresponding year.

export quota and is used to characterize the level of intensity of the country's foreign trade, to assess the openness of the national economy, participation in the international division of labor.

(6.19)

where K e - export quota;

E is the country's annual export volume;

K e is greater, the more developed the industry, K e in large countries is less than in small ones.

If K e >1, this may be due to significant re-exports.

World exports Ke » 20-23%, developed countries Ke »< 20-23%, развивающиеся страны К э » > 20-23%.

Import quota:

(6.20)

where K i – import quota;

I is the country's annual export volume;

GDP is the country's gross domestic product for the same period.

Foreign trade quota:

, (6.21)

where К wto is the foreign trade quota;

GDP is the country's gross domestic product for the same period.

International commodity trade develops unevenly over periods, both in goods and in participating countries. The development of international trade, its growth rate (dynamics) is influenced by many factors that can be short-term and long-term, economic and political, internal and external. The combination of these factors forms the world supply and demand in the world market, world prices and the scale of commodity flows between countries.

Among the economic factors that determine the development of international trade in goods, changes in the conditions of production in the countries participating in international trade are of great importance: expansion of production volumes and diversification of products, reduction in the costs of material production; increasing labor productivity through the introduction of new technologies, accelerating obsolescence and quickly updating the range, etc.

The expansion and diversification of world trade is facilitated by the deepening of the international division of labor, especially on the basis of intra-industry vertical specialization. Material production is increasingly becoming cross-border; the production of the final product is distributed among different countries, in which the processing of the starting material is sequentially carried out and / or various parts and components are produced, forming global value chains.

According to the OECD, in 2005, the share of national products in the cost of the final products of office, computing and computer equipment in Japan was 81.5, imported - 18.5%, China - 64.5 and 35.5%, respectively, the Republic of Korea - 48.8 and 51.2%. In the structure of Japan's intermediate products, the share of domestic products was 75.7%, of imported products - 24.3%; China - 59.8 and 40.2%; Republic of Korea 36.4 and 63.6% respectively.

In 2012, world exports of intermediate goods amounted to $7.6 trillion (42.0% of world merchandise exports), imports - $7.8 trillion (42.7%). China's export of intermediate goods amounted to $819; EU-28 - 2614 and 2454 billion dollars, including in external export/import, excluding mutual (domestic) trade - 981 and 855 billion dollars, respectively.

The international migration of capital has a great influence on the dynamics of world trade; liberalization of foreign trade; development of integration processes accompanied by an accelerated mutual exchange of goods, services and production factors; changes in exchange rates, etc.

The dynamics of international trade in the medium term is determined by the phase of the world economic cycle; in the short term - by the situation in the world commodity markets, the economic growth rates of the GDP of the main exporting and importing countries. In the context of economic recovery, great opportunities are opening up for the expansion of international trade.

The production and export of goods is growing; the demand for imports of energy carriers, investment and raw materials is increasing. Employment growth is accompanied by an increase in household income and consumer demand, including for imported products. In the context of a recession in the world economy, which means a slowdown in GDP growth, or in a crisis, when growth rates are negative, world demand, world prices, export/import growth rates are declining, unemployment is growing, consumer demand is declining, etc.

The change in exports and imports of goods of individual countries is affected by the movement of export and import prices and changes in physical volume. The development of international trade is usually analyzed on the basis of current prices expressed in dollars. In current prices, the value of exports/imports of goods in the corresponding year is determined; these prices determine export earnings and import payments. The level of current prices is determined by contract prices, which in turn are formed taking into account world prices.

World commodity prices are influenced by reference prices for goods of developed countries, exchange quotations, prices of auctions and trades, prices of actual transactions, prices of offers of large firms. World prices for manufactured products reflect the export prices of large manufacturing companies and exporters, which are usually calculated at domestic prices using the full cost method; prices for metals are regulated by exchange quotations, for furs - by the prices of fur auctions.

International trade is developing unevenly, which is manifested in a change in the balance of power in the world commodity market between the main groups of countries. The share of developed countries in world exports of goods was 71% in 1970, 63% in 1980, 71.3% in 1990, 74.2% in 2000, 64.8% in 2007, and 64.8% in 2012. 57.6%. In the development of international trade in the 1950s-2000s. ten-year periods can be distinguished.

IN 1950 1960s international trade developed relatively evenly, with increasing rates, which, on an average annual basis, amounted to 1950 in the 1950s. 7%; in the first half of the 1960s. - 8.4%, in the second half of the decade - 11.8%; prices have been relatively stable. There were significant differences in growth rates across regional groups and individual countries. For the 1950-1960s. exports of developed countries in permanent chains increased 2.8 times, in Japan - 11 times, Germany - 5 times, the USA - 1.6 times; developing countries - 3.6 times, Taiwan - almost 13 times, South Korea - 5.4 times.

1970s characterized by a multiple increase in world prices, especially for raw materials. From the autumn of 1973, world prices for oil, and then for other types of raw materials, went up sharply. The second sharp jump in oil prices occurred in 1979. These price jumps are called "oil shocks", which were provoked not so much by economic as by political reasons. Due to the conflict with Israel, Arab countries have reduced oil supplies to countries that supported Israel. The supply of oil on the world market decreased, a shortage arose, oil prices went up sharply, dragging the prices of other types of mineral and agricultural raw materials with them.

The prices of industrial goods increased mainly due to high inflation in developed countries, but to a lesser extent than the prices of raw materials; and the terms of trade index was in favor of commodity exporters. From 1970 to 1980, world prices for all goods increased by 3.7 times, including finished goods - by 2.9 times, machinery and equipment - by 2.4 times. Prices for all types of raw materials increased 7 times, for agricultural raw materials - 3.1 times, for fuel - 16.5 times, for oil - almost 20 times.

As a result, in the 1970s world exports in terms of value in current prices increased 6.3 times, in terms of physical volume (in 2000 prices) - 1.7 times; world imports - by 6.2 and 1.7 times, respectively. Exports of developed countries at current prices increased 5.6 times, at constant prices - 1.5 times; developing countries - in terms of value in current prices, it increased 10 times, in constant prices - 2.2 times.

