A particle of matter in quantum physics. How quantum physics is changing the world. Dark energy and dark matter
The content of the article
JAPANESE ART. Since ancient times, Japanese art has been characterized by active creativity. Despite the dependence on China, where new artistic and aesthetic trends were constantly emerging, Japanese artists always introduced new features and changed the art of their teachers, giving it a Japanese look.
The history of Japan as such begins to take definite forms only at the end of the 5th century. Relatively few items dating back to previous centuries (the archaic period) have been found, although some finds made during excavations or during construction work speak of remarkable artistic talent.
archaic period.
The oldest works of Japanese art are clay pots of the Jomon type (cord impression). The name comes from the decoration of the surface with spiral impressions of a cord wrapped around the sticks that the master used to make the vessel. Perhaps, at first, the masters accidentally discovered prints of wickerwork, but then they began to use them consciously. Sometimes cord-like clay curls were stuck on the surface, creating a more complex decorative effect, almost a relief. The first Japanese sculpture originated in the Jomon culture. Dogu (lit. "clay image") of a person or animal probably had some kind of religious significance. Images of people, mostly women, are very similar to the clay goddesses of other primitive cultures.
Radiocarbon analysis shows that some finds from the Jomon culture may date back to 6000–5000 BC, but such an early date is not generally accepted. Of course, such dishes were made for a long time, and although exact dates cannot yet be established, three periods are distinguished. The oldest samples have a pointed base and are almost unornamented, except for the traces of a potter's tool. Vessels of the middle period are more richly ornamented, sometimes with molded elements that create the impression of volume. The forms of the vessels of the third period are very diverse, but the decor flattens again and becomes more restrained.
Approximately in the 2nd century. BC. Jōmon ceramics gave way to Yayoi ceramics, characterized by elegance of form, simplicity of design and high technical quality. The shard of the vessel became thinner, the ornament less whimsical. This type prevailed until the 3rd c. AD
From an artistic point of view, perhaps the best works of the early period are khaniwa, clay cylinders dating from the 3rd to 5th centuries. AD Characteristic monuments of this era are huge hills, or burial mounds, burial structures of emperors and powerful nobility. Often very large in size, they are evidence of the power and wealth of the imperial family and courtiers. The construction of such a structure for Emperor Nintoku-tenno (c. 395–427 AD) took 40 years. The most remarkable feature of these barrows was the clay cylinders surrounding them like a fence, khaniva. Usually these cylinders were quite simple, but sometimes they were decorated with human figures, less often with figures of horses, houses or roosters. Their purpose was twofold: to prevent the erosion of huge masses of earth and to supply the deceased with everything necessary that he used in earthly life. Naturally, the cylinders were made immediately in large quantities. The variety of themes, facial expressions and gestures of the figures decorating them is largely the result of the master's improvisation. Although they are the works of artisans rather than painters and sculptors, they are of great importance as a proper Japanese art form. Buildings, horses wrapped in blankets, prim ladies and warriors present an interesting picture of the military life of early feudal Japan. It is possible that the prototypes of these cylinders appeared in China, where various objects were placed directly into burials, but the execution and use of the haniwa belong to the local tradition.
The archaic period is often viewed as a time devoid of works of a high artistic level, a time of dominance of things that have mainly archaeological and ethnological value. However, it should be remembered that the works of this early culture had a great vitality as a whole, since their forms survived and continued to exist as specific national features of Japanese art in later periods.
Asuka period
(552–710 AD). Introduction of Buddhism in the middle of the 6th c. made significant changes in the way of life and thinking of the Japanese and became the impetus for the development of the art of this and subsequent periods. The arrival of Buddhism from China through Korea is traditionally dated to 552 AD, but it was probably known earlier. In the early years, Buddhism faced political opposition, opposition to the national religion of Shinto, but after only a few decades, the new faith received official approval and was finally established. In the early years of its penetration into Japan, Buddhism was a relatively simple religion with a small number of deities who needed images, but after about a hundred years it gained strength and the pantheon grew enormously.
During this period, temples were founded, which served not only for the purposes of promoting the faith, but were centers of art and education. The monastery-temple at Horyu-ji is one of the most important for the study of early Buddhist art. Among other treasures, there is a statue of the great triad Syaka-Nerai (623 AD). This work by Tori Busshi, the first great Japanese sculptor known to us, is a stylized bronze image, similar to similar groups in the great cave temples of China. Strict frontality is observed in the pose of a seated Shaki (Japanese transcription of the word "shakyamuni", the historical Buddha) and two figures standing on the sides of him. The forms of the human figure are hidden by heavy symmetrical folds of schematically rendered clothes, and in smooth elongated faces one can feel a dreamy self-absorption and contemplation. The sculpture of this first Buddhist period is based on the style and prototypes from the mainland fifty years ago; it faithfully follows the Chinese tradition that came to Japan through Korea.
Some of the most important sculptures of this time were made of bronze, but wood was also used. The two most famous wooden sculptures are statues of the goddess Kannon: Yumedono Kannon and Kudara Kannon, both in Horyuji. They are a more attractive object of worship than the Shaki triad, with their archaic smiles and dreamy expressions. Although the arrangement of the folds of the robes in the Kannon figures is also schematic and symmetrical, they are lighter and full of movement. Tall, slender figures emphasize the spirituality of the faces, their abstract kindness, distant from all worldly concerns, but sensitive to the pleas of the afflicted. The sculptor paid some attention to the outlines of the figure of Kudara Kannon, hidden by the folds of clothing, and in contrast to the jagged silhouette of Yumedono, the movement of both the figure and the fabric is directed in depth. In Kudar's profile, Kannon has a graceful S-shape.
The only surviving example of painting that gives an idea of the style of the early 7th century is Tamamushi Zushi, the “winged shrine”. This miniature sanctuary takes its name from the iridescent beetle wings set into a perforated metal frame; later it was decorated with religious compositions and figures of individual characters, made with colored lacquer. Like the sculpture of this period, some of the images show great freedom of design.
Nara period
(710–784). In 710 the capital was moved to Nara, a new city modeled after the Chinese capital Chang'an. There were wide streets, large palaces, numerous Buddhist temples. Not only Buddhism in all its aspects, but the whole of Chinese cultural and political life was seen as a role model. No other country, perhaps, has felt the insufficiency of its own culture to such an extent and has not been so susceptible to outside influences. Scholars and pilgrims moved freely between Japan and the mainland, and administration and palace life were modeled after China during the Tang Dynasty. However, it must be remembered that, despite imitating the models of Tang China, especially in art, perceiving its influence and style, the Japanese almost always adapted foreign forms to their own.
In sculpture, the strict frontality and symmetry of the previous Asuka period gave way to freer forms. The development of ideas about the gods, increased technical skill and freedom of ownership of the material allowed artists to create closer and more accessible iconic images. The founding of new Buddhist sects expanded the pantheon to include even the saints and founders of Buddhism. In addition to bronze sculpture, a large number of works made of wood, clay and lacquer are known. The stone was rare and almost never used for sculpture. Dry lacquer was especially popular, perhaps because, despite the complexity of the process of preparing the composition, works made from it looked more spectacular than wood and were stronger than clay products that were easier to manufacture. Lacquer figures were formed on a wooden or clay base, which was then removed, or on wooden or wire fittings; they were light and strong. Although this technique dictated some rigidity in poses, a great deal of freedom was allowed in the depiction of faces, which partly contributed to the development of what may be called portrait sculpture proper. The image of the deity's face was performed in accordance with the strict prescriptions of the Buddhist canons, but the popularity and even the deification of some of the founders and preachers of the faith provided excellent opportunities for conveying portrait resemblance. Such a similarity can be traced in the dry lacquer sculpture of the Chinese patriarch Genjin, revered in Japan, located in the Toshodaiji temple. Genjin was blind when he arrived in Japan in 753, and his sightless eyes and enlightened state of inner contemplation are beautifully rendered by an unknown sculptor. This realistic trend was most clearly expressed in the wooden sculpture of the preacher Kui, created by the sculptor Kosho in the 13th-14th centuries. The preacher is dressed as a wandering beggar with a staff, a gong and a mallet, and small figures of the Buddha come out of his half-open mouth. Not satisfied with the image of the singing monk, the sculptor attempted to express the innermost meaning of his words.
The images of the Buddha of the Nara period are also distinguished by great realism. Created for an ever-increasing number of temples, they are not as imperturbably cold and reserved as their predecessors, have a more graceful beauty and nobility, and turn to the people who worship them with more favor.
Very few paintings from this period have survived. The multicolor drawing on paper depicts the past and present lives of the Buddha. This is one of the few ancient examples of emakimono, or scroll painting. The scrolls were slowly unrolled from right to left, and the viewer could only enjoy the part of the picture that was between the hands unrolling the scroll. The illustrations were directly above the text, in contrast to later scrolls, where a section of text alternated with an explanatory image. In these oldest surviving examples of scroll painting, outlined figures are set against the background of a barely outlined landscape, and the central character, in this case Syaka, appears in various episodes.
Early Heian
(784–897). In 784 the capital was temporarily moved to Nagaoka, partly to avoid the dominance of Nara's Buddhist clergy. In 794 she moved to Heian (now Kyoto) for a longer period. Late 8th and 9th centuries were a period when Japan successfully assimilated, adapting to its own characteristics, many foreign innovations. The Buddhist religion also experienced a time of change, the emergence of new sects of esoteric Buddhism, with its developed ritual and etiquette. Of these, the most influential were the Tendai and Shingon sects, which originated in India, reached China, and from there were brought to Japan by two scholars who returned to their homeland after a long apprenticeship. The Shingon ("True Words") sect was especially liked at court and quickly occupied a dominant position. Its main monasteries were located on Mount Koya near Kyoto; like other important Buddhist centers, they became the repository of huge collections of art monuments.
Sculpture 9th c. was mostly wood. The images of deities were distinguished by severity and inaccessible grandeur, which was emphasized by the solemnity of their appearance and massiveness. Draperies were skillfully cut according to standard patterns, scarves lay in waves. The standing Shaki figure from the temple at Muroji is an example of this style. For this and similar images of the 9th century. characterized by rigid carving with deeper, clear folds and other details.
The increase in the number of gods created great difficulties for artists. In complex, map-like mandalas (a geometric design with magical meaning), the deities were hierarchically arranged around a centrally placed Buddha, who himself was only one manifestation of the absolute. At this time, a new manner of depicting the figures of guardian deities surrounded by flames, terrible in appearance, but beneficent in nature, appeared. These deities were arranged asymmetrically and depicted in moving poses, with formidable facial features, fiercely protecting the faith from possible dangers.
Middle and Late Heian, or Fujiwara period
(898–1185). The transfer of the capital to Heian, which was intended to evade the difficult demands of the clergy, also caused changes in the political system. The nobility was the dominant force, and the Fujiwara family became its most characteristic representatives. Period 10th–12th centuries often associated with this name. A period of special power began, when real emperors were "strongly advised" to leave aside the affairs of the state for the sake of more pleasant pursuits of poetry and painting. Until he came of age, the emperor was led by a strict regent, usually from the Fujiwara family. It was an age of luxury and remarkable achievements in literature, calligraphy and art; everything felt languid and emotional, which rarely reached depth, but on the whole was charming. Elegant sophistication and escapism were reflected in the art of this time. Even the adherents of Buddhism were looking for easier ways, and the worship of the heavenly Buddha, Amida, became especially popular. The notions of compassion and saving grace of the Buddha Amida were deeply reflected in the painting and sculpture of this period. The massiveness and restraint of the statues of the 9th c. in the 10th-11th centuries. gave way to bliss and charm. The deities are depicted as dreamy, thoughtfully calm, the carving becomes less deep, the surface becomes more colorful, with a richly developed texture. The most important monuments of this period belong to the sculptor Jocho.
The works of artists also acquired softer features, reminiscent of drawings on fabric, and even the terrible deities - the defenders of the faith - became less intimidating. Sutras (Buddhist texts) were written in gold and silver on deep blue-toned paper, the fine calligraphy of the text often preceded by a small illustration. The most popular branches of Buddhism and the deities associated with them reflect the preferences of the aristocracy and the gradual departure from the harsh ideals of early Buddhism.
The atmosphere of this time and his works are partly connected with the termination of formal relations with China in 894. Buddhism in China at that time was persecuted, and the corrupt Tang court was in a state of decline. The secluded island existence that followed this disconnection prompted the Japanese to turn to their own culture and develop a new, purer Japanese style. Indeed, secular painting of the 10th-12th centuries. was almost entirely Japanese - both in technique and in composition and plots. A distinctive feature of these Japanese scrolls, called yamato-e, was the predominance of engi plots (origin, history). While the Chinese scrolls most often depicted vast amazing nature, panoramas of mountains, streams, rocks and trees, and people seemed relatively insignificant, on the narrative scrolls of the Japanese in the drawing and text, the person was the main thing. The landscape played only the role of a background for the story being told, subordinate to the main character or persons. Many scrolls were painted chronicles of the life of famous Buddhist preachers or historical figures, their travels and military campaigns. Others told about romantic episodes from the life of the nobility and courtiers.
The apparently idiosyncratic style of the early scrolls came from simple ink sketches on the pages of Buddhist notebooks. These are skilful drawings that caricature human behavior through images of animals: a monkey in monastic clothes worshiping an inflated frog, competitions between hares, monkeys and frogs. These and other late Heian scrolls provided the basis for more complex narrative scrolls in the developed style of the 13th and 14th centuries.
