What did the Vikings discover in the 9th and 10th centuries. Chronicle of conquests and discoveries of the Vikings. Viking translation - man from the bay

Vikings in England: 11th Century While Viking energy was waning in Ireland and the west, Scandinavian activity in England experienced an unexpected resurgence with the accession in 978 of the weak and indecisive King Æthelred, remembered by posterity as Æthelred the Unready.

Artillery in England in the 14th century Edward III was supposed to have used artillery in his first campaign against Scotland in 1327. This assumption is based on the meaning of the word crakys in John Barbour's (1320–1395, Scottish poet) Metrical Life of King Robert Bruce.

Artillery in England in the 15th century Between the end of the 14th century and the beginning of the 16th century there was a gap in official records concerning artillery, a hundred years of silence between the last report of the royal cloakroom attendants and the first surviving report of the Ordnance Office. Loss of these

Artillery in England in the 16th century In the 16th century, artillery in England made a significant step in its development, and this is due primarily to the activities of the monarchs of the Tudor dynasty. Henry VII (b. 1457, king 1485-1509) laid the foundations for the future maritime dominion of Britain and, according to

Life in England In the winter of 1939, Ruth received a new assignment: to contact comrade "Alfred" in Geneva. Under this pseudonym, Shandor Rado, already known to us, was hiding. Now I had to go on the air almost every night. But Ruth did not lose heart, she found time and energy for everything: and on

Work in England Beginning in 1951, Konon the Young underwent special training, and somewhere at the end of 1953 he suddenly mysteriously disappeared. He told his relatives and friends that he was sent to China, to a remote province, by distribution. For a young specialist business trip on topics

"The Divine King of England" Today, in the vast Western literature devoted to witchcraft and persecution of it, three main directions can be distinguished.

What do we know about Vikings? Between the 8th and 11th centuries, they "traveled" across Europe, reaching North America and the Middle East, fighting, trading and colonizing free lands. They were formidable enemies. Moreover, we know less about them than about Ancient Rome. All information available to date comes from three types of sources: archaeological research, written evidence, and Nordic sagas. Moreover, the Vikings themselves did not leave texts behind them. All written evidence was left by the peoples who came into contact with the Vikings, and the sagas existed for a long time within the framework of oral tradition and were written down only at the end of the 12th and beginning of the 13th centuries.
At the sites of major excavations in Hedeby, Moosgarls, Birka, Roskilde, Lindholm Hoya, Gokstad, Skuldelev, York and Gjermundby, a rich material was found, which, when compared with written sources, sheds light on many aspects of Viking culture. But at the same time, these findings raise more and more questions for us. Misinterpretation and over-praise of certain aspects of the Viking Age has created a distorted picture of the people in the public mind.
The word "Viking" comes from the Old Norse "víkingr", which, according to the most common version, means "man from the bay", "man from the port" (from the root vík - bay, bay, shelter; + suffix ingr). It may also come from the name of the Norwegian region Vik. Some linguists deduce the term from the Old Norse vike meaning "leave, move away": this is how people who leave their native lands for the purpose of robbery or trade were called.
A synonym for the word "Viking" was the word norseman or normann, that is, "northern man". Until now, the French province is called Normandy in honor of the Norman Vikings who once colonized it. In the east of Europe and in the Balkans, the words "Rus" and "Varangian" were used to refer to the Vikings, which were used to refer to Scandinavian pirates, merchants, colonists and mercenaries.

Why did the inhabitants of Scandinavia at the beginning of the VIII century. began to leave their native places and went to plunder the sea coast of Europe, and eventually settled in England, Ireland, France and Russia? The main reason was overpopulation. Farming communities during this period began to experience a shortage of arable land. In Scandinavia, there is quite a bit of land suitable for plowing, and what is there is not very fertile. At the same time, the inhabitants of Scandinavia were born sailors, surpassing all other European nations in the art of navigation. Therefore, the way out of the situation suggested itself: go overseas and get food by plundering the southern lands.