In the 1970s in the group of developing countries, differentiation took place: rich oil exporters with excess foreign exchange earnings and a rapidly developing export-oriented four of the new industrializing countries of Southeast Asia (Hong Kong, the Republic of Korea, Singapore, and Taiwan) appeared. Over the decade, the exports of OPEC member countries increased 17 times, their share in world exports exceeded 15%; R/V SUA-4 managed to increase the export deliveries of finished products by 11.5 times and raise the total share in world exports to 2.8%.

1970s were favorable for the Soviet Union and other CMEA member countries; their export earnings and import payments increased by 5 times. By 1980, the USSR's foreign exchange earnings from the export of oil and other types of mineral raw materials increased 6 times, import costs - 5.8 times; exports covered imports by 111.6%.

At the beginning 1980s there was a landslide decline in world prices, the level of 1980 recovered only by the end of the decade. Commodity-exporting countries have been hardest hit; prices for raw materials at the end of the decade were below the level of 1980 by 28-30%. Prices for oil and mineral fuels fell by half by the mid-1980s, by 1990 they had reached 70% of the 1980 level.

An absolute decline in world trade was observed until 1984, and only by 1986 was the level of 1980 restored. world exports and imports increased equally - 1.7 times in current prices. Exports of developed countries increased almost 2 times, imports - 1.8 times; the corresponding figures for developing countries were 1.4 and 1.7 times. Over the decade, the exports of the CMEA member countries increased by 25%, imports - by 29%; Soviet exports in terms of physical volume increased by 35%, imports - by 75%, the trade balance of the USSR in 1990 was negative in the amount of 6.3 billion dollars.

Behind 1990s world exports increased 1.9 times (in 2000 prices - 1.5 times). Two periods can be distinguished in this decade: before and after the Asian monetary and financial crisis (1997-1998). From 1990 to 1997, world trade increased by an average of 7-8% per year; in 1998-1999 - by 4-5%. The following factors had a great impact on the development of world trade:

• a long economic recovery in the US that lasted from the beginning of the decade until 2000; during this time, American exports increased 1.9 times (in constant prices - by 37%);
• monetary and financial crises in Mexico (1994), Argentina (1995), recession in Brazil (1998);
• the Asian monetary and financial crisis of 1997, which engulfed Indonesia, Malaysia, the Republic of Korea, Thailand, the Philippines, and the crisis in Russia (1998).

For the 1990s there were no absolute drops in the total exports/imports of developed countries; exports increased almost 2 times, imports - 1.7 times. The crisis of 1997 slowed down the expansion of exports of developed countries, in 1998 the growth rate was 0.8%; in 1999 -1.8%.

For 1991 -1997 the average annual growth rate of merchandise exports of developing countries amounted to 10-11%; in 1998 - minus 6.1%, in 1999 - plus 8.2%. Prior to 1997, developing countries' imports increased annually by 8%; in 1998 it was minus 4.7%; - minus 0.4%. Commodity export of the CIS countries for 1997-1999. decreased by 17.5%, import - by 62.2%; countries of Central and Eastern Europe amounted to plus 8.7 and 0.5%, respectively.

• ITO, International Trade Statistics. 2014. R. 145.
• IMF, International Financial Statistics, Yearbook, 2009.

Organizational and technical aspect studies physical exchange of goods and services between state-registered national economies (states). The main attention is paid to the problems associated with the purchase (sale) of specific goods, their movement between counterparties (seller - buyer) and crossing state borders, with settlements, etc. These aspects of MT are studied by specific special (applied) disciplines - organization and technology of foreign trade operations, customs, international financial and credit operations, international law (its various branches), accounting, etc.

Organizational and market aspect defines MT as combination of world demand and world supply, which materialize in two counter flows of goods and (or) services - world export (export) and world import (import). At the same time, the world supply is understood as the volume of production of goods that consumers are ready to collectively purchase at the existing price level inside and outside the country, and the aggregate supply is understood as the volume of production of goods that producers are ready to offer on the market at the existing price level. They are usually considered only in value terms. The problems that arise in this case are mainly related to the study of the state of the market for specific goods (the ratio of supply and demand on it - the conjuncture), the optimal organization of commodity flows between countries, taking into account a wide variety of factors, but above all the price factor.

These problems are studied by international marketing and management, theories of international trade and the world market, international monetary and financial relations.

Socio-economic aspect considers MT as a special type socio-economic relations arising between states in the process and about the exchange of goods and services. These relationships have a number of features that make them particularly important in the world economy.

First of all, it should be noted that they are global in nature, since all states and all their economic groupings are involved in them; they are an integrator, uniting national economies into a single world economy and internationalizing it, based on the international division of labor (IDL). MT determines what is more profitable for the state to produce and under what conditions to exchange the produced product. Thus, it contributes to the expansion and deepening of the MRT, and hence the MT, involving more and more states in them. These relations are objective and universal, i.e. they exist independently of the will of one (group) person and are suitable for any state. They are able to systematize the world economy, placing the states depending on the development of foreign trade (BT) in it, on the share that it (BT) occupies in international trade, on the size of the average per capita foreign trade turnover. On this basis, "small" countries are distinguished - those that cannot influence the change in the price of MR if they change their demand for any product and, conversely, "large" countries. Small countries, in order to make up for this weakness in this or that market, often unite (integrate) and present aggregate demand and aggregate supply. But large countries can also unite, thus strengthening their position in the MT.

Characteristics of international trade

A number of indicators are used to characterize international trade:

• cost and physical volume of world trade;
• general, commodity and geographical (spatial) structure;
• the level of specialization and industrialization of exports;
• coefficients of elasticity of MT, exports and imports, terms of trade;
• foreign trade, export and import quotas;
• trade balance.

World trade

World trade turnover is the sum of foreign trade turnover of all countries. Foreign trade turnover of the country- this is the sum of exports and imports of one country with all countries with which it is in foreign trade relations.

Since all countries import and export goods and services, world trade also defined as sum of world exports and world imports.

State world trade is estimated by its volume for a certain time period or on a certain date, and development- the dynamics of these volumes for a certain period.

The volume is measured in value and physical terms, respectively, in US dollars and in physical terms (tons, meters, barrels, etc., if it is applied to a homogeneous group of goods), or in conventional physical terms, if the goods do not have a single natural measurement . To assess the physical volume, the value volume is divided by the average world price.