Kamakura period
(1185–1392). Late 12th century brought serious changes to the political and religious life of Japan and, of course, to its art. The elegance and aestheticism of the Kyoto court was replaced or, in the tradition of "special" rule, "received an addition" in the form of a new, harsh and courageous rule - the Kamakura shogunate. Although Kyoto nominally remained the capital, the shogun Minamoto no Yoritomo (1147–1199) established his headquarters in the city of Kamakura and in just 25 years established a rigid system of military dictatorship and feudalism. Buddhism, which had become so complex and ritualized that it was incomprehensible to ordinary lay people, also underwent a major change that did not promise patronage of the arts. The Yodo (“Pure Land”) sect, a form of worship of the Buddha Amida, under the leadership of Honen Shonin (1133–1212), reformed the hierarchy of buddhas and deities and gave hope of salvation to all who simply believed in Amida. This doctrine of an easily attainable paradise was later simplified by another monk, Shinran (1173–1262), the founder of the Shin sect, who recognized that Amida's indulgence was so great that there was no need to perform religious acts, just repeating the incantation "Namu Amida Butsu" (the first word means "submit"; the second two are "Buddha Amida"). Such a simple way of saving a soul was extremely attractive, and now millions use it. A generation later, the militant preacher Nichiren (1222-1282), after whom the sect is named, abandoned this simplified form of religion. His followers revered the Lotus Sutra, which did not promise instant and unconditional salvation. His sermons often touched on political topics, and his beliefs and proposed reforms of church and state appealed to the new warrior class in Kamakura. Finally, the philosophy of Zen, which arose as early as the 8th century, began to play an ever greater role in Buddhist thought of that period. Zen emphasized the importance of meditation and contempt for any images that might hinder man in his quest to connect with God.
So, it was a time when religious thought limited the number of paintings and sculptures previously needed for worship. Nevertheless, some of the finest works of Japanese art were created during the Kamakura period. The stimulus was the inherent Japanese love for art, but the key to the puzzle is in the attitude of the people to new creeds, and not in dogmas as such. Indeed, the works themselves suggest the reason for their creation, because many of these sculptures and paintings full of life and energy are portraits. Although Zen philosophy may have considered ordinary objects of religious worship as a barrier to enlightenment, the tradition of revering teachers was quite acceptable. The portrait itself could not be an object of worship. This attitude towards the portrait was not unique to Zen Buddhism: many ministers of the Pure Land sect were revered almost like Buddhist deities. Thanks to the portrait, even a new architectural form appeared - the mieido, or portrait chapel. The rapid development of realism was entirely in the spirit of the times.
Although the picturesque portraits of the priests were obviously indeed images of specific people, they were often reworkings of paintings depicting the Chinese founders of Buddhism. They were painted preaching, mouths open, hands gesticulating; sometimes mendicant monks were depicted making a difficult journey for the glory of faith.
One of the most popular plots was raigo (desired arrival), which depicted the Buddha Amida with his companions, descending on a cloud in order to save the soul of a believer on his deathbed and transfer it to paradise. The colors of such images were often enhanced by applied gold, and wavy lines, fluttering capes, swirling clouds gave a sense of movement to the descent of the Buddha.
Unkei, who worked in the second half of the 12th and early 13th centuries, was the author of an innovation that made it easier to carve wood, which remained the favorite material of sculptors during the Kamakura period. Previously, the master was limited by the size and shape of the deck or log from which the figure was cut. The arms and clothing elements were superimposed separately, but the finished piece often resembled the original cylindrical shape. In the new technique, dozens of small pieces were carefully fitted to each other, forming a hollow pyramid, from which the apprentices could then rough cut out the figure. The sculptor had at his disposal a more malleable material and the ability to create more complex forms. Muscular temple guards and deities in fluttering capes and robes seemed more alive also because crystal or glass began to be inserted into their eye sockets; statues began to be decorated with gilded bronze. They became lighter and less likely to crack as the wood dried. The mentioned wooden statue of Kuya Shonin, the work of Unkei's son Kosho, demonstrates the highest achievement of realism of the Kamakura era in portrait sculpture. Indeed, sculpture at that time reached its apogee in its development, and subsequently it no longer occupied such a prominent place in art.
Secular painting also reflected the spirit of the time. The narrative scrolls of the late Heian period, in restrained colors and graceful lines, told of the romantic escapades of Prince Genji or the entertainments of the reclusive ladies of the court. Now, with bright colors and energetic strokes, the artists of the Kamakura era depicted the battles of warring clans, palaces engulfed in flames and frightened people fleeing from attacking troops. Even when a religious story unfolded on the scroll, the image was not so much an icon as a historical evidence of the travels of holy people and the miracles they performed. In the design of these plots, one can find a growing love for nature and admiration for native landscapes.
Muromachi, or Ashikaga period
(1392–1568). In 1392, after more than 50 years of strife, the third shogun of the Ashikaga family, Yoshimitsu (1358–1408), reunited the country. The seat of government again became the nominal capital of Kyoto, where the Ashikaga shoguns built their palaces in the Muromachi quarter. (This period is sometimes called Muromachi, sometimes Ashikaga.) Wartime did not spare many temples - repositories of Japanese art, which were burned along with the treasures that were there. The country was severely devastated, and even peace brought little relief, as the warring clans, in their success, handed out favors at their whim. It would seem that the situation was extremely unfavorable for the development of art, but in reality the Ashikaga shoguns patronized it, especially in the 15th and 16th centuries, when painting flourished.
The most significant art of this time was the monochrome poetic ink drawings encouraged by Zen Buddhism and influenced by the Chinese designs of the Song and Yuan dynasties. During the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), contacts with China were renewed, and Yoshimitsu, a collector and patron of art, encouraged the collection and study of Chinese painting. She became a model and starting point for gifted artists who painted landscapes, birds, flowers, images of priests and sages with light and fluent brush strokes. Japanese painting of this time is characterized by economy of line; the artist seems to extract the quintessence of the depicted plot, allowing the viewer's gaze to fill it with details. The transitions of gray and shiny black ink in these paintings are very close to the philosophy of Zen, which, of course, inspired their authors. Although this creed reached considerable influence even under the military power of Kamakura, it continued to spread rapidly in the 15th and 16th centuries, when numerous Zen monasteries arose. Preaching mainly the idea of "self-salvation", it did not associate salvation with the Buddha, but rather relied on the severe self-discipline of man to achieve a sudden intuitive "enlightenment" that united him with the absolute. The sparing but bold use of ink and the asymmetrical composition, in which the unpainted parts of the paper played a significant role in depicting idealized landscapes, sages and scientists, were in keeping with this philosophy.
One of the most famous exponents of sumi-e, a style of monochrome ink painting, was Sesshu (1420–1506), a Zen priest whose long and prolific life ensured him continued veneration. At the end of his life, he began to use the haboku (quick ink) style, which, in contrast to the mature style, which required clear, economical strokes, brought the tradition of monochrome painting almost to abstraction.
The activity of the Kano family of artists and the development of their style fall on the same period. In terms of the choice of subjects and the use of ink, it was close to Chinese, but remained Japanese in terms of expressive means. Kano, with the support of the shogunate, became the "official" school or artistic style of painting and flourished well into the 19th century.
The naive tradition of yamato-e continued to live in the works of the Tosa school, the second important direction of Japanese painting. In fact, at this time, both schools, Kano and Tosa, were closely related, they were united by an interest in modern life. Motonobu Kano (1476-1559), one of the outstanding artists of this period, not only married his daughter to the famous artist Tosa, but also painted in his manner.
In the 15th-16th centuries. there were only a few noteworthy works of sculpture. It should be noted, however, that the development of the noo drama, with its variety of moods and emotions, opened up a new field of activity for sculptors - they carved masks for actors. In classical Japanese drama performed by and for the aristocracy, the actors (one or more) wore masks. They conveyed a range of feelings from fear, anxiety and confusion to restrained joy. Some of the masks were so superbly carved that the slightest turn of the actor's head caused subtle changes in expression. Remarkable examples of these masks have been kept for years by the families for whose members they were made.
Momoyama period
(1568–1615). In 1593, the great military dictator Hideyoshi built his castle on Momoyama, "Peach Hill," and by this name it is customary to designate the period of 47 years from the fall of the Ashikaga shogunate to the establishment of the Tokugawa, or Edo period, in 1615. This was the time of the dominance of a completely new military class, whose great wealth contributed to the flourishing of the arts. Impressive castles with large audience halls and long corridors came into fashion at the end of the 16th century. and demanded ornaments appropriate to their greatness. It was a time of stern and courageous people, and the new patrons, unlike the former aristocracy, were not particularly interested in intellectual pursuits or the subtleties of craftsmanship. Fortunately, the new generation of artists lived up to their patrons. During this period, wonderful screens and movable panels appeared in bright crimson, emerald, green, purple and blue colors. Such exuberant colors and decorative forms, often on a background of gold or silver, were very popular for a hundred years, and their creators were rightly called "great decorators." Thanks to the subtle Japanese taste, the pompous style did not degenerate into vulgarity, and even when restraint and understatement gave way to luxury and decorative excesses, the Japanese managed to maintain elegance.
Eitoku Kano (1543–1590), one of the first great painters of this period, worked in the style of Kano and Tosa, expanding the former's concept of drawing and combining them with the richness of color of the latter. Although only a few works of which Eitoku can be safely identified as the author have survived, he is considered one of the founders of the Momoyama style, and most of the artists of this period were his students or were influenced by him.
Edo or Tokugawa period
(1615–1867). The long period of peace that came to the newly unified Japan is called either the Tokugawa time, after the name of the ruler, or Edo (modern Tokyo), since in 1603 this city became the new center of power. Two famous generals of the brief Momoyama period, Oda Nobunaga (1534–1582) and Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536–1598), through military action and diplomacy, finally managed to reconcile powerful clans and militant clergy. With the death of Hideyoshi in 1598, power passed to Ieyasu Tokugawa (1542–1616), who completed the measures begun jointly. The decisive battle of Sekigahara in 1600 strengthened Ieyasu's position, the fall of Oska Castle in 1615 was accompanied by the final collapse of the Hideyoshi house and the establishment of the undivided rule of the Tokugawa shogunate.
The peaceful rule of the Tokugawa lasted 15 generations and ended only in the 19th century. It was basically a period of "closed doors" policy. By a decree of 1640, foreigners were forbidden access to Japan, and the Japanese could not travel abroad. The only commercial and cultural connection was with the Dutch and Chinese through the port of Nagasaki. As in other periods of isolation, there was an upsurge of national feelings and the emergence at the end of the 17th century. the so-called school of genre painting and engraving.
The rapidly growing capital of Edo became the center of not only the political and business life of the island empire, but also the center of arts and crafts. The requirement that daimyo, the provincial feudal lords, be in the capital for a certain part of each year created a need for new buildings, including palace buildings, and hence for artists to decorate them. A concurrently emerging class of wealthy but non-aristocratic merchants provided new and often unprofessional patronage to artists.
The art of the early Edo period partly continues and develops the Momoyama style, intensifying its tendencies towards luxury and splendor. The richness of bizarre images and polychromy inherited from the previous period continues to develop. This decorative style reached its peak in the last quarter of the 17th century. in the so-called. the Genroku era of the Tokugawa period (1688–1703). In Japanese decorative art, it has no parallels in extravagance and richness of color and decorative motifs in painting, fabrics, lacquer, in artistic trifles - attributes of a luxurious lifestyle.
Since we are talking about a relatively late period of history, it is not surprising that the names of many artists and their works have been preserved; here it is possible to name only a few of the most prominent. Among the representatives of the decorative school who lived and worked during the Momoyama and Edo periods are Honnami Koetsu (1558–1637) and Nonomura Sotatsu (d. 1643). Their work demonstrates a remarkable sense of pattern, composition and color. Koetsu, a talented ceramist and lacquer artist, was known for the beauty of his calligraphy. Together with Sotatsu, they created scroll poems that were fashionable at the time. In this combination of literature, calligraphy and painting, the images were not mere illustrations: they created or suggested a mood appropriate to the perception of the text. Ogata Korin (1658–1716) was one of the heirs of the decorative style and, together with his younger brother Ogata Kenzan (1663–1743), perfected its technique. Kenzan, better known as a ceramist than as an artist, fired vessels inscribed with designs of his famous older brother. The revival of this school in the early 19th century. by the poet and painter Sakai Hoitsu (1761–1828) was the last surge in the decorative style. Horitsu's beautiful scrolls and screens combined Korin's sense of drawing with the Maruyama naturalism's interest in nature, resulting in the richness of color and decorative motifs of the earlier period, tempered by the splendor and finesse of the brushstroke.
Along with the polychrome decorative style, traditional Kano school ink drawing continued to be popular. In 1622 Kanō Tanyu (1602–1674) was appointed court painter to the shogun and called to Edo. With his appointment to this position and the establishment of the Edo school of Kano painting in Kobikito, a half-century period of artistic leadership of this tradition began, which restored the prominence of the Kano family and made the works of the Edo period the most significant in Kano painting. Despite the popularity of screens painted with gold and bright colors, created by "great decorators" and rivals, Tangyu, thanks to the strength of his talent and official position, was able to popularize the painting of the revived Kano school among the nobility. Tanyu added power and simplicity to the traditional features of the Kano school, based on a rigid broken line and a well-thought-out arrangement of composition elements on a large free surface.