At first, these were summer raids, which were carried out between sowing and reaping. They were sporadic and limited. Later, with success, the raids became more frequent and more massive. Participants in the raids (survivors) returned home, bringing silver, cattle and other trophies. Becoming rich in an instant. Which over time gave rise to the three-century phenomenon of Norman raids. To keep the once conquered lands under control, the Vikings began to stay for the winter, building fortified camps. Many were attracted by the fertile but poorly guarded lands, so they eventually moved here with their families forever. The Norwegians and Danes were looking for new lands beyond the North Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, while the Swedes moved east along the rivers, including the territory of present-day Russia.

The British Isles were heavily influenced by the Vikings. Just 72 years after the first recorded invasion of the Norwegian Vikings in 793, an area of ​​permanent Viking settlement "Danelag" ("Area of ​​Danish law") was formed in England. The Danelaw area covered the northeastern third of England. Although the Anglo-Saxons recaptured the Danelaw under King Edward the Elder in 924, Viking settlements remained in England thereafter. For example, it took the Saxons another 30 years to recapture York. King Edred liberated York only in 954. In Ireland, the Vikings were defeated already in 902, although many modern Irish cities were founded by the Vikings.

By the middle of the X century. most of the Vikings who settled in England and Ireland switched from paganism to Christianity, and then assimilated with the local population. The Vikings, who converted to Christianity, brought a new religion to Scandinavia. First of all, the new religion was accepted by local rulers, who then spread it among the population. In some cases the Viking baptism was gradual and peaceful, in other cases the baptism was violent. So Olaf Triggvasson's crusade ended with the battle of Svoldr, in which Olaf was defeated and died.

Unlike Danni and Southern Sweden, where the first kingdoms were formed already at the beginning of the 8th century .. Norway was united by Harald only around 900. Some Norwegians fled from the power of Harald and settled in Iceland, where they formed a democratic state led by an assembly-althing. Cnut the Great, who in 1014 inherited the Norwegian throne from his father Sven Forkbeard, became king of Norway, Denmark and England. His influence also extended to Sweden, but after the death of Cnut in 1035, his kingdom fell apart.

The fast and shallow-draught Viking ships allowed them to cover long distances, both at sea and on rivers. In the art of navigation, the Scandinavians excelled all other European nations. The Vikings could suddenly appear and attack the coast on the move. Viking ships sailed upstream on all major European rivers. Among the cities they plundered are Paris, Aachen, Cologne.

The Vikings terrorized not only the northern coast of Europe, but also the coast of the Mediterranean, Black and even the Caspian Sea. Varangian merchants reached Tsargrad-Constantinople, where the center of power passed after the collapse of Rome. The path "from the Varangians to the Greeks" went through large rivers in Russia. In some places the ships had to be dragged. Varangian mercenaries served the Byzantine emperors, the Varangian guard was considered an elite formation that had no equal in Europe and the Middle East.

Another major Viking colony was Normandy, where in 911 the Frankish king gave land to the Viking army under the command of Rolf. Later, the Franks tried several times to expel the Normans, but they turned out to be too strong an opponent for the weakened Frankish throne to deal with them. In turn, in 1066 the Normans crossed the English Channel and invaded the lands of the Anglo-Saxons. Norman Duke William the Bastard became King of England William I the Conqueror. But even this descendant of the Vikings was vulnerable to the attacks of his former relatives. Already in 1067 William had to pay tribute to the Danish king Sven Estridson. However, this was the last time the English ruler paid tribute to the Vikings.

The Normans were the most severe and insatiable people of Europe. Where they are by force, where they have settled in peace in different corners of the continent. After the transition of Scandinavia to Christianity, the activity of the Vikings came to naught. Europe now looked to the East, to the Holy Land. In 1096-1099. passed the 1st Crusade. Warriors from Denmark, Norway and Sweden fought under the banner with the image of a cross next to the warriors of other European nations.

Approximate chronology of Viking campaigns.