To assess the dynamics of world trade, chain, basic and average annual growth rates (indices) are used.

MT structure

The structure of world trade shows ratio in its total volume of certain parts, depending on the chosen feature.

General structure reflects the ratio of exports and imports as a percentage or in shares. In physical volume, this ratio is equal to 1, and in total, the share of imports is always greater than the share of exports. This is due to the fact that exports are valued at FOB (Free on board) prices, according to which the seller pays only for the delivery of goods to the port and its loading on board the vessel; imports are valued at CIF prices (cost, insurance, freight, i.e. they include in the cost of goods, freight cost, insurance costs and other port fees).

Commodity structure world trade shows the share of a particular group in its total volume. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that in the MT a product is considered as a product that satisfies some social need, to which two main market forces are directed - supply and demand, and one of them necessarily acts from abroad.

Goods produced in national economies participate in MT in different ways. Some of them don't participate at all. Therefore, all goods are divided into tradable and non-tradable.

Tradable goods are freely movable between countries, non-tradable goods do not move between countries for one reason or another (uncompetitive, strategically important for the country, etc.). When talking about the commodity structure of world trade, we are talking only about tradable goods.

In the most general proportion in world trade, trade in goods and services is singled out. Currently, the ratio between them is 4:1.

In world practice, various classification systems for goods and services are used. For example, trade in goods uses the Standard International Trade Classification (UN) - SITC, in which 3118 main commodity items are combined into 1033 subgroups (of which 2805 items are included in 720 subgroups), which are aggregated into 261 groups, 67 departments and 10 sections. Most countries use the Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System (including the Russian Federation since 1991).

When characterizing the commodity structure of world trade, two large groups of goods are most often distinguished: raw materials and finished products, the ratio between which (in percent) has developed as 20: 77 (3% others). For individual groups of countries, it varies from 15: 82 (for developed countries with market economies) (3% others) to 45: 55 (for developing countries). For individual countries (foreign trade turnover), the range of variations is even wider. This ratio may change depending on changes in the prices of raw materials, especially energy.

For a more detailed description of the commodity structure, a diversified approach can be used (within the framework of the SMTC or in other frameworks in accordance with the objectives of the analysis).

To characterize world exports, it is important to calculate the share of engineering products in its total volume. Comparing it with a similar indicator of the country allows us to calculate the index of industrialization of its exports (I), which can be in the range from 0 to 1. The closer it is to 1, the more the trends in the development of the country's economy coincide with the trends in the development of the world economy.

Geographic (spatial) structure world trade is characterized by its distribution along the lines of commodity flows - the totality of goods (in physical terms) moving between countries.

Distinguish between commodity flows between countries with developed market economies (SRRE). They are commonly referred to as "West-West" or "North-North". They account for about 60% of world trade; between SRRE and RS, which stand for "West-South" or "North-South", they account for over 30% of world trade; between RS - "South - South" - about 10%.

In the spatial structure, one should also distinguish between regional, integration and intra-corporate turnover. These are parts of the world trade turnover, reflecting its concentration within one region (for example, Southeast Asia), one integration grouping (for example, the EU) or one corporation (for example, any TNC). Each of them is characterized by its general, commodity and geographical structure and reflects the trends and degree of internationalization and globalization of the world economy.

MT Specialization

To assess the degree of specialization of world trade, the index of specialization (T) is calculated. It shows the share of intra-industry trade (the exchange of parts, assemblies, semi-finished products, finished items of one industry, for example, cars of different brands, models) in the total volume of world trade. Its value is always in the range 0-1; the closer it is to 1, the deeper the international division of labor (MRI) in the world, the greater the role of the intra-industry division of labor in it. Naturally, its value will depend on how broadly the industry is defined: the wider it is, the higher the T coefficient.

A special place in the complex of indicators of world trade is occupied by those that allow us to assess the impact of world trade on the world economy. These include, first of all, the coefficient of elasticity of world trade. It is calculated as the ratio of the growth rates of physical volumes of GDP (GNP) and trade. Its economic content lies in the fact that it shows by how many percent the GDP (GNP) increased with an increase in trade turnover by 1%. The global economy is characterized by a tendency to strengthen the role of MT. For example, in 1951-1970. the coefficient of elasticity was 1.64; in 1971-1975 and 1976-1980 - 1.3; in 1981-1985 - 1.12; in 1987-1989 - 1.72; in 1986-1992 - 2.37. As a rule, during periods of economic crises, the coefficient of elasticity is lower than during periods of recession and recovery.

Terms of trade

Terms of trade is a coefficient that establishes a relationship between the average world prices of exports and imports, since it is calculated as the ratio of their indices for a certain period of time. Its value varies from 0 to + ¥: if it is equal to 1, then the terms of trade are stable and maintain the parity of export and import prices. If the ratio increases (compared to the previous period), then the terms of trade are improving and vice versa.

MT elasticity coefficients

Elasticity of imports— an index that characterizes the change in aggregate demand for imports resulting from changes in the terms of trade. It is calculated as a percentage of import volumes and its price. In its numerical value, it is always greater than zero and changes to
+ ¥. If its value is less than 1, then a 1% price increase led to an increase in demand by more than 1%, and therefore, the demand for imports is elastic. If the coefficient is more than 1, then the demand for imports has grown by less than 1%, which means that imports are inelastic. Therefore, an improvement in the terms of trade forces a country to increase its spending on imports if demand is elastic, and to decrease it if it is inelastic, while increasing spending on exports.

Export elasticity and imports is also closely related to the terms of trade. With the elasticity of imports equal to 1 (a 1% drop in the price of imports led to an increase in its volume by 1%), the supply (export) of goods increases by 1%. This means that the elasticity of exports (Ex) will be equal to the elasticity of imports (Eim) minus 1, or Ex = Eim - 1. Thus, the higher the elasticity of imports, the more developed the market mechanism that allows producers to respond faster to changes in world prices. Low elasticity is fraught with serious economic problems for the country, if this is not due to other reasons: high investments made earlier in the industry, the inability to quickly reorient, etc.

These elasticity indicators can be used to characterize international trade, but they are more effective for characterizing foreign trade. This also applies to such indicators as foreign trade, export and import quotas.