A new trend, in which the main feature was an interest in nature, began to prevail at the end of the 18th century. Maruyama Okyo (1733–1795), the head of the new school, was a peasant, then became a clergyman, and finally an artist. The first two classes did not bring him happiness or success, but as an artist he reached great heights and is considered the founder of the Maruyama realistic school. He studied with the master of the Kano school, Ishida Yutei (d. c. 1785); on the basis of imported Dutch engravings, he comprehended the Western technique of perspective representation, and sometimes simply copied these engravings. He also studied Chinese styles from the Song and Yuan dynasties, including the subtle and realistic style of Chen Xuan (1235–1290) and Shen Nanping; the latter lived in Nagasaki at the beginning of the 18th century. Okyo made many works from nature, and his scientific observations formed the basis for the perception of nature, on which the Maruyama school was based.
In addition to interest in naturalism in the 18th century. renewed influence of the Chinese artistic tradition. Representatives of this trend gravitated toward the painting school of the Ming (1368–1644) and Qing (1644–1912) painter-scientists, although their understanding of the current state of art in China was probably limited. The art of this Japanese school was called bujinga (the art of educated people). One of the most influential masters of the Bujinga style was Ikeno Taiga (1723–1776), a renowned painter and calligrapher. His mature style is characterized by thick contour lines filled with light feathery strokes in light tones and ink; he also painted with broad, free strokes of black ink, depicting bamboo trunks bowed in the wind and rain. With short, curved lines, he achieved an effect reminiscent of engravings in the image of misty mountains above a lake surrounded by forest.
17th century spawned another remarkable art direction of the Edo period. These are the so-called ukiyo-e (pictures of the changing world) - genre scenes created by and for the common people. Early ukiyo-e originated in the old capital of Kyoto and were mostly picturesque. But the center of their production soon moved to Edo, and the attention of the masters focused on woodcuts. The close association of woodcut printing with ukiyo-e has led to the misconception that woodcut printing was the discovery of this period; in fact, it originated in the 11th century. Such early images were votive in nature, depicting the founders of Buddhism and deities, and during the Kamakura period, some narrative scrolls were reproduced from carved blocks. However, the art of engraving became especially popular in the period from the middle of the 17th to the 19th century.
The subjects of the ukiyo-e engravings were the beautiful courtesans of the gay quarters, favorite actors and scenes from dramas. Early, so-called. primitive engravings were done in black, with strong rhythmic wavy lines, and were distinguished by simple designs. They were sometimes painted by hand in an orange-red color called tan-e (bright red paintings), with mustard yellow and green markings. Some of the "primitive" artists used hand painting called urushu-e (lacquer painting), in which dark areas were enhanced and made brighter by the addition of glue. An early multicolor print, which appeared in 1741 or 1742, was called benizuri-e (crimson print) and usually used three colors - rose red, green, and sometimes yellow. Truly multi-color engravings, using the entire palette and called nishiki-e (brocade images), appeared in 1765.
In addition to creating individual prints, many of the engravers illustrated books and made money by making erotic illustrations in books and on scrolls. It should be borne in mind that ukiyo-e engraving consisted of three types of activity: it was the work of a draftsman, whose name the print bore, a carver and a printer.
Hishikawa Moronobu (c. 1625–1694) is considered to be the founder of the tradition of creating ukiyo-e prints. Other "primitive" artists of this trend are Kiyomasu (1694-1716) and the Kaigetsudo group (a strange community of artists, the existence of which remains unclear), as well as Okumura Masanobu (1686-1764).
Transitional artists who produced benizuri-e prints were Ishikawa Toyonobu (1711–1785), Torii Kiyohiro (active c. 1751–1760), and Torii Kiyomitsu (1735–1785).
The works of Suzuki Harunobu (1725–1770) usher in the era of polychrome engraving. Filled with soft, almost neutral colors, populated by graceful ladies and gallant lovers, Harunobu prints were a great success. Around the same time, Katsukawa Shunsho (1726–1792), Torii Kienaga (1752–1815) and Kitagawa Utamaro (1753–1806) worked with him. Each of them contributed to the development of this genre; masters brought engravings depicting graceful beauties and famous actors to perfection. Over several months in 1794-1795, the mysterious Tosusai Saraku created stunningly strong and frankly cruel portraits of the actors of those days.
In the first decades of the 19th century this genre has reached maturity and began to decline. Katsushika Hokusai (1760-1849) and Ando Hiroshige (1797-1858) are the greatest masters of the era, whose work connects the decline of the art of engraving in the 19th century. and its new revival at the beginning of the 20th century. Both were primarily landscape painters, fixing the events of modern life in their engravings. The brilliant mastery of the technique of carvers and printers made it possible to convey whimsical lines and the slightest shades of the setting sun or fog rising at dawn in the engraving.
The Meiji Restoration and the Modern Period.
It often happens that the ancient art of one or another people is poor in names, dates and surviving works, so any judgments can only be made with great caution and convention. However, it is no less difficult to judge contemporary art, since we are deprived of a historical perspective in order to correctly assess the scale of any movement or artist and his work. The study of Japanese art is no exception, and the most that can be done is to present a panorama of contemporary art and draw some provisional preliminary conclusions.
In the second half of the 19th century Japanese ports were reopened for trade, major changes took place on the political scene. In 1868, the shogunate was abolished and the reign of Emperor Meiji was restored. The official capital and residence of the emperor were moved to Edo, and the city itself became known as Tokyo (eastern capital).
As has happened in the past, the end of national isolation created a great deal of interest in the achievements of other nations. At this time, the Japanese made a huge leap in science and technology. Artistically, the beginning of the Meiji era (1868–1912) demonstrates the acceptance of everything Western, including technology. However, this zeal did not last long, and it was followed by a period of assimilation, the emergence of new forms, combining a return to their own traditions and new Western trends.
Among the painters, Kanō Hōgai (1828–1888), Shimomura Kanzan (1873–1916), Takeuchi Seihō (1864–1924), and Tomioka Tessai (1836–1942) gained prominence. The first three adhered to the traditional Japanese style and subjects, although they sought to show originality in mood and technique. Seihō, for example, worked in the calm and conservative atmosphere of Kyoto. His early works were done in the naturalistic manner of Maruyama, but later he traveled extensively in China and was deeply influenced by Chinese ink painting. His trips to museums and leading art centers in Europe have also left a mark on his work. Of all the prominent artists of this time, only Tomioka Tessai came close to developing a new style. In his energetic and full of strength works, rough, twisted, jagged lines and black ink smudges are combined with finely written patches of color. In later years, some young oil painters succeeded where their grandfathers had failed. The first attempts to work with this unusual material were reminiscent of Parisian canvases and were not distinguished by either special value or specifically Japanese features. However, works of exceptional appeal are now being created, in which a distinctive Japanese sense of color and balance shines through abstract themes. Other artists, working with more natural and traditional ink and sometimes using calligraphy as a starting point, create energetic abstract pieces in brilliant blacks with shades of gray.
As in the Edo period, in the 19th and 20th centuries. sculpture was not popular. But even in this area, representatives of the modern generation, who studied in America and Europe, experimented very successfully. The small bronze sculptures, abstract in form and oddly named, show the Japanese sense of line and color, which manifests itself in the use of a soft green or warm brown patina; woodcarving testifies to the love of the Japanese for the texture of the material.
Sosaku hanga, the Japanese "creative print", appeared only in the first decade of the 20th century, but as a special art direction it eclipsed all other areas of modern art. This modern print is not, strictly speaking, a successor to the older ukiyo-e woodcut; they differ in style, plots and methods of creation. Artists, many of whom were heavily influenced by Western painting, realized the importance of their own artistic heritage and found in wood the right material to express their creative ideals. Hanga masters not only paint, but also carve images on wooden blocks and print them themselves. Although woodworking is at its highest in this art form, all modern Western printmaking techniques are used. Experimenting with leaves, twine and "found objects" in some cases allows you to create unique surface texture effects. At first, the masters of this trend were forced to seek recognition: after all, even the best achievements of the ukiyo-e school were associated by intellectual artists with an illiterate crowd and considered plebeian art. Artists such as Onchi Koshiro, Hiratsuka Unichi, and Maekawa Senpan did much to restore respect for printmaking and establish it as a worthy branch of the fine arts. They attracted many young artists to their group and the engravers now number in the hundreds. Among the masters of this generation who achieved recognition in Japan and in the West are Azechi Umetaro, Munakata Shiko, Yamaguchi Gen and Saito Kiyoshi. These are masters whose innovation and undeniable talent have allowed them to occupy a worthy position among the leading artists of Japan. Many of their peers and other, younger hanga artists also produced remarkable engravings; the fact that we do not mention their names here does not mean a low assessment of their work.
ARTS AND APPLIED ARTS, ARCHITECTURE AND GARDENS
In the previous sections, it was mainly about painting and sculpture, which in most countries are considered the main types of fine arts. Perhaps it is unfair to include at the end of the article the decorative arts and folk crafts, the art of gardens and architecture - forms that were an important and integral part of Japanese art. However, perhaps with the exception of architecture, they require special consideration apart from the general periodization of Japanese art and changes in style.
Ceramics and porcelain.
The most important arts and crafts in Japan are ceramics and porcelain. Ceramic art naturally falls into two categories. The fine polychrome Imari, Nabeshima and Kakiemon china took its name from the places of production, and its rich painting on a cream or bluish-white surface was intended for the nobility and court circles. The process of making real porcelain became known in Japan in the late 16th or early 17th century; plates and bowls with a smooth glaze, with an asymmetrical or brocade-like pattern, are valued both at home and in the West.
In contrast to porcelain in rough clay or low-quality stoneware, typical for Shino, Oribe and Bizen, attention is focused on the material, seemingly careless, but thoughtful arrangement of decorative elements. Influenced by the concepts of Zen Buddhism, such vessels were very popular in intellectual circles and were widely used, especially in tea ceremonies. In many cups, teapots and caddies, attributes of the art of the tea ceremony, the very essence of Zen Buddhism was embodied: tough self-discipline and strict simplicity. During the heyday of Japanese decorative art, talented artists Korin and Kenzan were engaged in decorating ceramic products. It should be remembered that the fame of Kenzan is associated more with his talent as a ceramist, and not as a painter. Some of the simpler types and techniques for making vessels come from folk craft traditions. Modern workshops, continuing the old traditions, produce beautiful products that delight with their elegant simplicity.
Lacquer products.
Already in the 7th-8th centuries. varnish was known in Japan. From this time, the lids of the caskets, decorated with images of people and geometric motifs, applied with thin golden lines, have been preserved. We have already spoken of the importance of the dry-lacquer technique for sculpture in the 8th and 9th centuries; at the same time and later, decorative objects such as letter boxes or incense boxes were made. During the Edo period, these products were made in large quantities and with the most magnificent decoration. Luxuriously decorated boxes for breakfast, for cakes, for incense and medicines, called inro, reflected the wealth and love of luxury inherent in this time. The surface of the objects was decorated with patterns of gold and silver powder, pieces of gold foil, alone or in combination with shell inlays, mother-of-pearl, an alloy of tin and lead, etc.; these patterns contrasted with the lacquered red, black or brown surface. Sometimes artists such as Korin and Koetsu made lacquer designs, but it is unlikely that they personally participated in these works.
Swords.
The Japanese, as has already been said, have been a people of warriors for a considerable period of their history; weapons and armor were considered essential items for a large part of the population. The sword was the pride of a man; both the blade itself and all other parts of the sword, especially the handle (tsuba), were decorated in various techniques. Tsuba made of iron or bronze were decorated with gold and silver inlays, carved, or trimmed with both. They depicted landscapes or figures of people, flowers or family coats of arms (mon). All this complemented the work of sword makers.
Fabrics.
Richly patterned silks and other fabrics, favored by the court and clergy in times of opulence and abundance, as well as plain fabrics with an almost primitive design characteristic of folk art, are also expressions of national Japanese talent. Having reached its peak during the rich era of Genroku, the art of textiles has flourished again in modern Japan. It combines ideas and artificial fibers from the West with traditional colors and decorative motifs.
Gardens.
In recent decades, interest in Japanese gardens and architecture has increased due to the Western public's greater exposure to these art forms. Gardens in Japan have a special place; they are the expression and symbol of high religious and philosophical truths, and these obscure, symbolic overtones, combined with the apparent beauty of gardens, arouse the interest of the Western world. It cannot be said that religious or philosophical ideas were the main reason for the creation of gardens, but when planning and creating a garden, the planner considered such elements, the contemplation of which would lead the viewer to think about various philosophical truths. Here the contemplative aspect of Zen Buddhism is embodied in a group of unusual stones, waves of raked sand and gravel, combined with turf, or plants arranged so that the stream behind them disappears and reappears, all of which encourage the viewer to independently complete the laid down during the construction garden ideas. The preference for vague hints over intelligible explanations is characteristic of Zen philosophy. Bonsai dwarf trees and tiny potted gardens, now popular in the West, have become a continuation of these ideas.
Architecture.