789 First documented Viking raid on England. The Anglo-Saxon king Beortrich sent his representative to meet the landing party of the Vikings. The Vikings killed the ambassador.
792 Anglo-Saxon King Offa organizes the defense of Mercia against Viking raids.
793 Norwegian Vikings destroy the island monastery of Lindnsfarne in northeast England.
795 Vikings ravaged the island of Rathlin and several monasteries in Ireland
799 Viking raids near the mouth of the Loire. France.
800-900 A century of constant Viking raids led to the collapse of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, primarily Wessex.
806-865 The Swedish Vikings, led by Rurik, settled in the region of Lake Ladoga and in Novgorod.
808 The Danish king Gottrik ruined the Slavic trading center near Rerik and transferred trade near Hedeby.
810 Danish Vikings sack Frisia.
OK. 830 Norwegian Vikings invade Ireland from bases on the islands north of Scotland.
830 850 Constant Viking raids on the coasts of England and France.
834 837 Yearly raids on Dorstad in Frisia,
835 King Egbert of Wessex defeats the Danish Vikings. Another party of Vikings ravages the island of Shepney at the mouth of the Thames.
840 Vikings stay in Ireland for the first time for the winter.
841 Vikings build a fort on the banks of the Liffey at what is now Dublin. Vikings sack Rouen in France.
842-843 Vikings ravage Kveitovik France, rise up the Loire and attack the Pat. For the first time the Vikings winter in France.
844 Vikings sail up the Garonne. France. They attack Seville in Spain, but the Moors repulse their attack.
845,120 Danish ships sail up the Seine and attack Paris. King of the Franks Charles the Bald pays off the Vikings by paying 7,000 pounds of silver - the first danegeld ("Danish money") of 13 paid before 926. The Vikings destroy Hamburg in Germany.
850-851 Vikings first winter in England under Thanet. The king of Ussex, Ethelwulf, defeats the Vikings and begins a systematic struggle against them.
852 Swedish Vikings demand danegeld from the inhabitants of Novgorod.
855-856 Vikings winter on Shepney Island at the mouth of the Thames.
857 Danes sack Paris.
858 Founding of Kyiv.
859-862 A Viking fleet ravages the Mediterranean coast.
860 Vikings unsuccessfully attack Constantinople.
OK. 860 Norwegian Vikings discover Iceland.
862 Vikings sack Cologne. Germany.
863 Vikings sack Xanten. Germany.
865 The "Great Army" of the Danish Vikings lands in England with the aim of permanently seizing land. By 870, the Vikings conquer the northeastern regions of England, where the Danelaw region arises.
S66 Kent pays the first danegeld.
866-867 Solomon, Duke of Brittany defeats the Franks at Brissart with Viking mercenaries.
OK. 870 Harald unifies Norway and becomes sole king. The English King Edmund is defeated and killed by the Danes.
870-930 Viking settlements in Iceland.
871 The Danish Vikings are defeated at Ashdown by the Anlo-Saxons under Æthelred I and Alfred of Wexex.
OK. 872 Naval battle at Hafrsfjord between Harald and an alliance of northern and western Norwegian chiefs. The Danes attack the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Mercia.
878 After a series of setbacks, Alfred of Wessex defeats the Danes under Guthrum at Edishton.
881 Viking raids on Aachen, Worms, Metz, Bonn and Cologne.
882 Oleg the Wise unites Novgorod and Kyiv. Viking raid on Trier.
884-885 A Danish raid on Kent is repulsed by Alfred, who liberates London along the way. The Danes are forced to sign the Wedmore Peace, which determined the southern border of the Danelaw. Alfred the Great becomes King of Saxon England.
886 Paris was besieged for two months by 40,000 Vikings who sailed on 700 ships.
887-888 The Frankish king Charles the Fat hired the Vikings to fight the rebellious Burgundians.
891 Vikings defeated by Franks in Belgium.
892-896 King Alfred defeats the Danish "Great Army", the remnants of which have taken refuge in the Danelaw and France. The Saxons successfully fight the Viking ships at sea.