MT quotas

The foreign trade quota (FTC) is defined as half the sum (S/2) of exports (E) and imports (I) of a country, divided by GDP or GNP and multiplied by 100%. It characterizes the average dependence on the world market, its openness to the world economy.

Analysis of the significance of exports for the country is estimated by the export quota - the ratio of the amount of exports to GDP (GNP), multiplied by 100%; The import quota is calculated as the ratio of imports to GDP (GNP) multiplied by 100%.

The growth of the export quota indicates the growth of its importance for the development of the country's economy, but this significance itself can be both positive and negative. It is certainly positive if the export of finished products expands, but the growth in the export of raw materials, as a rule, leads to a deterioration in the terms of trade for the exporting country. If, at the same time, exports are mono-commodity, then its growth can lead to the destruction of the economy, therefore such growth is called destructive. The result of this growth in exports is the lack of funds for its further increase, and the deterioration of the terms of trade in terms of profitability does not allow acquiring the necessary amount of imports for export earnings.

Trade balance

The resulting indicator characterizing the country's foreign trade is the trade balance, which is the difference between the sum of exports and imports. If this difference is positive (which is what all countries strive for), then the balance is active; if it is negative, it is passive. The balance of trade is an integral part of the country's balance of payments and largely determines the latter.

Modern trends in the development of international trade in goods and services

The development of modern MT occurs under the influence of general processes taking place in the world economy. The economic recession that affected all groups of countries, the Mexican and Asian financial crises, the growing size of internal and external imbalances in many states, including developed ones, could not but cause uneven development of international trade, a slowdown in its growth in the 1990s. At the beginning of the XXI century. the growth rate of world trade increased, and in 2000-2005. it increased by 41.9%.

The world market is characterized by trends associated with the further internationalization of the world economy and its globalization. They are manifested in the growing role of MT in the development of the world economy, and foreign trade in the development of national economies. The first is confirmed by the increase in the elasticity coefficient of world trade (more than twice as compared to the mid-1980s), and the second is the growth of export and import quotas for most countries.

"Openness", "interdependence" of economies, "integration" are becoming key concepts for the world economy and international trade. In many ways, this happened under the influence of TNCs, which really became the centers of coordination and engines of the world exchange of goods and services. Within themselves and among themselves, they have created a network of relationships that go beyond the borders of states. As a result, about 1/3 of all imports and up to 3/5 of trade in machinery and equipment falls on intracorporate trade and is an exchange of intermediate products (component products). The consequence of this process is the barterization of international trade and the growth of other types of countertrade transactions, which already account for up to 30% of all international trade. This part of the world market is losing its purely commercial features and is turning into so-called quasi-trade. It is served by specialized intermediary firms, banking and financial institutions. At the same time, the nature of competition in the world market and the structure of competitive factors are changing. The development of economic and social infrastructure, the presence of a competent bureaucracy, a strong educational system, a sustainable policy of macroeconomic stabilization, quality, design, style of product design, timely delivery, and after-sales service are put forward in the foreground. As a result, there is a clear stratification of countries on the basis of technological leadership in the world market. Good luck accompanies those countries that have new competitive advantages, i.e., are technological leaders. They are a minority in the world, but they get most of the FDI, which enhances their technological leadership and competitiveness in the IR.

Significant shifts are taking place in the commodity structure of the MT: the share of finished goods has increased and the share of food and raw materials (without fuel) has decreased. This happened as a result of the further development of scientific and technical progress, which increasingly replaces natural raw materials with synthetic ones, and allows the implementation of resource-saving technologies in production. At the same time, trade in mineral fuels (especially oil) and gas has grown sharply. This is due to a complex of factors, including the development of the chemical industry, changes in the fuel and energy balance, and an unprecedented increase in oil prices, which at the end of the decade, compared to its beginning, more than doubled.

The share of science-intensive goods and high-tech products (microtechnical, chemical, pharmaceutical, aerospace, etc. products) is growing in the trade in finished goods. This is especially clear in the exchange between developed countries - technological leaders. For example, in the foreign trade of the USA, Switzerland and Japan, the share of such products accounts for over 20%, Germany and France - about 15%.

The geographical structure of international trade has also changed quite noticeably, although the “West-West” sector, which accounts for about 70% of world trade, is still the determining factor for its development, and within this sector a dozen (USA, Germany, Japan, France, UK, Italy, Netherlands, Canada, Switzerland, Sweden).

At the same time, trade between developed countries and developing countries is growing more dynamically. This is due to a whole range of factors, not least of which is the disappearance of a whole cluster of countries in transition. According to the UNCTAD classification, all of them have moved into the category of developing countries (except for 8 CEE countries that joined the EU on May 1, 2004). UNCTAD estimates that MS was the driving force behind the development of MT in the 1990s. They remain so at the beginning of the 21st century. This is due to the fact that although the markets of the RS are less capacious than the markets of the RSEM, they are more dynamic and therefore more attractive for their developed partners, especially for TNCs. At the same time, the purely agrarian and raw material specialization of most RSs is supplemented by the transfer to them of functions for supplying industrial centers with material-intensive and labor-intensive products of manufacturing industries based on the use of cheaper labor. Often these are the most environmentally polluted industries. TNCs contribute to the growth of the share of finished products in the export of the RS, however, the commodity structure of trade in this sector remains predominantly raw materials (by 70-80%), which makes it very vulnerable to price fluctuations in the world market and worsening terms of trade.

There are a number of very acute problems in the trade of developing countries, arising primarily from the fact that price remains the main factor in their competitiveness, and the terms of trade that change not in their favor inevitably lead to an increase in its imbalance and less intensive growth. Eliminating these problems involves optimizing the commodity structure of foreign trade based on the diversification of industrial production, eliminating the technological backwardness of countries that makes their exports of finished products uncompetitive, and increasing the activity of countries in trade in services.

Modern MT is characterized by a trend towards the development of trade in services, especially business services (engineering, consulting, leasing, factoring, franchising, etc.). If in 1970 the volume of world exports of all services (including all types of international and transit transport, foreign tourism, banking services, etc.) amounted to 80 billion dollars, then in 2005 it was about 2.2 trillion. dollars, i.e., almost 28 times more.