The main architectural monuments of Japan are temples, monastic complexes, feudal castles and palaces. From ancient times to this day, wood has been the main building material and to a large extent determines the design features. The oldest religious buildings are shrines of the national Japanese religion of Shinto; judging by the texts and drawings, they were relatively simple buildings with a thatched roof, like the ancient dwellings. Temple buildings erected after the spread of Buddhism and associated with it were based on Chinese prototypes in style and layout. Buddhist temple architecture has changed over time, and the decor and arrangement of buildings has varied in different sects. Japanese buildings are characterized by large halls with high roofs and a complex system of consoles, and their decor reflects the taste of their time. The simple and majestic architecture of the Horyu-ji complex, built near Nara in the early 7th century, is as characteristic of the Asuka period as the beauty and elegance of the proportions of the Hoodo, Uji's "Phoenix Hall" reflected in the Lotus Lake, is of the Heian period. The more elaborate buildings of the Edo period received additional embellishments in the form of richly painted sliding doors and screens made by the same "great decorators" who decorated the interiors of moated castles and feudal palaces.
The architecture and gardens of Japan are so closely related that they can be considered parts of each other. This is especially true for buildings and garden houses for the tea ceremony. Their openness, simplicity, and carefully crafted connection to landscape and perspective have a great influence on contemporary architecture in the West.
IMPACT OF JAPANESE ART IN THE WEST
Within just one century, the art of Japan became known in the West and had a significant impact on it. There were also earlier contacts (for example, the Dutch traded with Japan through the port of Nagasaki), but the objects that reached Europe in the 17th century were mainly works of applied art - porcelain and lacquerware. They were eagerly collected as curiosities and copied in various ways, but these decorative exports did not reflect the essence and quality of Japanese art and even gave the Japanese an unflattering idea of Western taste.
For the first time, Western painting experienced the direct influence of Japanese art in Europe in 1862 during the huge International Exhibition in London. Introduced at the Paris Exposition five years later, Japanese woodblock prints aroused renewed interest. Several private collections of engravings immediately sprang up. Degas, Manet, Monet, Gauguin, Van Gogh and others took Japanese color prints as a revelation; a slight but always recognizable influence of Japanese printmaking on the Impressionists is often noted. The Americans Whistler and Mary Cassatt were attracted by the restraint of line and the bright colors of ukiyo-e prints and paintings.
The opening of Japan to foreigners in 1868 created a fascination with all things Western and made the Japanese turn away from their own rich culture and artistic heritage. At this time, many beautiful paintings and sculptures were sold and ended up in Western museums and private collections. Exhibitions of these items introduced the West to Japan and stimulated interest in traveling to the Far East. Undoubtedly, the occupation of Japan by American troops at the end of World War II opened up more opportunities than before for acquaintance and deeper study of Japanese temples and their treasures. This interest was reflected in the attendance of American museums. Interest in the Orient in general was caused by the organization of exhibitions of Japanese art selected from Japanese public and private collections and brought to America and Europe.
Scientific research in recent decades has done much to refute the view that Japanese art is only a reflection of Chinese art, and numerous Japanese publications in English have introduced the West to the ideals of the East.
Surely you have heard many times about the inexplicable mysteries of quantum physics and quantum mechanics. Its laws fascinate with mysticism, and even the physicists themselves admit that they do not fully understand them. On the one hand, it is curious to understand these laws, but on the other hand, there is no time to read multi-volume and complex books on physics. I understand you very much, because I also love knowledge and the search for truth, but there is sorely not enough time for all the books. You are not alone, so many inquisitive people type in the search line: “quantum physics for dummies, quantum mechanics for dummies, quantum physics for beginners, quantum mechanics for beginners, basics of quantum physics, basics of quantum mechanics, quantum physics for children, what is quantum Mechanics". This post is for you.
You will understand the basic concepts and paradoxes of quantum physics. From the article you will learn:
- What is quantum physics and quantum mechanics?
- What is interference?
- What is quantum entanglement (or quantum teleportation for dummies)? (see article)
- What is the Schrödinger's Cat thought experiment? (see article)
Quantum mechanics is part of quantum physics.
Why is it so difficult to understand these sciences? The answer is simple: quantum physics and quantum mechanics (a part of quantum physics) study the laws of the microworld. And these laws are absolutely different from the laws of our macrocosm. Therefore, it is difficult for us to imagine what happens to electrons and photons in the microcosm.
An example of the difference between the laws of macro- and microworlds: in our macrocosm, if you put a ball into one of the 2 boxes, then one of them will be empty, and the other - a ball. But in the microcosm (if instead of a ball - an atom), an atom can be simultaneously in two boxes. This has been repeatedly confirmed experimentally. Isn't it hard to put it in your head? But you can't argue with the facts.
One more example. You photographed a fast racing red sports car and in the photo you saw a blurry horizontal strip, as if the car at the time of the photo was from several points in space. Despite what you see in the photo, you are still sure that the car was at the moment when you photographed it. in one specific place in space. Not so in the micro world. An electron that revolves around the nucleus of an atom does not actually revolve, but located simultaneously at all points of the sphere around the nucleus of an atom. Like a loosely wound ball of fluffy wool. This concept in physics is called "electronic cloud" .
A small digression into history. For the first time, scientists thought about the quantum world when, in 1900, the German physicist Max Planck tried to find out why metals change color when heated. It was he who introduced the concept of quantum. Before that, scientists thought that light traveled continuously. The first person to take Planck's discovery seriously was the then unknown Albert Einstein. He realized that light is not only a wave. Sometimes it behaves like a particle. Einstein received the Nobel Prize for his discovery that light is emitted in portions, quanta. A quantum of light is called a photon ( photon, Wikipedia) .
In order to make it easier to understand the laws of quantum physics And mechanics (Wikipedia), it is necessary, in a certain sense, to abstract from the laws of classical physics familiar to us. And imagine that you dived, like Alice, down the rabbit hole, into Wonderland.
And here is a cartoon for children and adults. Talks about the fundamental experiment of quantum mechanics with 2 slits and an observer. Lasts only 5 minutes. Watch it before we delve into the basic questions and concepts of quantum physics.
Quantum physics for dummies video. In the cartoon, pay attention to the "eye" of the observer. It has become a serious mystery for physicists.
What is interference?
At the beginning of the cartoon, using the example of a liquid, it was shown how waves behave - alternating dark and light vertical stripes appear on the screen behind a plate with slots. And in the case when discrete particles (for example, pebbles) are “shot” at the plate, they fly through 2 slots and hit the screen directly opposite the slots. And "draw" on the screen only 2 vertical stripes.
Light interference- This is the "wave" behavior of light, when a lot of alternating bright and dark vertical stripes are displayed on the screen. And those vertical stripes called an interference pattern.
In our macrocosm, we often observe that light behaves like a wave. If you put your hand in front of the candle, then on the wall there will be not a clear shadow from the hand, but with blurry contours.
So, it's not all that difficult! It is now quite clear to us that light has a wave nature, and if 2 slits are illuminated with light, then on the screen behind them we will see an interference pattern. Now consider the 2nd experiment. This is the famous Stern-Gerlach experiment (which was carried out in the 20s of the last century).
In the installation described in the cartoon, they did not shine with light, but “shot” with electrons (as separate particles). Then, at the beginning of the last century, physicists around the world believed that electrons are elementary particles of matter and should not have a wave nature, but the same as pebbles. After all, electrons are elementary particles of matter, right? That is, if they are “thrown” into 2 slots, like pebbles, then on the screen behind the slots we should see 2 vertical stripes.
But… The result was stunning. Scientists saw an interference pattern - a lot of vertical stripes. That is, electrons, like light, can also have a wave nature, they can interfere. On the other hand, it became clear that light is not only a wave, but also a particle - a photon (from the historical background at the beginning of the article we learned that Einstein received the Nobel Prize for this discovery).
You may remember that at school we were told in physics about "particle-wave dualism"? It means that when it comes to very small particles (atoms, electrons) of the microworld, then they are both waves and particles
It is today that you and I are so smart and understand that the 2 experiments described above - firing electrons and illuminating slots with light - are one and the same. Because we're firing quantum particles at the slits. Now we know that both light and electrons are of quantum nature, they are both waves and particles at the same time. And at the beginning of the 20th century, the results of this experiment were a sensation.
Attention! Now let's move on to a more subtle issue.
We shine on our slits with a stream of photons (electrons) - and we see an interference pattern (vertical stripes) behind the slits on the screen. It is clear. But we are interested to see how each of the electrons flies through the slit.
Presumably, one electron flies to the left slit, the other to the right. But then 2 vertical stripes should appear on the screen directly opposite the slots. Why is an interference pattern obtained? Maybe the electrons somehow interact with each other already on the screen after flying through the slits. And the result is such a wave pattern. How can we follow this?
We will throw electrons not in a beam, but one at a time. Drop it, wait, drop the next one. Now, when the electron flies alone, it will no longer be able to interact on the screen with other electrons. We will register on the screen each electron after the throw. One or two, of course, will not “paint” a clear picture for us. But when one by one we send a lot of them into the slots, we will notice ... oh horror - they again “drawn” an interference wave pattern!
We start to slowly go crazy. After all, we expected that there would be 2 vertical stripes opposite the slots! It turns out that when we threw photons one at a time, each of them passed, as it were, through 2 slits at the same time and interfered with itself. Fiction! We will return to the explanation of this phenomenon in the next section.
What is spin and superposition?
We now know what interference is. This is the wave behavior of micro particles - photons, electrons, other micro particles (let's call them photons for simplicity from now on).
As a result of the experiment, when we threw 1 photon into 2 slits, we realized that it flies as if through two slits at the same time. How else to explain the interference pattern on the screen?
But how to imagine a picture that a photon flies through two slits at the same time? There are 2 options.
- 1st option: photon, like a wave (like water) "floats" through 2 slits at the same time
- 2nd option: a photon, like a particle, flies simultaneously along 2 trajectories (not even two, but all at once)
In principle, these statements are equivalent. We have arrived at the "path integral". This is Richard Feynman's formulation of quantum mechanics.
By the way, exactly Richard Feynman belongs to the well-known expression that we can confidently say that no one understands quantum mechanics
But this expression of his worked at the beginning of the century. But now we are smart and we know that a photon can behave both as a particle and as a wave. That he can fly through 2 slots at the same time in some way that is incomprehensible to us. Therefore, it will be easy for us to understand the following important statement of quantum mechanics:
Strictly speaking, quantum mechanics tells us that this photon behavior is the rule, not the exception. Any quantum particle is, as a rule, in several states or at several points in space simultaneously.
Objects of the macroworld can only be in one specific place and in one specific state. But a quantum particle exists according to its own laws. And she doesn't care that we don't understand them. This is the point.
It remains for us to simply accept as an axiom that the "superposition" of a quantum object means that it can be on 2 or more trajectories at the same time, at 2 or more points at the same time
The same applies to another photon parameter - spin (its own angular momentum). Spin is a vector. A quantum object can be thought of as a microscopic magnet. We are used to the fact that the magnet vector (spin) is either directed up or down. But the electron or photon again tells us: “Guys, we don’t care what you are used to, we can be in both spin states at once (vector up, vector down), just like we can be on 2 trajectories at the same time or at 2 points at the same time!
What is "measurement" or "wavefunction collapse"?
It remains for us a little - to understand what is "measurement" and what is "collapse of the wave function".
wave function is a description of the state of a quantum object (our photon or electron).
Suppose we have an electron, it flies to itself in an indeterminate state, its spin is directed both up and down at the same time. We need to measure his condition.
Let's measure using a magnetic field: electrons whose spin was directed in the direction of the field will deviate in one direction, and electrons whose spin is directed against the field will deviate in the other direction. Photons can also be sent to a polarizing filter. If the spin (polarization) of a photon is +1, it passes through the filter, and if it is -1, then it does not.
Stop! This is where the question inevitably arises: before the measurement, after all, the electron did not have any particular spin direction, right? Was he in all states at the same time?
This is the trick and sensation of quantum mechanics.. As long as you do not measure the state of a quantum object, it can rotate in any direction (have any direction of its own angular momentum vector - spin). But at the moment when you measured his state, he seems to be deciding which spin vector to take.
This quantum object is so cool - it makes a decision about its state. And we cannot predict in advance what decision it will make when it flies into the magnetic field in which we measure it. The probability that he decides to have a spin vector "up" or "down" is 50 to 50%. But as soon as he decides, he is in a certain state with a specific spin direction. The reason for his decision is our "dimension"!
This is called " wave function collapse". The wave function before the measurement was indefinite, i.e. the electron spin vector was simultaneously in all directions, after the measurement, the electron fixed a certain direction of its spin vector.
Attention! An excellent example-association from our macrocosm for understanding:
Spin a coin on the table like a top. While the coin is spinning, it has no specific meaning - heads or tails. But as soon as you decide to "measure" this value and slam the coin with your hand, this is where you get the specific state of the coin - heads or tails. Now imagine that this coin decides what value to "show" you - heads or tails. The electron behaves approximately the same way.
Now remember the experiment shown at the end of the cartoon. When photons were passed through the slits, they behaved like a wave and showed an interference pattern on the screen. And when the scientists wanted to fix (measure) the moment when photons passed through the slit and put an “observer” behind the screen, the photons began to behave not like waves, but like particles. And “drawn” 2 vertical stripes on the screen. Those. at the moment of measurement or observation, quantum objects themselves choose what state they should be in.
Fiction! Is not it?
But that is not all. Finally we got to the most interesting.