OK. 900 Danes and Norwegians, led by Rolf the Pedestrian, settle between the Seine and the Loire. France.
902 The Irish drive the Vikings out of Dublin.
907 Oleg descends down the Dnieper into the Black Sea, wages war with Byzantium.
910-912 Vikings piracy in the Caspian Sea.
911 Rolf the Pedestrian received Normandy as a fief from the Frankish king Charles the Simple. The treaty between Russia and Byzantium was signed by Varangian names. In the Byzantine army, a detachment of the Varangian guard is being formed, the number of which by 988 reaches 6,000 people.
912 Rolf of Normandy converts to Christianity and is henceforth referred to as Rollo.
917-919 Norwegians retake Dublin. Vikings from Ireland occupy York.
924 King Edward the Elder of Saxony retakes most of the Danelaw during a 20-year campaign.
934 German King Henry the Fowler defeats Danish King Khnubu at Hedeby.
OK. 937 Battle of Brunanburg. The Viking army from Ireland and Norway, led by Olaf Gutfritsson, is defeated in a two-day battle by the Saxons and Viking mercenaries led by King Athelstan.
940-954 York temporarily becomes an independent Varangian state.
950 King Hakon the Good tries to convert Norway to Christianity.
954 Eadred expels Erik, the last Viking king from York. England is again entirely under the rule of the Anglo-Saxons.
958 Harald Sinezub becomes king of Denmark.
962-965 Harald Sinezub restores Danish rule in Norway. Harald accepts Christianity and baptizes Denmark.
974 The German Emperor Otto II occupies Daneverk, a fortification on the Franco-Danish border. Harald Sinezub returns these territories to Denmark in 983.
OK. 980-1014 New Viking raids on England. King Æthelred II suffers a serious defeat and is forced to pay the danegeld. In 991, Æthelred massacres Danes born in England.
980 Battle of Tara. The Irish defeated the Vikings who settled in Ireland, forcing them to pay tribute.
OK. 982-985 Eric the Red discovered Greenland. Around 985 he set about colonizing the island with a fleet of 23 ships. Bjarni Herjolfesson failed to approach the shores of Greenland and ended up in America instead.
991 Battle of Maldons. The Wessex army under Elderman Byrtnot is defeated by the Viking army under Olaf Trygvasson and Thorkell the Great.
995-1000 Olaf Trygvasson rules Norway until his defeat and death in the naval battle of Svoldr with the Danes and Swedes.
OK. 1000 According to the stories of Bjarni Herjolfsson, Leif Eriksson and his brother Thorvald explored Vinland - the northeast of America.
1013 The Danish king Sweyn Forkbeard is recognized as the Danelaw.
1014 The Irish, led by King Brian Boru, defeat the Norwegian Vikings in the decisive battle of Clontarf. Cnut the Great, son of Sweyn Forkbeard, defeated "all the English nobility" at the battle of Epniidon and in 1016 proclaimed a short-lived kingdom.
1015-1016 Olaf Haraldsson (St. Olaf) occupies the Norwegian throne.
1028 Olaf Haraldsson is expelled from Norway and killed in 1030 at the Battle of Stiklasgad.
1035-1043 After the death of Knut the Great, Hardaknut (1035-1042) becomes king of Danin and England, and Magnus the Good (1035-1047) becomes king of Norway. In 1042 Magnus unites Denmark and Norway, in 1043 he defeats the Slavs at Hedeby.
1047-1066 Harall Sigurlsson Harlrala becomes King of Norway.
1047-1074 Sven Estrideon becomes king of Denmark.
1050 Garall Harlrala destroys Hedeby.
1066 Harall Harlrala invades the north of England, is defeated and killed by the Saxon king Harold Godwinsson at the Battle of Stamford Bridge. 25 September William of Normandy lands in the south of England. The Anglo-Saxon army makes a rush to the south, but is defeated at Hastings on October 14. In battle, the English king Harroll dies.
1067 Sven Estridson invades England. William the Conqueror pays the danegeld.
1079 Icelander Godred Korvan invades the Isle of Man, then subdues the Dublin Vikings and establishes Norwegian power.
1085 The last Viking raid on England, led by the Danish King Cnut, ends in failure.