At the same time, the growth rate of exports of services is slowing down and significantly lags behind the growth rates of exports of goods. So, if for 1996-2005. the average annual export of goods and services almost doubled compared to the previous decade, then in 2001-2005. The increase in exports of goods on average per year was 3.38%, and services - 2.1%. As a result, the indicator of the share of services in the total volume of world trade is stagnating: in 1996 it was 20%, in 2000 - 19.6%, in 2005 - 20.1%. The leading positions in this trade in services are occupied by the RSEM, they account for about 80% of the total volume of international trade in services, which is due to their technological leadership.

The global market for goods and services is characterized by trends associated with the further internationalization of the world economy. In addition to the growing role of MT in the development of the world economy, the transformation of foreign trade into an integral part of the national reproduction process, there is a clear trend towards its further liberalization. This is confirmed not only by the decrease in the average level of customs duties, but also by the elimination (easing) of quantitative restrictions on imports, the expansion of trade in services, the change in the nature of the world market itself, which now receives not so much surpluses of national production of goods as pre-agreed supplies of goods produced specifically for a particular consumer. goods.

International trade is a system of international commodity-money relations, consisting of the foreign trade of all countries of the world. International trade arose in the process of the emergence of the world market in the XVI-XVIII centuries. Its development is one of the important factors in the development of the world economy of modern times.

The term international trade was first used in the 12th century by the Italian economist Antonio Margaretti, the author of the economic treatise The Power of the Masses in Northern Italy.

Benefits of participating countries in international trade:

• the intensification of the reproduction process in national economies is a consequence of increased specialization, creating opportunities for the emergence and development of mass production, increasing the degree of equipment workload, and increasing the efficiency of introducing new technologies;
• an increase in export deliveries entails an increase in employment;
• international competition necessitates the improvement of enterprises;
• export earnings serve as a source of capital accumulation aimed at industrial development.

Theories of international trade

The development of world trade is based on the benefits it brings to the countries participating in it. The theory of international trade gives an idea of ​​what is the basis of this gain from foreign trade, or what determines the direction of foreign trade flows. International trade serves as a tool through which countries, by developing their specialization, can increase the productivity of available resources and thus increase the volume of goods and services they produce, improve the welfare of the population.

Many well-known economists dealt with international trade issues. The main theories of international trade - Mercantilist theory, A. Smith's Theory of absolute advantages, D. Ricardo's and D. S. Mill's Theory of comparative advantages, Heckscher-Ohlin theory, Leontief's paradox, Product life cycle theory, M. Porter's theory, Rybchinsky's theorem, and also The Theory of Samuelson and Stolper.

Mercantilist theory. Mercantilism is a system of views of economists of the XV-XVII centuries, focused on the active intervention of the state in economic activity. Representatives of the direction: Thomas Maine, Antoine de Montchretien, William Stafford. The term was proposed by Adam Smith, who criticized the works of the mercantilists. The mercantilist theory of international trade arose during the period of primitive accumulation of capital and the great geographical discoveries, based on the idea that the presence of gold reserves is the basis of the prosperity of the nation. Foreign trade, the mercantilists believed, should be focused on obtaining gold, since in the case of a simple commodity exchange, ordinary goods, being used, cease to exist, and gold accumulates in the country and can be reused for international exchange.

Trading was considered as a zero-sum game, when the gain of one participant automatically means the loss of the other, and vice versa. To obtain the maximum benefit, it was proposed to increase state intervention and control over the state of foreign trade. The trade policy of the mercantilists, called protectionism, was to create barriers in international trade that protect domestic producers from foreign competition, stimulate exports and restrict imports by imposing customs duties on foreign goods and receiving gold and silver in return for their goods.

The main provisions of the Mercantilist theory of international trade:

• the need to maintain an active trade balance of the state (excess of exports over imports);
• recognition of the benefits of attracting gold and other precious metals to the country in order to increase its well-being;
• money is an incentive for trade, since it is believed that an increase in the mass of money increases the volume of the mass of commodities;
• welcome protectionism aimed at importing raw materials and semi-finished products and exporting finished products;
• restriction on the export of luxury goods, as it leads to the leakage of gold from the state.

Adam Smith's theory of absolute advantage. In his work An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, in a polemic with the mercantilists, Smith formulated the idea that countries are interested in the free development of international trade, since they can benefit from it regardless of whether they are exporters or importers. Each country should specialize in the production of the product where it has an absolute advantage - a benefit based on different amounts of production costs in individual countries participating in foreign trade. The refusal to produce goods in which countries do not have absolute advantages, and the concentration of resources on the production of other goods lead to an increase in total production volumes, an increase in the exchange of products of their labor between countries.

Adam Smith's theory of absolute advantage suggests that a country's real wealth consists of the goods and services available to its citizens. If any country can produce this or that product more and cheaper than other countries, then it has an absolute advantage. Some countries may produce goods more efficiently than others. The country's resources flow into profitable industries, as the country cannot compete in unprofitable industries. This leads to an increase in the productivity of the country, as well as the qualification of the workforce; long periods of production of homogeneous products provide incentives for the development of more efficient methods of work.

Natural advantages for a single country: climate; territory; resources. Acquired advantages for a single country: production technology, that is, the ability to manufacture a variety of products.

The theory of comparative advantages of D. Ricardo and D. S. Mill. In his Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, Ricardo showed that the principle of absolute advantage is only a special case of the general rule, and substantiated the theory of comparative (relative) advantage. When analyzing the directions of development of foreign trade, two circumstances should be taken into account: firstly, economic resources - natural, labor, etc. - are unevenly distributed among countries, and secondly, the efficient production of various goods requires different technologies or combinations of resources.

The advantages that countries have are not given once and for all, D. Ricardo believed, therefore, even countries with absolutely higher levels of production costs can benefit from trade exchange. It is in the interests of each country to specialize in production in which it has the greatest advantage and the least weakness, and for which not absolute, but relative benefit is the greatest - such is the law of comparative advantage of D. Ricardo. According to Ricardo, total output will be greatest when each good is produced by the country that has the lowest opportunity (opportunity) costs. Thus, a relative advantage is a benefit based on lower opportunity (opportunity) costs in the exporting country. Hence, as a result of specialization and trade, both countries participating in the exchange will benefit. An example in this case is the exchange of English cloth for Portuguese wine, which benefits both countries, even if the absolute costs of production of both cloth and wine in Portugal are lower than in England.