But ... it seems to me that there will be an overload of information, so we will consider these 2 concepts in separate posts:
- What's happened ?
- What is a thought experiment.
And now, do you want the information to be put on the shelves? Watch a documentary produced by the Canadian Institute for Theoretical Physics. In 20 minutes, it will tell you very briefly and in chronological order about all the discoveries of quantum physics, starting with the discovery of Planck in 1900. And then they will tell you what practical developments are currently being carried out on the basis of knowledge of quantum physics: from the most accurate atomic clocks to super-fast calculations of a quantum computer. I highly recommend watching this movie.
See you!
I wish you all inspiration for all your plans and projects!
P.S.2 Write your questions and thoughts in the comments. Write, what other questions on quantum physics are you interested in?
P.S.3 Subscribe to the blog - the subscription form under the article.
I think it's safe to say that no one understands quantum mechanics.
Physicist Richard Feynman
It is no exaggeration to say that the invention of semiconductor devices was a revolution. Not only is this an impressive technological achievement, but it also paved the way for events that will change modern society forever. Semiconductor devices are used in all kinds of microelectronic devices, including computers, certain types of medical diagnostic and treatment equipment, and popular telecommunications devices.
But behind this technological revolution is even more, a revolution in general science: the field quantum theory. Without this leap in understanding the natural world, the development of semiconductor devices (and more advanced electronic devices under development) would never have succeeded. Quantum physics is an incredibly complex branch of science. This chapter only provides a brief overview. When scientists like Feynman say "no one understands [it]", you can be sure that this is a really difficult topic. Without a basic understanding of quantum physics, or at least an understanding of the scientific discoveries that led to their development, it is impossible to understand how and why semiconductor electronic devices work. Most electronics textbooks try to explain semiconductors in terms of "classical physics", making them even more confusing to understand as a result.
Many of us have seen atomic model diagrams that look like the picture below.
Rutherford atom: negative electrons revolve around a small positive nucleus
Tiny particles of matter called protons And neutrons, make up the center of the atom; electrons revolve like planets around a star. The nucleus carries a positive electrical charge due to the presence of protons (neutrons have no electrical charge), while the balancing negative charge of an atom resides in the orbiting electrons. Negative electrons are attracted to positive protons like planets are attracted to the Sun, but the orbits are stable due to the movement of electrons. We owe this popular model of the atom to the work of Ernest Rutherford, who experimentally determined around 1911 that the positive charges of atoms are concentrated in a tiny, dense nucleus, and not evenly distributed along the diameter, as explorer J. J. Thomson had previously assumed.
Rutherford's scattering experiment consists of bombarding a thin gold foil with positively charged alpha particles, as shown in the figure below. Young graduate students H. Geiger and E. Marsden got unexpected results. The trajectory of some alpha particles was deviated by a large angle. Some alpha particles were scattered backwards, at an angle of almost 180°. Most of the particles passed through the gold foil without changing their trajectory, as if there was no foil at all. The fact that several alpha particles experienced large deviations in their trajectory indicates the presence of nuclei with a small positive charge.
Rutherford scattering: a beam of alpha particles is scattered by thin gold foil Although Rutherford's model of the atom was supported by experimental data better than Thomson's, it was still imperfect. Further attempts were made to determine the structure of the atom, and these efforts helped pave the way for the strange discoveries of quantum physics. Today our understanding of the atom is a bit more complex. Yet despite the revolution of quantum physics and its contributions to our understanding of the structure of the atom, Rutherford's depiction of the solar system as the structure of an atom has taken root in popular consciousness to the extent that it persists in educational fields, even if it is misplaced.
Consider this brief description of the electrons in an atom, taken from a popular electronics textbook:
The spinning negative electrons are attracted to the positive nucleus, which leads us to the question of why the electrons don't fly into the nucleus of the atom. The answer is that the rotating electrons remain in their stable orbit due to two equal but opposite forces. The centrifugal force acting on the electrons is directed outward, and the attractive force of the charges is trying to pull the electrons towards the nucleus.
In accordance with Rutherford's model, the author considers electrons to be solid pieces of matter occupying round orbits, their inward attraction to the oppositely charged nucleus is balanced by their movement. The use of the term "centrifugal force" is technically incorrect (even for orbiting planets), but this is easily forgiven due to the popular acceptance of the model: in fact, there is no such thing as force, repulsiveany rotating body from the center of its orbit. This seems to be so because the body's inertia tends to keep it moving in a straight line, and since the orbit is a constant deviation (acceleration) from rectilinear motion, there is a constant inertial reaction to any force that attracts the body to the center of the orbit (centripetal), whether either gravity, electrostatic attraction, or even the tension of a mechanical bond.
However, the real problem with this explanation in the first place is the idea of electrons moving in circular orbits. A proven fact that accelerated electric charges emit electromagnetic radiation, this fact was known even in Rutherford's time. Since rotational motion is a form of acceleration (a rotating object in constant acceleration, pulling the object away from its normal rectilinear motion), electrons in a rotating state must emit radiation like mud from a spinning wheel. Electrons accelerated along circular paths in particle accelerators called synchrotrons are known to do this, and the result is called synchrotron radiation. If electrons were to lose energy in this way, their orbits would eventually be disrupted, and as a result they would collide with a positively charged nucleus. However, inside atoms this usually does not happen. Indeed, electronic "orbits" are surprisingly stable over a wide range of conditions.
In addition, experiments with "excited" atoms have shown that electromagnetic energy is emitted by an atom only at certain frequencies. Atoms are "excited" by external influences such as light, known to absorb energy and return electromagnetic waves at certain frequencies, much like a tuning fork that does not ring at a certain frequency until it is struck. When the light emitted by an excited atom is divided by a prism into its component frequencies (colors), individual lines of colors in the spectrum are found, the spectral line pattern is unique to a chemical element. This phenomenon is commonly used to identify chemical elements, and even to measure the proportions of each element in a compound or chemical mixture. According to the solar system of the Rutherford atomic model (relative to electrons, as pieces of matter, freely rotating in an orbit with some radius) and the laws of classical physics, excited atoms must return energy in an almost infinite frequency range, and not at selected frequencies. In other words, if Rutherford's model was correct, then there would be no "tuning fork" effect, and the color spectrum emitted by any atom would appear as a continuous band of colors, rather than as several separate lines.
Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom (with the orbits drawn to scale) assumes that electrons are only in discrete orbits. Electrons moving from n=3,4,5 or 6 to n=2 are displayed on a series of Balmer spectral lines A researcher named Niels Bohr tried to improve Rutherford's model after studying it in Rutherford's laboratory for several months in 1912. Trying to reconcile the results of other physicists (notably Max Planck and Albert Einstein), Bohr suggested that each electron had a certain, specific amount of energy, and that their orbits were distributed in such a way that each of them could occupy certain places around the nucleus, like balls. , fixed on circular paths around the nucleus, and not as free-moving satellites, as previously assumed (figure above). In deference to the laws of electromagnetism and accelerating charges, Bohr referred to "orbits" as stationary states to avoid the interpretation that they were mobile.
Although Bohr's ambitious attempt to rethink the structure of the atom, which was more consistent with experimental data, was a milestone in physics, it was not completed. His mathematical analysis predicted the results of experiments better than those performed according to previous models, but there were still unanswered questions about whether why the electrons must behave in such a strange way. The statement that electrons existed in stationary quantum states around the nucleus correlated better with experimental data than Rutherford's model, but did not say what causes the electrons to take on these special states. The answer to this question was to come from another physicist, Louis de Broglie, some ten years later.
De Broglie suggested that electrons, like photons (particles of light), have both the properties of particles and the properties of waves. Based on this assumption, he suggested that the analysis of rotating electrons in terms of waves is better than in terms of particles, and can give more insight into their quantum nature. Indeed, another breakthrough was made in understanding.
A string vibrating at a resonant frequency between two fixed points forms a standing wave The atom, according to de Broglie, consisted of standing waves, a phenomenon well known to physicists in various forms. Like the plucked string of a musical instrument (pictured above), vibrating at a resonant frequency, with "knots" and "anti-knots" in stable places along its length. De Broglie imagined electrons around atoms as waves curved into a circle (figure below).
"Rotating" electrons like a standing wave around the nucleus, (a) two cycles in an orbit, (b) three cycles in an orbit Electrons can only exist in certain, specific "orbits" around the nucleus, because they are the only distances where the ends of the wave coincide. At any other radius, the wave will collide destructively with itself and thus cease to exist.
De Broglie's hypothesis provided both a mathematical framework and a convenient physical analogy to explain the quantum states of electrons within an atom, but his model of the atom was still incomplete. For several years, physicists Werner Heisenberg and Erwin Schrödinger, working independently, have been working on de Broglie's concept of wave-particle duality in order to create more rigorous mathematical models of subatomic particles.
This theoretical advance from de Broglie's primitive standing wave model to models of the Heisenberg matrix and the Schrödinger differential equation has been given the name of quantum mechanics, and it has introduced a rather shocking feature into the world of subatomic particles: the sign of probability, or uncertainty. According to the new quantum theory, it was impossible to determine the exact position and exact momentum of a particle at one moment. A popular explanation for this "uncertainty principle" was that there was a measurement error (that is, by trying to accurately measure the position of an electron, you interfere with its momentum, and therefore cannot know what it was before you started measuring the position, and vice versa). The sensational conclusion of quantum mechanics is that particles do not have exact positions and momenta, and because of the relationship of these two quantities, their combined uncertainty will never decrease below a certain minimum value.
This form of "uncertainty" connection also exists in fields other than quantum mechanics. As discussed in the "Mixed Frequency AC Signals" chapter in Volume 2 of this book series, there are mutually exclusive relationships between the confidence in the time domain data of a waveform and its frequency domain data. Simply put, the more we know its component frequencies, the less accurately we know its amplitude over time, and vice versa. Quoting myself:
A signal of infinite duration (an infinite number of cycles) can be analyzed with absolute accuracy, but the fewer cycles available to the computer for analysis, the less accurate the analysis ... The fewer periods of the signal, the less accurate its frequency. Taking this concept to its logical extreme, a short pulse (not even a full period of a signal) doesn't really have a defined frequency, it's an infinite range of frequencies. This principle is common to all wave phenomena, and not only to variable voltages and currents.
To accurately determine the amplitude of a changing signal, we must measure it in a very short amount of time. However, doing this limits our knowledge of the frequency of the wave (a wave in quantum mechanics does not need to be similar to a sine wave; such similarity is a special case). On the other hand, in order to determine the frequency of a wave with great accuracy, we must measure it over a large number of periods, which means that we will lose sight of its amplitude at any given moment. Thus, we cannot simultaneously know the instantaneous amplitude and all frequencies of any wave with unlimited accuracy. Another oddity, this uncertainty is much greater than the inaccuracy of the observer; it is in the very nature of the wave. This is not the case, although it would be possible, given the appropriate technology, to provide accurate measurements of both instantaneous amplitude and frequency simultaneously. In a literal sense, a wave cannot have the exact instantaneous amplitude and the exact frequency at the same time.
The minimum uncertainty of particle position and momentum expressed by Heisenberg and Schrödinger has nothing to do with a limitation in measurement; rather, it is an intrinsic property of the nature of the wave-particle duality of the particle. Therefore, electrons do not actually exist in their "orbits" as well-defined particles of matter, or even as well-defined waveforms, but rather as "clouds" - a technical term. wave function probability distributions, as if each electron were "scattered" or "smeared out" over a range of positions and momenta.
This radical view of electrons as indeterminate clouds initially contradicts the original principle of the quantum states of electrons: electrons exist in discrete, definite "orbits" around the nucleus of an atom. This new view, after all, was the discovery that led to the formation and explanation of quantum theory. How strange it seems that a theory created to explain the discrete behavior of electrons ends up declaring that electrons exist as "clouds" and not as separate pieces of matter. However, the quantum behavior of electrons does not depend on electrons having certain values of coordinates and momentum, but on other properties called quantum numbers. In essence, quantum mechanics dispenses with the common concepts of absolute position and absolute moment, and replaces them with absolute concepts of types that have no analogues in common practice.
Even if electrons are known to exist in disembodied, "cloudy" forms of distributed probability, rather than separate pieces of matter, these "clouds" have slightly different characteristics. Any electron in an atom can be described by four numerical measures (the quantum numbers mentioned earlier), called main (radial), orbital (azimuth), magnetic And spin numbers. Below is a brief overview of the meaning of each of these numbers:
Principal (radial) quantum number: denoted by a letter n, this number describes the shell on which the electron resides. The electron "shell" is a region of space around the nucleus of an atom in which electrons can exist, corresponding to de Broglie and Bohr's stable "standing wave" models. Electrons can "jump" from shell to shell, but cannot exist between them.
The principal quantum number must be a positive integer (greater than or equal to 1). In other words, the principal quantum number of an electron cannot be 1/2 or -3. These integers were not chosen arbitrarily, but through experimental evidence of the light spectrum: the different frequencies (colors) of light emitted by excited hydrogen atoms follow a mathematical relationship depending on specific integer values, as shown in the figure below.
Each shell has the ability to hold multiple electrons. An analogy for electron shells is the concentric rows of seats in an amphitheater. Just as a person sitting in an amphitheater must choose a row to sit down (he cannot sit between the rows), electrons must "choose" a particular shell in order to "sit down". Like rows in an amphitheatre, the outer shells hold more electrons than the shells closer to the center. Also, the electrons tend to find the smallest available shell, just as people in an amphitheater look for the place closest to the central stage. The higher the shell number, the more energy the electrons have on it.