Conventionally, the expansion of the Vikings is usually divided into three periods:

1) Covers the end of the 8th-9th centuries - characterized by scattered expeditions of the Vikings against the Frankish state, attacks on the shores of England, Scotland, Ireland and their migration to the Orkney, Faroe, Hebrides.

2) It began at the end of the 9th century - at this time, France and England were attacked by larger detachments of the Vikings, who moved from robbery and tribute collection to settling the conquered territory. They establish the Duchy of Normandy, conquer England, establish the Kingdom of Sicily.

3) It was characterized by significant geographical discoveries, - in the late 10th century. Iceland, Greenland were discovered at the same time, the Vikings reached the North. America (so-called Vinland, Markland, Helluland).

“... Everything turned to flight, and rarely anyone said: Stop, resist, defend your homeland, your own children and people! Not realizing the meaning of what was happening and in constant strife among themselves, everyone paid off with money where it was necessary to use weapons for protection, and thus they betrayed the cause of God.

Guriev. A. Ya.” Viking Campaigns “

Viking conquests

The first mention of the Viking raid we find in the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" - this happened in June 793 AD. e. on the small island of Lindisfarne (or Holy Island), located off the coast of Northumberland (England). The Vikings suddenly attacked, staged a terrible massacre, plundered the monastery and just as quietly sailed away. Here is how it is reported in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: “This year there were terrible signs in Northumbria, which frightened all the inhabitants beyond measure. Strong whirlwinds swirled, lightning flashed, and flying dragons were seen in the sky, spewing flames. Soon after these signs, a severe famine began, and in the same year, on June 8, hordes of pagans plundered and destroyed God's temple in Lindisfarne and killed many people.

Until recently, it was customary to consider this date the beginning of the so-called "Viking Age". But in a number of modern studies, we meet a slightly different point of view, so in the electronic version of the article "Age of the viking" the author writes that "... with the current influx of new information and research, our perception of the period is constantly being revised. 793 AD, the earliest recorded Viking raid into Western Europe, on Lindisfarne Monastery in Northumberland, can no longer be considered the beginning of the Viking Age, as there is circumstantial evidence of earlier Viking attacks in the West. In addition, people from what is now Sweden were already involved in the expansion to the East and, most importantly, many significant characteristics of the social structure and economy of the Viking Age go back to the depths of the 8th century. However, it seems reasonable to date the beginning of the Viking Age to the end of the 8th century, or around 800 AD. e. for it was then that the vicious expeditions of the Vikings and the far-reaching expansion gained momentum, and these are the first and main characteristics of the period.” Thus, we can say with complete certainty that the first raids took place before 793.

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle tells that during the time of King Britannicus (King of Wessex in 786-802), the first ships with Danes appeared in England. As early as 792, Offa, king of Mercia, was organizing defenses in Kent against pagans who had come by sea in ships. And in 800, the emperor Charlemagne organized a defense along the northern coast of France to the Seine "against the sea robbers, who are teeming with the sea belonging to the Gauls." In 795, the Vikings reached Scotland and the island of Yona, where they attacked the monastery of the venerable St. Columbus, and then reached Ireland. In 799, the monastery of St. Philibert was sacked on the island of Normontier at the mouth of the Loire River. In the years that followed, the Vikings raided all of the British Isles, the mainland, and colonized the islands of the North Atlantic and regions that were almost devoid of population.

Huge, rich England became one of the best sources of profit and enrichment for the Vikings. They committed robberies here, extorted tribute (“Danegeldy” - “Danish money”) and acted as hired soldiers and merchants. They settled on the lands of England, engaged in agriculture here, and played a large role in the founding of cities. This was the only region where they conquered established kingdoms and established themselves on the throne, both in many petty kingdoms in the 800s and throughout England after reunification. From 1018 to 1042 (with the exception of one five-year period) England shared a king with Denmark. The historical material, which contains information about that time, is unusually rich and varied. There are many written sources, the most important of which is the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The archaeological material is also rich and varied; a large number of geographical names, proper names and language borrowings.

In addition to the already mentioned facts of the Viking attacks on England, there is one more evidence of their presence here until 835. This is a robbery in 794 of the monastery of Donemuthan, which was probably located near the mouth of the River Don in South Yorkshire. Then these Norwegian bands of Vikings went to rob the richer areas of Scotland and Ireland. But in 835, the Vikings again rushed to England, and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle contains a short message: "In this year the pagans devastated Sheppey." - an island at the mouth of the Thames. This was the beginning of more than two hundred years of Scandinavian activity in England, with the Danes playing the main role here. In the early years, South and East England, and in particular the large cities of Hamwick (now Southampton) and London, especially suffered from Viking raids. The robbery took place according to a certain pattern. First, short-term raids on the islands and various areas of the coast, which were made from fortified bases on the European mainland, from Ireland or directly from Scandinavia, and then the Vikings began to stay here for the winter. The first report of such a Scandinavian winter camp dates back to the winter of 851. The camp was on the Isle of Thanet off the east coast of Kent. A few years later, the Vikings established a winter camp on the Isle of Sheppey.