Subsequently, D.S. Mill, in his work “Foundations of Political Economy”, gave explanations at what price the exchange is carried out. According to Mill, the price of exchange is set by the laws of supply and demand at such a level that the aggregate of each country's exports pays for the aggregate of its imports—such is the law of international value.

Heckscher-Ohlin theory. This theory of scientists from Sweden, which appeared in the 30s of the twentieth century, refers to the neoclassical concepts of international trade, since these economists did not adhere to the labor theory of value, considering capital and land to be productive along with labor. Therefore, the reason for their trade is the different availability of factors of production in the countries participating in international trade.

The main provisions of their theory boiled down to the following: firstly, countries tend to export those goods for the manufacture of which the factors of production available in the country are used in excess, and, conversely, to import goods, the production of which requires relatively rare factors; secondly, in international trade there is a tendency to equalize "factorial prices"; thirdly, the export of goods can be replaced by the movement of factors of production across national borders.

The neoclassical concept of Heckscher-Ohlin turned out to be convenient for explaining the reasons for the development of trade between developed and developing countries, when machinery and equipment were imported into developing countries in exchange for raw materials coming to developed countries. However, not all phenomena of international trade fit into the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, since today the center of gravity of international trade is gradually shifting to the mutual trade of "similar" goods between "similar" countries.

Leontief's paradox. These are the studies of an American economist who questioned the provisions of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory and showed that in the post-war period the US economy specialized in those types of production that required relatively more labor rather than capital. The essence of Leontief's paradox was that the share of capital-intensive goods in exports could grow, while the share of labor-intensive goods could decrease. In fact, when analyzing the US trade balance, the share of labor-intensive goods did not decrease. The resolution of the Leontief paradox was that the labor intensity of goods imported by the United States is quite high, but the price of labor in the cost of goods is much lower than in US exports. The capital intensity of labor in the United States is significant, together with high labor productivity, this leads to a significant impact on the price of labor in export deliveries. The share of labor-intensive supplies in US exports is growing, confirming Leontief's paradox. This is due to the growth in the share of services, labor costs and the structure of the US economy. This leads to an increase in the labor intensity of the entire American economy, not excluding exports.

Theory of the product life cycle. It was put forward and substantiated by R. Vernoy, Ch. Kindelberger and L. Wels. In their opinion, the product from the moment it enters the market until it leaves it goes through a cycle consisting of five stages:

• product development. The company finds and implements a new product idea. During this time, sales are zero and costs rise.
• bringing the product to market. There is no profit due to the high costs of marketing activities, sales volume is growing slowly;
• quick market conquest, increase in profits;
• maturity. Sales growth is slowing down, as the bulk of consumers have already been attracted. The level of profit remains unchanged or decreases due to an increase in the cost of marketing activities to protect the product from competition;
• decline. Decline in sales and shrinking profits.

Theory of M. Porter. This theory introduces the concept of a country's competitiveness. It is national competitiveness, according to Porter, that determines the success or failure in specific industries and the place that the country occupies in the world economy. National competitiveness is determined by the ability of the industry. At the heart of explaining a country's competitive advantage is the home country's role in stimulating renewal and improvement (that is, in stimulating the production of innovations). Government measures to maintain competitiveness:

• government impact on factor conditions;
• government influence on demand conditions;
• government impact on related and supporting industries;
• government influence on the strategy, structure and rivalry of firms.

A serious incentive to success in the global market is sufficient competition in the domestic market. The artificial dominance of enterprises through government support, in Porter's view, is a negative decision that leads to waste and inefficient use of resources. The theoretical premises of M. Porter served as the basis for the development of recommendations at the state level to increase the competitiveness of foreign trade goods in Australia, New Zealand and the United States in the 90s of the twentieth century.

Rybchinsky's theorem. The theorem consists in the assertion that if the value of one of the two factors of production increases, then in order to maintain a constant price for goods and factors, it is necessary to increase the production of those products that intensively use this increased factor, and reduce the production of the rest of the products that intensively use the fixed factor. In order for the prices of goods to remain constant, the prices of factors of production must remain unchanged. The prices of factors of production can only remain constant if the ratio of the factors used in the two industries remains constant. In the case of an increase in one factor, this can only happen if there is an increase in production in the industry in which this factor is intensively used, and a decrease in production in another industry, which will lead to the release of a fixed factor, which will become available for use along with a growing factor in an expanding industry. .

Theory of Samuelson and Stolper. In the middle of the XX century. (1948), American economists P. Samuelson and W. Stolper improved the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, imagining that in the case of homogeneity of factors of production, identity of technology, perfect competition and complete mobility of goods, international exchange equalizes the price of factors of production between countries. The authors base their concept on the Ricardian model with the additions of Heckscher and Ohlin and consider trade not just as a mutually beneficial exchange, but also as a means to reduce the gap in the level of development between countries.

Development and structure of international trade

International trade is a form of exchange of products of labor in the form of goods and services between sellers and buyers of different countries. The characteristics of international trade are the volume of world trade, the commodity structure of exports and imports and its dynamics, as well as the geographical structure of international trade. Export is the sale of goods to a foreign buyer with its export abroad. Import - purchase from foreign sellers of goods with its import from abroad.

Modern international trade is developing at a fairly high pace. Among the main trends in the development of international trade are the following:

1. There is a predominant development of trade in comparison with the branches of material production and the entire world economy as a whole. Thus, according to some estimates, over the period of the 1950s–1990s, the world's GDP increased by about 5 times, and commodity exports by at least 11 times. Accordingly, if in 2000 the world's GDP was estimated at $30 trillion, then the volume of international trade - exports plus imports - was $12 trillion.

2. In the structure of international trade, the share of manufacturing products is growing (up to 75%), of which more than 40% are engineering products. Only 14% is fuel and other raw materials, the share of agricultural products is about 9%, clothing and textiles - 3%.

3. Among the changes in the geographical direction of international trade flows, there is an increase in the role of developed countries and China. However, developing countries (mainly due to the promotion of new industrial countries with a pronounced export orientation from among them) managed to significantly increase their influence in this area. In 1950, they accounted for only 16% of world trade, and by 2001 - already 41.2%.