The maximum number of electrons that any shell can hold is described by the equation 2n 2 , where n is the principal quantum number. Thus, the first shell (n = 1) can contain 2 electrons; the second shell (n = 2) - 8 electrons; and the third shell (n = 3) - 18 electrons (figure below).
The main quantum number n and the maximum number of electrons are related by the formula 2(n 2). Orbits are not to scale. The electron shells in the atom were denoted by letters rather than numbers. The first shell (n = 1) was designated K, the second shell (n = 2) L, the third shell (n = 3) M, the fourth shell (n = 4) N, the fifth shell (n = 5) O, the sixth shell ( n = 6) P, and the seventh shell (n = 7) B.
Orbital (azimuth) quantum number: a shell composed of subshells. Some may find it more convenient to think of subshells as simple sections of shells, like lanes dividing a road. Subshells are much weirder. Subshells are regions of space where electron "clouds" can exist, and in fact different subshells have different shapes. The first subshell is in the shape of a ball (Figure below (s)), which makes sense when visualized as an electron cloud surrounding the nucleus of an atom in three dimensions.
The second subshell resembles a dumbbell, consisting of two "petals" connected at one point near the center of the atom (figure below (p)).
The third subshell usually resembles a set of four "petals" clustered around the nucleus of an atom. These subshell shapes resemble graphical representations of antenna patterns with onion-like lobes extending from the antenna in various directions (Figure below (d)).
Orbitals: (s) triple symmetry;
(p) Shown: p x , one of three possible orientations (p x , p y , p z), along the respective axes;
(d) Shown: d x 2 -y 2 is similar to d xy , d yz , d xz . Shown: d z 2 . Number of possible d-orbitals: five.
Valid values for the orbital quantum number are positive integers, as for the principal quantum number, but also include zero. These quantum numbers for electrons are denoted by the letter l. The number of subshells is equal to the principal quantum number of the shell. Thus, the first shell (n = 1) has one subshell with number 0; the second shell (n = 2) has two subshells numbered 0 and 1; the third shell (n = 3) has three subshells numbered 0, 1 and 2.
The old subshell convention used letters rather than numbers. In this format, the first subshell (l = 0) was denoted s, the second subshell (l = 1) was denoted p, the third subshell (l = 2) was denoted d, and the fourth subshell (l = 3) was denoted f. The letters came from the words: sharp, principal, diffuse And Fundamental. You can still see these designations in many periodic tables used to denote the electron configuration of the outer ( valence) shells of atoms.
(a) the Bohr representation of the silver atom, (b) Orbital representation of Ag with division of shells into subshells (orbital quantum number l).
This diagram does not imply anything about the actual position of the electrons, but only represents the energy levels.
Magnetic quantum number: The magnetic quantum number for the electron classifies the orientation of the electron subshell figure. The "petals" of the subshells can be directed in several directions. These different orientations are called orbitals. For the first subshell (s; l = 0), which resembles a sphere, "direction" is not specified. For a second (p; l = 1) subshell in each shell that resembles a dumbbell pointing in three possible directions. Imagine three dumbbells intersecting at the origin, each pointing along its own axis in a triaxial coordinate system.
Valid values for a given quantum number consist of integers ranging from -l to l, and this number is denoted as m l in atomic physics and z in nuclear physics. To calculate the number of orbitals in any subshell, you need to double the number of the subshell and add 1, (2∙l + 1). For example, the first subshell (l = 0) in any shell contains one orbital numbered 0; the second subshell (l = 1) in any shell contains three orbitals with numbers -1, 0 and 1; the third subshell (l = 2) contains five orbitals numbered -2, -1, 0, 1 and 2; etc.
Like the principal quantum number, the magnetic quantum number arose directly from experimental data: the Zeeman effect, the separation of spectral lines by exposing an ionized gas to a magnetic field, hence the name "magnetic" quantum number.
Spin quantum number: like the magnetic quantum number, this property of the electrons of an atom was discovered through experiments. Careful observation of the spectral lines showed that each line was in fact a pair of very closely spaced lines, it has been suggested that this so-called fine structure was the result of each electron "spinning" around its own axis, like a planet. Electrons with different "spins" would give off slightly different frequencies of light when excited. The spinning electron concept is now obsolete, being more appropriate for the (incorrect) view of electrons as individual particles of matter rather than as "clouds", but the name remains.
Spin quantum numbers are denoted as m s in atomic physics and sz in nuclear physics. Each orbital in each subshell can have two electrons in each shell, one with spin +1/2 and the other with spin -1/2.
Physicist Wolfgang Pauli developed a principle that explains the ordering of electrons in an atom according to these quantum numbers. His principle, called Pauli exclusion principle, states that two electrons in the same atom cannot occupy the same quantum states. That is, each electron in an atom has a unique set of quantum numbers. This limits the number of electrons that can occupy any given orbital, subshell, and shell.
This shows the arrangement of electrons in a hydrogen atom:
With one proton in the nucleus, the atom accepts one electron for its electrostatic balance (the proton's positive charge is exactly balanced by the electron's negative charge). This electron is in the lower shell (n = 1), the first subshell (l = 0), in the only orbital (spatial orientation) of this subshell (m l = 0), with a spin value of 1/2. The general method of describing this structure is by enumerating the electrons according to their shells and subshells, according to a convention called spectroscopic notation. In this notation, the shell number is shown as an integer, the subshell as a letter (s,p,d,f), and the total number of electrons in the subshell (all orbitals, all spins) as a superscript. Thus, hydrogen, with its single electron placed at the base level, is described as 1s 1 .
Moving on to the next atom (in order of atomic number), we get the element helium:
A helium atom has two protons in its nucleus, which requires two electrons to balance the double positive electrical charge. Since two electrons - one with spin 1/2 and the other with spin -1/2 - are in the same orbital, the electronic structure of helium does not require additional subshells or shells to hold the second electron.
However, an atom requiring three or more electrons will need additional subshells to hold all the electrons, since only two electrons can be on the bottom shell (n = 1). Consider the next atom in the sequence of increasing atomic numbers, lithium:
The lithium atom uses part of the capacitance L of the shell (n = 2). This shell actually has a total capacity of eight electrons (maximum shell capacity = 2n 2 electrons). If we consider the structure of an atom with a completely filled L shell, we see how all combinations of subshells, orbitals, and spins are occupied by electrons:
Often, when assigning a spectroscopic notation to an atom, any fully filled shells are skipped, and unfilled shells and top-level filled shells are denoted. For example, the element neon (shown in the figure above), which has two completely filled shells, can be described spectrally simply as 2p 6 rather than as 1s 22 s 22 p 6 . Lithium, with its fully filled K shell and a single electron in the L shell, can simply be described as 2s 1 rather than 1s 22 s 1 .
The omission of fully populated lower-level shells is not only for convenience of notation. It also illustrates a basic principle of chemistry: the chemical behavior of an element is primarily determined by its unfilled shells. Both hydrogen and lithium have one electron on their outer shells (as 1 and 2s 1, respectively), that is, both elements have similar properties. Both are highly reactive, and react in almost identical ways (binding to similar elements under similar conditions). It doesn't really matter that lithium has a fully filled K-shell under an almost free L-shell: the unfilled L-shell is the one that determines its chemical behavior.
Elements that have completely filled outer shells are classified as noble and are characterized by an almost complete lack of reaction with other elements. These elements were classified as inert when they were considered not to react at all, but they are known to form compounds with other elements under certain conditions.
Since elements with the same configuration of electrons in their outer shells have similar chemical properties, Dmitri Mendeleev organized the chemical elements in a table accordingly. This table is known as , and modern tables follow this general layout, shown in the figure below.
Periodic table of chemical elements Dmitri Mendeleev, a Russian chemist, was the first to develop the periodic table of elements. Even though Mendeleev organized his table according to atomic mass, not atomic number, and created a table that was not as useful as modern periodic tables, his development stands as an excellent example of scientific proof. Seeing patterns of periodicity (similar chemical properties according to atomic mass), Mendeleev hypothesized that all elements must fit into this ordered pattern. When he discovered "empty" places in the table, he followed the logic of the existing order and assumed the existence of yet unknown elements. The subsequent discovery of these elements confirmed the scientific correctness of Mendeleev's hypothesis, further discoveries led to the form of the periodic table that we use now.
Like this should work science: hypotheses lead to logical conclusions and are accepted, changed or rejected depending on the consistency of experimental data with their conclusions. Any fool can formulate a hypothesis after the fact to explain the available experimental data, and many do. What distinguishes a scientific hypothesis from post hoc speculation is the prediction of future experimental data that has not yet been collected, and possibly the refutation of that data as a result. Boldly lead the hypothesis to its logical conclusion(s) and the attempt to predict the results of future experiments is not a dogmatic leap of faith, but rather a public test of this hypothesis, an open challenge to the opponents of the hypothesis. In other words, scientific hypotheses are always "risky" because of trying to predict the results of experiments that have not yet been done, and therefore can be falsified if the experiments do not go as expected. Thus, if a hypothesis correctly predicts the results of repeated experiments, it is disproven.
Quantum mechanics, first as a hypothesis and then as a theory, has been extremely successful in predicting the results of experiments, and hence has received a high degree of scientific credibility. Many scientists have reason to believe that this is an incomplete theory, since its predictions are more true at microphysical scales than macroscopic ones, but nevertheless, it is an extremely useful theory for explaining and predicting the interaction of particles and atoms.
As you have seen in this chapter, quantum physics is essential in describing and predicting many different phenomena. In the next section, we will see its significance in the electrical conductivity of solids, including semiconductors. Simply put, nothing in chemistry or solid state physics makes sense in the popular theoretical structure of electrons existing as individual particles of matter circling around the nucleus of an atom like miniature satellites. When electrons are viewed as "wave functions" existing in certain, discrete states that are regular and periodic, then the behavior of matter can be explained.
Summing up
The electrons in atoms exist in "clouds" of distributed probability, and not as discrete particles of matter revolving around the nucleus, like miniature satellites, as common examples show.
Individual electrons around the nucleus of an atom tend to unique "states" described by four quantum numbers: principal (radial) quantum number, known as shell; orbital (azimuth) quantum number, known as subshell; magnetic quantum number describing orbital(subshell orientation); And spin quantum number, or simply spin. These states are quantum, that is, “between them” there are no conditions for the existence of an electron, except for states that fit into the quantum numbering scheme.
Glanoe (radial) quantum number (n) describes the base level or shell in which the electron resides. The greater this number, the greater the radius of the electron cloud from the nucleus of the atom, and the greater the energy of the electron. Principal quantum numbers are integers (positive integers)
Orbital (azimuthal) quantum number (l) describes the shape of an electron cloud in a particular shell or level and is often known as a "subshell". In any shell, there are as many subshells (forms of an electron cloud) as the main quantum number of the shell. Azimuthal quantum numbers are positive integers starting from zero and ending with a number less than the main quantum number by one (n - 1).
Magnetic quantum number (m l) describes what orientation the subshell (electron cloud shape) has. Subshells can have as many different orientations as twice the subshell number (l) plus 1, (2l+1) (that is, for l=1, m l = -1, 0, 1), and each unique orientation is called an orbital. These numbers are integers starting from a negative value of the subshell number (l) through 0 and ending with a positive value of the subshell number.
Spin Quantum Number (m s) describes another property of the electron and can take the values +1/2 and -1/2.
Pauli exclusion principle says that two electrons in an atom cannot share the same set of quantum numbers. Therefore, there can be at most two electrons in each orbital (spin=1/2 and spin=-1/2), 2l+1 orbitals in each subshell, and n subshells in each shell, and no more.
Spectroscopic notation is a convention for the electronic structure of an atom. Shells are shown as integers, followed by subshell letters (s, p, d, f) with superscript numbers indicating the total number of electrons found in each respective subshell.
The chemical behavior of an atom is determined solely by electrons in unfilled shells. Low-level shells that are completely filled have little or no effect on the chemical binding characteristics of the elements.
Elements with completely filled electron shells are almost completely inert, and are called noble elements (previously known as inert).
Theory of elementary particles of matter
1. THE UNIVERSE IS A FORM OF EXISTENCE OF MATTER, THIS IS INFINITE SPACE IN ALL DIMENSIONS, WITH MATTER REALIZING ITS BEING IN IT.
2. MATTER IS EVERYTHING THAT HAS ITS ITS ENERGY SHELL.
3. ENERGY IS A CHARACTERISTIC AND A MEASUREMENT OF THE ACTION OF MATTER OR THE ABILITY TO PERFORM AN ACTION.
4 .MATERIAL BODY CONSISTS OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES OF MATTER, ELEMENTARY PARTICLES OF MATTER CONSIST OF FOUR KINDS OF QUANTUM OF MATTER. PHOTON IS A QUANTUM OF MATTER MOVING OUTSIDE THE MATERIAL BODY.
5 . QUANTUM OF MATTER CONSISTS OF THE CORE AND ENERGY SHELL.
6. ENERGY SHELL OF QUANTUM OF MATTER CONSISTS OF FOUR ENERGY FIELDS; QUANTUM (MECHANICAL) (M), ELECTRIC (C), MAGNETIC (B) AND GRAVITATIONAL (U).