Soon their raids deep into England take place, and in 865 a detachment camped on the Isle of Thanet made peace with the inhabitants of Kent, who paid a large ransom to the Vikings. It was one of the first numerous payments made by the British to "Dangeld". Further, the Vikings increasingly invaded England. In 865, "a large army of pagans" came to England, about two or three thousand people. They set up a winter camp in East Anglia, received horse tribute from the locals, and then made peace with them. The following year, the army rushed to Northumbria, and on the first of November, the Vikings captured the capital of the kingdom of York, made peace with its inhabitants, placed an obedient king on the throne and wintered here. Whitby Priory was probably sacked and destroyed at this time. During archaeological excavations, metal linings were found here, torn off from church things, and geographical names in this area indicate that the monastic lands passed into the possession of the Vikings. In 867, the army went to Mercia and settled for the winter in Nottingham, making peace with this kingdom. In 868 the Vikings were back in York and stayed there for a year, and in 869 they crossed Mercia and headed for East Anglia. After killing King Edmund and capturing his kingdom, the Vikings wintered in Thetford. In 870 they captured Wessex.

In 871, according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, they settled in Reading. There were nine major battles, not counting minor skirmishes, and during these battles nine jarls and one king were killed, until the kingdom of Wessex made peace with the Vikings. This happened just in the year that King Alfred the Great ascended the throne of Wessex. The constant change of winter camps by the Vikings and numerous peace treaties continued for some time. In 871-872, the Vikings settled in London, and in subsequent years in Torxey (Murcia), and this time Mercia made peace with the Vikings. But in 873-874, the Vikings set up camp in Repton, expelled the king of Mercia and put a defector on the throne in his place. This event turned out to be a turning point in the development of the further expansion of the Vikings. In 874, the Viking army split up. Hövding Halfdan went with part of his army to Northumbria, wintered near the Tyne River, captured the whole kingdom the next year and began to plunder it in the west and north.

In 876, a well-known entry appeared in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: “In this year Halfdan began to distribute the lands of the Northumbrians, and they (the Vikings) began to cultivate them and harvest them.” Thus, the Vikings took the land for themselves and settled on it. Halfdan himself died, probably a year later. The second part of the army, which in 874 left Repton during the reigns of the kings Gudrum, Osketil and Anund, went to Cambridge and remained there for a year. Then the army moved to Wessex, the last independent kingdom of England, and King Alfred was forced to make peace with the Vikings. In 875-876 the Viking winter camp was at Wareham, and the next year at Exetery. At the end of the summer of 877, the Vikings headed for Mercia and divided it up. They set up camp at Gloucester, and just after the new year they returned and took over most of the kingdom of Wessex. King Alfred fled. But during the spring of 878, he managed to raise an army, and at the battle of Edington he defeated the Vikings. At the conclusion of peace, the Vikings promised to leave Wessex, and their king Gudrum promised to be baptized. Indeed, he was soon baptized along with thirty of his close associates from among the nobility, and King Alfred became his godfather. In 878-879 the Vikings wintered in Kirnesester.

Then they went to East Anglia, and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says that in 880 they settled here and began to distribute land to their fellow tribesmen. However, one group of Vikings sailed to the continent, to Ghent, and in subsequent years, Viking raids and robberies took place there. After fifteen years of nomadic life in England, the Vikings conquered three of the four kingdoms and appropriated the land on which they settled and began to cultivate it. In 886, a new treaty between Gudrum and Alfred the Great was concluded, the text of which has been preserved. It establishes the border between the kingdoms of Alfred and Gudrum (borders with other Viking kingdoms remained unchanged). The rules of peaceful coexistence were established. It is not known exactly when the Vikings, who appeared in England in 865, decided to settle here. Since they initially behaved traditionally: they robbed, killed, engaged in extortion. Many hoards dating back to this time have been found. But the most meaningful information is provided by archaeological research of the Viking winter camp of 873-874 in Repton.