Since the second half of the 20th century, the uneven dynamics of foreign trade has manifested itself. In the 1960s, Western Europe was the main center of international trade. Its exports were almost 4 times higher than those of the United States. By the end of the 1980s, Japan began to emerge as a leader in terms of competitiveness. In the same period, it was joined by the "new industrial countries" of Asia - Singapore, Hong Kong Taiwan. However, by the mid-1990s, the United States was taking the world's leading position in terms of competitiveness. Export of goods and services in the world in 2007, according to the WTO, amounted to 16 trillion. USD. The share of the group of goods is 80%, and services - 20% of the total volume of trade in the world.

4. The most important direction in the development of foreign trade is intracompany trade within TNCs. According to some data, intra-company international deliveries account for up to 70% of all world trade, 80–90% of sales of licenses and patents. Since TNCs are the most important link in the world economy, world trade is at the same time trade within TNCs.

5. Trade in services is expanding, and in several ways. Firstly, this is a cross-border supply, for example, distance learning. Another mode of supply of services, consumption abroad, involves the movement of the consumer or the transfer of his property to the country where the service is provided, for example, the service of a guide on a tourist trip. The third way is a commercial presence, such as the operation of a foreign bank or restaurant in the country. And the fourth way is the movement of individuals who are service providers abroad, for example, doctors or teachers. The most developed countries of the world are the leaders in trade in services.

Regulation of international trade

The regulation of international trade is divided into state regulation and regulation through international agreements and the creation of international organizations.

Methods of state regulation of international trade can be divided into two groups: tariff and non-tariff.

1. Tariff methods are reduced to the use of customs duties - special taxes that are levied on products of international trade. Customs tariffs are a fee charged by the state for the clearance of goods and other valuables being transported abroad. Such a fee, called a duty, is included in the price of the goods and is ultimately paid by the consumer. Customs taxation involves the use of import duties to hinder the importation of foreign goods into the country, export duties are used less often.

According to the form of calculation, fees are distinguished:

a) ad valorem, which are charged as a percentage of the price of the goods;

b) specific, charged in the form of a certain amount of money from the volume, weight or unit of goods.

The most important purposes of using import duties are both the direct restriction of imports and the restriction of competition, including unfair competition. Its extreme form is dumping - the sale of goods on the foreign market at prices lower than those existing for an identical product on the domestic market.

2. Non-tariff methods are diverse and represent a set of direct and indirect restrictions on foreign economic activity through an extensive system of economic, political and administrative measures. These include:

• quotas (contingenting) - the establishment of quantitative parameters within which it is possible to carry out certain foreign trade operations. In practice, contingents are usually established in the form of lists of goods, the free import or export of which is limited to a percentage of the volume or value of their national production. When the quantity or amount of the contingent is exhausted, the export (import) of the relevant product is terminated;
• licensing - issuance of special permits (licenses) to business entities for conducting foreign trade operations. It is often used in conjunction with quotas to control license-based quotas. In some cases, the licensing system acts as a kind of customs taxation applied by the country to obtain additional customs revenues;
• embargo - a ban on export-import operations. It may apply to a specific group of goods or be introduced in relation to individual countries;
• currency control - a restriction in the monetary sphere. For example, a financial quota may limit the amount of currency an exporter can receive. Quantitative restrictions may apply to the volume of foreign investment, the amount of foreign currency exported by citizens abroad, etc.;
• taxes on export-import transactions - taxes as non-tariff measures that are not regulated by international agreements, like customs duties, and therefore are levied on both domestic and foreign goods. Government subsidies for exporters are also possible;
• administrative measures, which are mainly related to restrictions on the quality of goods sold on the domestic market. An important place is occupied by national standards. Failure to comply with the standards of the country may serve as a reason for the ban on the import of imported products and their sale on the domestic market. Similarly, a system of national transport tariffs often creates an advantage in paying freight to exporters over importers. In addition, other forms of indirect restrictions can also be used: the closure of certain ports and railway stations for foreigners, an order to use a certain share of national raw materials in the production of products, a ban on the purchase of imported goods by state organizations in the presence of national analogues, etc.

The high importance of MT for the development of the world economy has led to the creation by the world community of special international regulatory organizations, whose efforts are aimed at developing rules, principles, procedures for the implementation of international trade transactions and monitoring their execution by member states of these organizations.

A special role in the regulation of international trade is played by multilateral agreements operating within the framework of:

• GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade);
• WTO();
• GATS (General Agreement on Trade in Services);
• TRIPS (Treaty-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights);

GATT. In accordance with the fundamental provisions of the GATT, trade between countries should be carried out on the basis of the most favored nation (MFN) principle, i.e., the most favored nation treatment (MFN) is established in the trade of GATT member countries, guaranteeing equality and non-discrimination. However, at the same time, exceptions from the NSP were established for countries that are members of economic integration groups; for countries, former colonies, which are in traditional relations with the former mother countries; for border and coastal trade. According to the most rough estimates, “exceptions” account for at least 60% of world trade in finished goods, which deprives PNP of universality.

GATT recognizes as the only acceptable means of regulating the MT customs tariffs, which are iteratively (from round to round) reduced. Currently, their average level is 3-5%. But here, too, there are exceptions that allow the use of non-tariff remedies (quotas, export and import licenses, tax incentives). These include cases of application of agricultural production regulation programs, violation of the balance of payments, implementation of regional development programs and assistance.

GATT contains the principle of renunciation of unilateral actions and decision-making in favor of negotiations and consultations, if such actions (decisions) can lead to restriction of freedom of trade.

GATT - the predecessor of the WTO - made its decisions at the negotiations rounds of all members of this Agreement. There were eight in total. The most significant decisions that have guided the WTO in regulating the MT to date were taken at the last (eighth) Uruguay Round (1986-1994). This round further expanded the range of issues regulated by the WTO. It included trade in services, as well as a program to reduce customs duties, intensify efforts to regulate the MT with the products of certain industries (including agriculture) and strengthen control over those areas of national economic policy that affect the country's foreign trade.

It was decided to escalate customs duties as the degree of processing of goods increases while reducing duties on raw materials and eliminating them for certain types of alcoholic beverages, construction and agricultural equipment, office furniture, toys, pharmaceutical products - only 40% of world imports. The liberalization of trade in clothing, textiles and agricultural products continued. But customs duties are recognized as the last and only means of regulation.