7. THE BASIS OF THE QUANTUM OF MATTER IS MADE UP BY THE NUCLEAR. THE NUCLEAR IS A SOLID UNCHANGABLE PART OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES. THE CORE HAS A POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE ELECTRIC CHARGE, A NORTH OR SOUTH MAGNETIC POLE. THE CORE IS COVERED BY A PLASTIC SHELL (QUANTUM FIELD).
8. THE ENERGY FIELD OF THE QUANTUM IS THE SPACE AROUND THE NUCLEAR IN WHICH THE FORCES OF THIS FIELD APPEAR.
9. ENERGY FIELDS OF THE QUANTUM OF MATTER ARE BELONGING TO THE QUANTUM OF MATTER, ITS COMPONENT PART
10. QUANTUM OF MATTER, DIFFERENT; THE SIGN OF THE ELECTRIC CHARGE AND THE SIGN OF ITS MAGNETIC FIELD.
11. THE ZONE OF ACTION OF ENERGY FIELDS STARTS IMMEDIATELY FROM THE CORE.
12 QUANTUM OF MATTER HAS INTERNAL (MECHANICAL) ENERGY (M). THE FORCE OF THE INTERNAL ENERGY OF THE QUANTUM APPEARS AT DEFORMATION (COMPRESSION) OF THE SHELL OF ITS NUCLEAR М = k ΔV. INTERNAL ENERGY OF AN ELEMENTARY PARTILE OF MATTER IS THE POTENTIAL OF ITS KINETIC ENERGY.
13. SHELL OF THE NUCLEAR OF QUANTUM OF MATTER, ITS QUANTUM FIELD. DETERMINES THE INDIVIDUALITY OF THE ELEMENTARY PARTICLE OF MATTER. THIS IS THE SHIELD OF THE NUCLEAR QUANTUM OF MATTER. DURING DEFORMATION (COMPRESSION OF THE SHELL), IT DISPLAYS DIGRAVITATIONAL, DIMAGNITE AND DIELECTRIC PROPERTIES. UNITED BETWEEN GRAVITATIONAL, MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC FIELDS, QUANTUM OF MATTER REMAIN INDIVIDUALS. WHEN MATTER QUANTUMS APPROACH, THE NUCLEAR SHELL STANDS AS A OBSTACLE IN THE WAY OF THEIR CONNECTION AND, THEREFORE, SAVE THE QUANT FROM DESTRUCTION. THE MORE THE NUCLEI APPROACH TO EACH OTHER, THE MORE STRESSED THE SHELL, THE MORE ITS DIELECTRIC AND DIGRAVITATION QUALITIES STRENGTHEN. AT THE MAXIMUM DEFORMATION (COMPRESSION) OF THE SHELL, THE DIELECTRIC AND DIGRAVITATION QUALITIES INCREASE SO THAT THE FIELD LINES OF NONE OF THE MAGNETIC, ELECTRIC, NOR GRAVITATIONAL FIELD DO NOT PASS THROUGH THE NUCLEAR SHELL. A QUANTUM OF MATTER IN SUCH STATE DISPLAYS NEITHER ELECTRIC, NOR MAGNETIC, NOR GRAVITATIONAL QUALITIES, IT TURNS INTO QUANTINO. WHEN RADIATED FROM A MATERIAL BODY, QUANTINO TURN INTO PHOTONS. OVER TIME, DUE TO THE CHANGES IN THE STATE OF THE NUCLEAR SHELL, ALL ENERGY FIELDS ARE REGENERATED IN THE QUANTUM.
14. IMMEDIATELY BEHIND THE NUCLEAR, IN ITS SHELL AND FURTHER, IS THE ZONE OF ACTION OF THE ELECTRIC FIELD. BEHIND THE NUCLEAR, THE MAGNETIC AND GRAVITATIONAL FIELD STARTS ITS ACTION. LINES OF FORCE OF THE GRAVITATIONAL FIELD PASS THROUGH THE SHELL, THROUGH THE ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELD AND EXTEND FURTHER.
15. ELECTRIC FIELD AND MAGNETIC FIELD, THESE ARE SHORT-RANGE FIELDS, THEIR ACTION IS MANIFESTED IN CASES OF CLOSE APPROACH OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES AND CONNECTION OF THEIR GRAVITATIONAL FIELDS. THE FORCES OF THE ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELD ATTRACT DIFFERENT CHARGES AND REPEAL THE SAME CHARGES…. ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELD, THESE ARE FIELDS FORMATION OF SUBSTANCE.
16. GRAVITATIONAL FIELD IS THE STRONGEST AND THE MOST LARGE-ROUNDING. THIS IS THE FIELD OF UNIFICATION OF MATTER. LINES OF FORCE OF THE GRAVITATIONAL FIELD ARE DIRECTED TO THE CORE OF THE QUANTUM.
17. TOTAL ENERGY OF A QUAT OF MATTER (PHOTON) IS CALCULATED FROM THE FORMULA E sq. =fU about +fC about + fB about +K+M; E sq. =fU about +fC about +fB about +K+ķΔV. Here f is the quantum compression factor equal to V/V 0. V 0 is the volume of a quantum in a free state, V is the volume of a quantum in a compressed state, k is the coefficient of elasticity of the quantum shell, ΔV is the difference between free and compressed volumes, TO– mass energy (kinetic energy, inertia energy.) M- mechanical energy.
18. ELEMENTARY PARTICLES OF SUBSTANCE ARE ELECTRONS AND POSITRONS. ELECTRONS AND POSITRONS CONSIST OF THE SAME KIND OF QUANTUM. (e + )=8.3x10 21 ɣ + , (e - )=8.3x10 21 ɣ- . PROTON CONSISTS ALREADY OF ELECTRONS AND POSITRONS. ELECTRONS AND POSITRONS ARE THE BASIS OF ATOMS, ATOMS ARE THE BASIS OF SUBSTANCE.
19. MATERIAL PARTICLES IN SPACE ARE LOCATED ACCORDING TO THEIR LAW q= (1 – R/R 0 ) δМn/4π 2 R 3 SO THAT ANY MATERIAL BODY HAS ITS ITS ENERGY FIELDS (ENERGY SHELL). THE ENERGY SHELL OF A MATERIAL BODY IS ITS ESSENTIAL COMPONENT, IT IS MATTER ITSELF, BUT IN A DIFFERENT STATE. If in the material body, the matter of matter is in the composition of electrons and positrons, closely connected by electromagnetic and gravitational bonds with other quanta, then in the energy field of the material body, these particles are in a wider state - the cell of the field quantum in which the elementary particles are associated only gravitational.
20. MATTER HAS ALL KINDS OF ENERGY; THERE IS NO ENERGY WITHOUT MATTER. ENERGY IS AN ESSENTIAL PROPERTY OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES. EVERY ELEMENTARY PARTICLE, EVERY QUANTUM OF MATTER HAS ALL KINDS OF ENERGY. E sq. = M+C+B+U+K
21. ENERGY FIELDS OF MATTER CREATE THE NECESSARY FORCES FOR ACTION AND INTERACTION OF MATTER.
22. BODY MASS IS THE QUANTITY OF MATTER CONTAINED IN IT, BUT THIS IS ALSO A MEASURE OF ITS ENERGY.
23. RADIATION WAVE IS PHOTONS UNITED BY THEIR FIELDS, CREATING A COMMON FIELD.
24. INITIALLY EACH FREQUENCY OF RADIATION CORRESPOND TO ITS OWN ENERGY OF PHOTONS. THE SPECIFIC DENSITY OF PHOTONS IN A RADIATION WAVE IS PROPORTIONAL TO THE RADIATION FREQUENCY. THE FREQUENCY OF THE RADIATION IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO THE DENSITY OF THE EMITTING MATTER. THE SPEED OF MOTION OF PHOTONS CHANGES DEPENDING ON THE AMOUNT OF INTERNAL ENERGY IN THEM.
25. THE RADIATION WAVE LENGTH IS INVERSELY PROPORTIONATE TO THE PHOTONS ACCELERATION RATE.
26. MATTER QUANTUMS ALWAYS LIVE (LIFETIME HAS NO LIMITS).
27. ENTERING VARIOUS CONNECTIONS WITH EACH OTHER, CHANGING, PASSING IN A CIRCLE THROUGH DIFFERENT STAGES; GRAVITON → QUANTUM OF THE FIELD → QUANTUM OF MATTER → PHOTON → QUANTUM → QUANTINO → PHOTON→ GRAVITON… RETAINING THEIR INDIVIDUALITY, THE ELEMENTARY PARTICLES OF MATTER FORM VARIOUS SPACE BODIES. DIFFERENT COMBINATIONS OF THESE PARTICLES PROVIDE THE INFINITE VARIETY, GREATNESS AND VARIETY OF THE UNIVERSE.
28. THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MATTER REIGNS IN THE UNIVERSE. DISCOVERED BY MIKHAIL VASILIEVICH LOMONOSOV… “MATTER DOES NOT DISAPPEAR AND APPEAR FROM NOTHING; THE QUANTITY OF MATTER IN THE UNIVERSE IS AN INFINITE AND CONSTANT VALUE"
29. GRAVITATION IS THE MAIN FORCE MOVING MATTER. IT COLLECTS MATTER INTO COSMIC BODIES, AND IT SCATTERS MATTER ALONG THE UNIVERSE. Gravitational energy can be called "cosmic"
30. THE UNIVERSE ALWAYS EXISTS. THE UNIVERSE DOES NOT EXPAND, DOES NOT SHRINK, IT IS CONSTANTLY CHANGING. MATTER IN THE UNIVERSE PASSES IN THE CIRCLE OF TRANSFORMATIONS, TRANSFORMING, TOGETHER WITH ITS ENERGY, FROM ONE TYPE OF FORMATIONS TO ANOTHER; THUS IS THE CYCLE OF MATTER AND ITS ENERGY IN THE UNIVERSE.
evidence
Elementary particles of matter
General information
Elementary particles in the exact meaning of this term are primary, further indecomposable particles, of which, by assumption, all matter consists. In the concept of elementary particles in modern physics finds expression the idea of primitive entities that determine all known properties of the material world but an idea that originated in the early stages of the formation of natural science and has always played an important role in its development. Over time, people realized that the discovered “elementary particles” were not elementary at all, but, not knowing which of all this swarm of particles were elementary, they still called all particles elementary. The existence of elementary particles was discovered by physicists in the study of nuclear processes, therefore, until the middle of the 20th century, elementary particle physics was a branch of nuclear physics. At present, elementary particle physics and nuclear physics are close, but independent branches of physics, united by the commonality of many of the problems considered and the research methods used. The main task of elementary particle physics is the study of the nature, properties and mutual transformations of elementary particles. The discovery of elementary particles was a natural result of the general progress in the study of the structure of matter, achieved by physics at the end of the 19th century. It was prepared by comprehensive studies of the optical spectra of atoms, the study of electrical phenomena in liquids and gases, the discovery of photoelectricity, x-rays, natural radioactivity, which testified to the existence of a complex structure of matter. In the 1960s and 1970s, physicists were completely bewildered by the abundance, variety, and unusualness of newly discovered subatomic particles. There seemed to be no end to them. It is completely incomprehensible why so many particles. Are these elementary particles chaotic and random fragments of matter? Or perhaps they hold the key to understanding the structure of the universe? The development of physics in the following decades showed that there is no doubt about the existence of such a structure. The concept of “elementary particles” was formed in close connection with the establishment of the discrete nature of the structure of matter at the microscopic level. all known substances as combinations of a finite, albeit large, number of structural components - atoms.Revealing in the future the presence of constituent constituents of atoms - electrons and nuclei, the establishment of the complex nature of nuclei, which turned out to be built from only two types of particles (protons and neutrons), significantly reduced the number discrete elements that form the properties of matter, and gave reason to assume that the chain of constituent parts of matter ends with discrete structureless formations - elementary particles
The history of the discovery of "elementary particles"
The notion that the world is made up of fundamental particles has a long history. For the first time, the idea of the existence of the smallest invisible particles that make up all the surrounding objects was expressed 400 years before our era by the Greek philosopher Democritus. He called these particles atoms, that is, indivisible particles. Science began to use the concept of atoms only at the beginning of the 19th century, when it was possible to explain a number of chemical phenomena on this basis. In the 30s of the 19th century, in the theory of electrolysis developed by M. Faraday, the concept of an ion appeared and the elementary charge was measured. The end of the 19th century was marked by the discovery of the phenomenon of radioactivity (A. Becquerel, 1896), as well as the discoveries electrons(J. Thomson, 1897) and b-particles(E. Rutherford, 1899). In 1905, in physics, the concept of electromagnetic field quanta arose - photons(M. Planck A. Einstein). In 1911, the atomic nucleus was discovered (E. Rutherford) and it was finally proved that atoms have a complex structure. In 1919, Rutherford discovered in the fission products of the nuclei of atoms of a number of elements protons. In 1932, J. Chadwick opened neutron. It became clear that the nuclei of atoms, like the atoms themselves, have a complex structure. The proton-neutron theory of the structure of nuclei arose (D. Ivanenko and W. Heisenberg). In the same 1932, in cosmic rays, was discovered positron(K. Anderson). A positron is a positively charged particle that has the same mass and the same (modulo) charge as an electron. The existence of the positron was predicted by P. Dirac in 1928. During these years, the mutual transformations of protons and neutrons were discovered and studied, and it became clear that these particles are also not unchanging elementary "bricks" of nature. In 1937, particles with a mass of 207 electron masses were discovered in cosmic rays, called muons(m-mesons). Then in 1947-1950 were opened peonies(that is, p-mesons), which, according to modern concepts, carry out the interaction between nucleons in the nucleus. In subsequent years, the number of newly discovered particles began to grow rapidly. This was facilitated by the study of cosmic rays, the development of accelerator technology, and the study of nuclear reactions. Currently, about 400 subnuclear particles are known, which are commonly called elementary. The vast majority of these particles are unstable. The only exception is photon, electron, (positron), proton and neutrino. All other particles undergo spontaneous transformations into other particles at certain intervals. Unstable elementary particles strongly differ from each other in lifetimes. The longest-lived particle is the neutron. The neutron lifetime is about 15 min. Other particles "live" for a much shorter time. For example, the average lifetime of an m-meson is 2.2·10 -6 s, and that of a neutral p-meson is 0.87·10 -16 s. Many massive particles - hyperons have an average lifetime of the order of 10 -10 s. There are several tens of particles with a lifetime exceeding 10 -17 s. In terms of the scale of the microcosm, this is a significant time. Such particles are called relatively stable. Most short-lived elementary particles have lifetimes of the order of 10 -22 -10 -23 s. The ability for mutual transformations is the most important property of all elementary particles. Elementary particles are capable of being born and destroyed (emitted and absorbed). This also applies to stable particles, with the only difference that the transformations of stable particles do not occur spontaneously, but upon interaction with other particles. An example is the annihilation (that is, the disappearance) of an electron and a positron, accompanied by the birth of photons of high energy. The reverse process can also occur - the birth of an electron-positron pair, for example, when photons of sufficiently high energy collide with the nucleus of an atom, with a proton, or with another obstacle that is solid for a photon. Such a dangerous twin, as the positron is for the electron, the proton also has. It's called an antiproton. The electric charge of the antiproton is negative. At present, antiparticles have been found in all particles. Antiparticles are opposed to particles because when any particle meets its antiparticle, they annihilate, that is, both particles disappear, turning into radiation quanta. I note that this does not always happen. For annihilation, certain conditions must be created. After all, do not annihilate electrons and positrons in a proton?! They don't annihilate. They are perfectly combined, thus creating the most stable large particle - the proton. Even the neutron has an antiparticle. The neutron and antineutron differ only in the signs of the magnetic moment and the so-called baryon charge.