In the field of anti-dumping measures, the concepts of "legitimate subsidies" and "eligible subsidies" were adopted, which include subsidies aimed at environmental protection and regional development, provided that their amount is not less than 3% of the total value of imports of goods or 1% of its total cost. All the rest are classified as illegal and their use in foreign trade is prohibited.

Among the issues of economic regulation that indirectly affect foreign trade, the Uruguay Round included requirements for a minimum export of goods produced at the joint venture, the mandatory use of local components, and a number of others.

WTO. The Uruguay Round decided to create the WTO, which became the legal successor of the GATT and retained its main provisions. But the decisions of the round supplemented them with the objectives of ensuring free trade not only through liberalization, but also through the use of so-called linkages. The meaning of linkages is that any government decision to increase the tariff is taken simultaneously (in conjunction with) the decision to liberalize imports of other goods. The WTO is outside the scope of the UN. This allows it to pursue its own independent policy and control over the activities of the participating countries to comply with the adopted agreements.

GATS. Certain specifics are different regulation of international trade in services. This is due to the fact that services, characterized by an extreme variety of forms and content, do not form a single market that would have common features. But it has general tendencies that make it possible to regulate it at the global level, even taking into account the new moments in its development that are introduced by TNCs that dominate it and monopolize it. Currently, the global services market is regulated at four levels: international (global), sectoral (global), regional and national.

General regulation at the global level is carried out within the framework of the GATS, which entered into force on January 1, 1995. Its regulation uses the same rules that were developed by the GATT in relation to goods: non-discrimination, national treatment, transparency (publicity and unity of reading laws), non-application of national laws to the detriment of foreign manufacturers. However, the implementation of these rules is hampered by the peculiarities of services as a commodity: the lack of a real form of most of them, the coincidence of the time of production and consumption of services. The latter means that the regulation of the terms of trade in services means the regulation of the conditions for their production, and this in turn means the regulation of the conditions for investing in their production.

GATS includes three parts: a framework agreement that defines the general principles and rules for regulating trade in services; special agreements acceptable to individual service industries; and a list of commitments by national governments to eliminate restrictions on service industries. Thus, only one level, the regional level, falls out of the field of activity of the GATS.

The GATS agreement is aimed at liberalizing trade in services and covers the following types of services: services in the field of telecommunications, finance and transport. The issues of export sales of films and television programs are excluded from the scope of its activities, which is associated with the fears of individual states (European countries) of losing the originality of their national culture.

Sectoral regulation of international trade in services is also carried out on a global scale, which is associated with their global production and consumption. Unlike GATS, the institutions that regulate these services are specialized. For example, civil air transportation is regulated by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), foreign tourism is regulated by the World Tourism Organization (WTO), maritime transportation is regulated by the International Maritime Organization (IMO).

The regional level of international trade in services is regulated within the framework of economic integration groupings, in which restrictions on mutual trade in services are lifted (as, for example, in the EU) and restrictions on such trade with third countries may be introduced.

The national level of regulation concerns foreign trade in services of individual states. It is implemented through bilateral trade agreements, which may include trade in services. A significant place in such agreements is given to the regulation of investments in the service sector.

Source - World economy: textbook / E.G. Guzhva, M.I. Lesnaya, A.V. Kondratiev, A.N. Egorov; SPbGASU. - St. Petersburg, 2009. - 116 p.

For the collection of statistical data on foreign trade operations, the assessment of VO is very important, since it is then used to calculate:

• trade balance;
• average prices;
• efficiency of foreign trade operations in general and other significant parameters.

Foreign trade turnover is closely related to the concept of foreign trade.

What is foreign trade

Trade relations of one state with other countries, including import operations (import) and export operations (export) of goods, are called foreign trade. This term applies exclusively to individual countries.

Foreign trade helps:

• receive additional income from the sale of the national product abroad;
• to saturate the internal market of the state;
• increase labor productivity;
• cope with limited resources within the country.

In the aggregate, foreign trade transactions of different states form world (international) trade. International trade is the oldest form of economic relations between states, which has a huge impact on the development of the world economy as a whole.

How is foreign trade turnover calculated?

So, the main concepts of foreign trade are export and import.

• Exports - the total volume of goods produced in the country, which is exported from it for a certain time period.
• Import - a set of goods produced outside a certain state and imported into it for a certain period.

Export and import transactions are recorded at the moment when the goods cross the border. They are displayed in foreign economic and customs statistics. The export operation of the state-seller corresponds to the import operation of the state-buyer.

As a rule, exports are recorded at FOB (free of board) prices. In international trade relations, this means that the price of the goods includes the costs of its transportation on board an international vessel or other transport and insurance until the completion of loading.

Imports are accounted for at CIF prices (cost, insurance, freight). This means that the price of the goods includes the costs of its transportation and insurance, customs fees to the port of shipment of the buyer. That is, all these costs are borne by the seller. The formula for the total volume of foreign trade turnover is as follows:

VO = Import of goods + Export of goods

The country's VO is calculated in monetary units, since different goods cannot be compared in physical terms, for example, in tons, liters or meters.

How is the balance of foreign trade turnover calculated?

The balance of foreign trade turnover is also a significant concept for assessing the economy of a particular country. It can be calculated using the following formula:

VO balance \u003d Export of goods - import of goods

The balance of foreign trade turnover can be either positive or negative. A positive VO balance (the state sells more than it buys) indicates the growth of the economy. On the contrary, a negative balance indicates that the market is oversaturated with imported goods, and the interests of the domestic producer may be infringed.

World trade turnover

World trade is the sum of the exports of all countries, which is expressed in US dollars.

The participation of a state in world trade is displayed by such indicators as export and import quotas.

• Export quota - the ratio of export operations to gross domestic product (GDP). This indicator allows you to understand what part of the goods and services produced within the state is sold on the international market.
• Import quota - the ratio of import operations to the volume of domestic consumption of the state's products. Shows the share of goods imported into the country in domestic consumption.

Statistical data on world foreign trade turnover are collected, summarized and systematized. For this, international nomenclatures were developed (they are taken into account in the course of building national foreign trade classifications).