Discovery of strange particles
Late 40s - early 50s. The twentieth century was marked by the discovery of a large group of particles with unusual properties, called “strange”. were made on accelerators - installations that create intense flows of fast protons and electrons.When colliding with matter, accelerated protons and electrons give rise to new elementary particles, which become the subject of study.
In 1947, Butler and Rochester observed two particles, called V particles, in a cloud chamber. Two tracks were observed, as if forming the Latin letter V. The formation of two tracks indicated that the particles were unstable and decayed into other, lighter ones. One of the V-particles was neutral and decayed into two charged particles with opposite charges. (Later it was identified with the neutral K-meson, which decays into positive and negative pions). The other was charged and decayed into a charged particle with a smaller mass and a neutral particle. (Later it was identified with the charged K+ meson, which decays into charged and neutral pions). V-particles allow, at first glance, another interpretation: their appearance could be interpreted not as a decay of particles, but as a scattering process. Indeed, the processes of scattering of a charged particle by a nucleus with the formation of one charged particle in the final state, as well as inelastic scattering of a neutral particle by a nucleus with the formation of two charged particles, will look the same in a cloud chamber as the decay of V-particles. But such a possibility was easily ruled out on the grounds that scattering processes are more probable in denser media. And V-events were observed not in lead, which was present in the cloud chamber, but directly in the chamber itself, which is filled with a gas with a lower density (compared to the density of lead). We note that if the experimental discovery of the p-meson was in some sense "expected" in connection with the need to explain the nature of nucleon interactions, then the discovery of V-particles, like the discovery of the muon, turned out to be a complete surprise. The discovery of V-particles and the determination of their most "elementary" characteristics stretched over more than a decade. After the first observation of these particles in 1947, Rochester and Butler continued their experiments for another two years, but they failed to observe a single particle. And only after the equipment was raised high into the mountains, V-particles were again discovered, as well as new particles were discovered. As it turned out later, all these observations turned out to be observations of various decays of the same particle - the K-meson (charged or neutral). The "behavior" of V-particles at birth and subsequent decay led to the fact that they were called strange. Strange particles were first obtained in the laboratory in 1954 by Fowler, Shutt, Thorndike and Whitemore, who, using an ion beam from the Brookhaven cosmotron with an initial energy of 1.5 GeV, observed the reactions of associative production of strange particles. From the beginning of the 50s. accelerators have become the main tool for the study of elementary particles. In the 70s. the energies of particles accelerated at accelerators amounted to tens and hundreds of billions of electron volts (GeV). The desire to increase the energies of particles is due to the fact that high energies open up the possibility of studying the structure of matter at the shorter distances, the higher the energy of the colliding particles. Accelerators significantly increased the rate of obtaining new data and in a short time expanded and enriched our knowledge of the properties of the microworld. The use of accelerators to study strange particles made it possible to study their properties in more detail, in particular the features of their decay, and soon led to an important discovery: the elucidation of the possibility of changing the characteristics of some microprocesses during the operation of mirror reflection - the so-called. violation of spaces, parity (1956). The commissioning of proton accelerators with energies of billions of electron volts made it possible to discover heavy antiparticles: the antiproton (1955), the antineutron (1956), and the antisigma hyperons (1960). In 1964, the heaviest hyperon W- was discovered (with a mass of about two proton masses).
Resonances
In the 1960s a large number of extremely unstable (compared to other unstable elementary particles) particles, called “resonances”, were discovered at accelerators. The masses of most resonances exceed the mass of a proton. The first of them, D1 (1232), has been known since 1953. make up the bulk of elementary particles.The strong interaction of the p-meson and the nucleon in a state with a total isotopic spin of 3/2 and a moment of 3/2 leads to the appearance of an excited state of the nucleon.This state decays within a very short time (of the order of 10 -23 s) per nucleon and p-meson. Since this state has well-defined quantum numbers, like stable elementary particles, it was natural to call it a particle. To emphasize the very short lifetime of this state, it and similar short-lived states began to be called resonant. Nucleon resonance, discovered Fermi in 1952, later became known as D 3/2 3/2 - isobar (to highlight the fact that spin and isotopes the calic spin of the D-isobars are equal to 3/2). Since the lifetime of resonances is insignificant, they cannot be observed directly, in the same way as the "ordinary" proton, p-mesons and muons are observed (by their traces in track devices). Resonances are detected by the characteristic behavior of the scattering cross sections of particles, as well as by studying the properties of their decay products. Most of the known elementary particles belong to the group of resonances. The discovery of D-resonance was of great importance for the physics of elementary particles. Note that excited states or resonances are not absolutely new objects of physics. Previously, they were known in atomic and nuclear physics, where their existence is associated with the composite nature of the atom (formed from the nucleus and electrons) and the nucleus (formed from protons and neutrons). As for the properties of atomic states, they are determined only by the electromagnetic interaction. The low probabilities of their decay are associated with the smallness of the electromagnetic interaction constant. Excited states exist not only for the nucleon (in this case they speak of its isobaric states), but also for the p meson (in this case they speak of meson resonances). “The reason for the appearance of resonances in strong interactions is not clear,” Feynman writes, “at first, theorists did not assume that there were resonances in field theory with a large coupling constant. Later, they realized that if the coupling constant is large enough, then isobaric states arise. However, the true significance of the fact of the existence of resonances for fundamental theory remains unclear.
Quantum physics has radically changed our understanding of the world. According to quantum physics, we can influence the process of rejuvenation with our consciousness!
Why is this possible?From the point of view of quantum physics, our reality is a source of pure potentialities, a source of raw materials that make up our body, our mind and the entire Universe. The universal energy and information field never stops changing and transforming, turning into something new every second.
In the 20th century, during physical experiments with subatomic particles and photons, it was discovered that the fact of observing the course of an experiment changes its results. What we focus our attention on can react.
This fact is confirmed by a classic experiment that surprises scientists every time. It was repeated in many laboratories and the same results were always obtained.
For this experiment, a light source and a screen with two slits were prepared. As a light source, a device was used that "shot" photons in the form of single pulses.
The course of the experiment was monitored. After the end of the experiment, two vertical stripes were visible on the photographic paper that was behind the slits. These are traces of photons that passed through the slits and illuminated the photographic paper.
When this experiment was repeated in automatic mode, without human intervention, the picture on photographic paper changed:
If the researcher turned on the device and left, and after 20 minutes the photographic paper developed, then not two, but many vertical stripes were found on it. These were traces of radiation. But the drawing was different.
The structure of the trace on photographic paper resembled the trace of a wave that passed through the slits. Light can exhibit the properties of a wave or a particle.
As a result of the simple fact of observation, the wave disappears and turns into particles. If you do not observe, then a trace of the wave appears on the photographic paper. This physical phenomenon is called the Observer Effect.
The same results were obtained with other particles. The experiments were repeated many times, but each time they surprised scientists. So it was discovered that at the quantum level, matter reacts to the attention of a person. This was new in physics.
According to the concepts of modern physics, everything materializes from the void. This emptiness is called "quantum field", "zero field" or "matrix". The void contains energy that can turn into matter.
Matter consists of concentrated energy - this is the fundamental discovery of physics of the 20th century.
There are no solid parts in an atom. Objects are made up of atoms. But why are objects solid? A finger attached to a brick wall does not pass through it. Why? This is due to differences in the frequency characteristics of atoms and electric charges. Each type of atom has its own vibration frequency. This determines the differences in the physical properties of objects. If it were possible to change the vibration frequency of the atoms that make up the body, then a person could pass through the walls. But the vibrational frequencies of the atoms of the hand and the atoms of the wall are close. Therefore, the finger rests on the wall.
For any kind of interaction, frequency resonance is necessary.
This is easy to understand with a simple example. If you illuminate a stone wall with the light of a flashlight, the light will be blocked by the wall. However, mobile phone radiation will easily pass through this wall. It's all about the frequency differences between the radiation of a flashlight and a mobile phone. While you are reading this text, streams of very different radiation are passing through your body. These are cosmic radiation, radio signals, signals from millions of mobile phones, radiation coming from the earth, solar radiation, radiation created by household appliances, etc.
You don't feel it because you can only see light and hear only sound. Even if you sit in silence with your eyes closed, millions of telephone conversations, pictures of television news and radio messages go through your head. You do not perceive this, because there is no resonance of frequencies between the atoms that make up your body and radiation. But if there is a resonance, then you immediately react. For example, when you remember a loved one who just thought of you. Everything in the universe obeys the laws of resonance.
The world consists of energy and information. Einstein, after much thought about the structure of the world, said: "The only reality that exists in the universe is the field." Just as waves are a creation of the sea, all manifestations of matter: organisms, planets, stars, galaxies are creations of the field.
The question arises, how is matter created from the field? What force controls the motion of matter?
Research scientists led them to an unexpected answer. The founder of quantum physics, Max Planck, said the following during his Nobel Prize speech:
“Everything in the Universe is created and exists due to force. We must assume that behind this force is a conscious mind, which is the matrix of all matter.
MATTER IS GOVERNED BY CONSCIOUSNESS
At the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, new ideas appeared in theoretical physics that make it possible to explain the strange properties of elementary particles. Particles can appear from the void and suddenly disappear. Scientists admit the possibility of the existence of parallel universes. Perhaps particles move from one layer of the universe to another. Celebrities such as Stephen Hawking, Edward Witten, Juan Maldacena, Leonard Susskind are involved in the development of these ideas.
According to the concepts of theoretical physics, the Universe resembles a nesting doll, which consists of many nesting dolls - layers. These are variants of universes - parallel worlds. The ones next to each other are very similar. But the further the layers are from each other, the less similarities between them. Theoretically, in order to move from one universe to another, spaceships are not required. All possible options are located one inside the other. For the first time these ideas were expressed by scientists in the middle of the 20th century. At the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, they received mathematical confirmation. Today, such information is easily accepted by the public. However, a couple of hundred years ago, for such statements they could be burned at the stake or declared crazy.
Everything arises from emptiness. Everything is in motion. Items are an illusion. Matter is made up of energy. Everything is created by thought. These discoveries of quantum physics contain nothing new. All this was known to the ancient sages. In many mystical teachings, which were considered secret and were available only to initiates, it was said that there was no difference between thoughts and objects.Everything in the world is full of energy. The universe responds to thought. Energy follows attention.
What you focus your attention on begins to change. These thoughts in various formulations are given in the Bible, ancient Gnostic texts, in mystical teachings that originated in India and South America. The builders of the ancient pyramids guessed this. This knowledge is the key to the new technologies that are being used today to manipulate reality.
Our body is a field of energy, information and intelligence, which is in a state of constant dynamic exchange with the environment. The impulses of the mind constantly, every second, give the body new forms to adapt to the changing demands of life.
From the point of view of quantum physics, our physical body, under the influence of our mind, is able to make a quantum leap from one biological age to another without going through all the intermediate ages. published
P.S. And remember, just by changing your consumption, we are changing the world together! © econet