The fortress and pagan graves of the Vikings, treasures of coins buried in these years. Viking burials are quite numerous, about 250 people, the overwhelming majority, of which are men. Coins, Viking swords, Thor's hammers were found in the graves. A rich kurgan burial of a dead Viking head was also found. This burial was plundered in the 17th century. It can be assumed that a winter marked by innumerable disasters and the death of a great hövding caused many to want to end their nomadic lifestyle and settle down on earth. It was this process that began in England two years later. But at the same time, on the continent, in Western Europe, the Vikings continued to follow their traditional way of life. In 892, a large army arrived in England from Boulogne, and from the region of the Loire River, Hasting brought his army. The Vikings brought with them all the property and, probably, they were also ready to settle here forever. This army received support from the English states, where the Vikings were kings, but King Alfred organized an effective defense and began the construction of defensive structures. He gathered an army, placed ships on the coast, specially designed for naval battles with Viking ships. Destroyed supplies in areas where the Vikings set up their camps.

He won a number of victories over the Vikings. In addition, an epidemic began in England, and people sought to settle from large cities and villages. The Vikings, deprived of money and resources, sailed on their ships to the banks of the Seine. The Seine Delta abounded with small islands where the Vikings, starting from the 40s of the 9th century, moored their ships, divided the booty and planned new raids. Alfred the Great died in 899, but his successors proved to be equally capable rulers. The Vikings were still a constant threat to the population of England, as well as to other territories. The English kings, strengthening their power, often clashed with the Viking rulers. Power in the kingdoms passed from hand to hand, ending up with the Viking kings, then with the English. In Northumbria and York until about 880, obedient kings were on the throne. Power then passed to Viking kings of various origins. From the second decade of the 10th century, Ireland was ruled mainly by kings of the Danish dynasty. They justified the legitimacy of their power by the fact that they were descended from the legendary Ivar, who arrived in Dublin in 857 and died in 873. His grandson married King Edward's daughter, but died shortly thereafter. His great-grandson Olav Godfredsson was king of York and died in 941. He and his Scottish allies were defeated in 937 by King Edward's son Athelstan at the Battle of Brunanburg, which was fought by many kings and jarls and celebrated in both English and Scandinavian writings.

Northumbria was once ruled by King Eric Bloodaxe, who was expelled from Norway. He reigned in York until he was overthrown and killed, after which the English king Edward seized power and became king of the country. Little is known about the internal politics of the Viking kings, but just as elsewhere in the English kingdom, power was established through fortified cities and fortresses, both old and new. The Vikings played a big role in the development of cities. Many of the fortifications that King Alfred and his descendants erected to fight the Vikings were transformed into cities, as they took over many of the functions of the center, and in some fortresses they already existed. Between the two kingdoms - East Anglia and Northumbria, there was a territory occupied by the so-called "Five Burghs", which included Lincoln, Nottingham, Derby, Leicester and Stamford - the "area of ​​Danish law" ("Danelagh"). The area where the population was guided by the laws of the Scandinavians. The Viking kings showed an interest in trade. This is confirmed by the fact that they minted coins. For example, Gudrum from East Anglia, during the decade of his reign, managed to establish coinage. In the first half of the 10th century, coins of a clearly Scandinavian nature were minted in York, with images of swords, banners, birds, Thor's hammer, etc. The European expansion of the Vikings had a strong Scandinavian influence on the English language and many place names.

So in English there are about 600 Scandinavian borrowings, and it is characteristic that they usually refer to words associated with objects of everyday life, for example, knife, skin, roof, window, hurt, die. A number of grammatical elements can be included here, for example, plurals. The strong impact on the local language was also due to the fact that many Old English and Old Norse words were similar to each other. There are many borrowings in geographical names. So about 850 geographical names have the ending “by”, from the Norwegian “bu”, (Derby, Holtby, Ormesby). And there are many endings with the Scandinavian word "thorp" (thogr). The reason for the strong Scandinavian influence may have been continued contacts with Scandinavia and with the Scandinavian settlements in the British Isles, as well as the appearance of new immigrants from Scandinavia, even when the Viking forces were driven out of England during 865-899. Geographical names also indicate that the Scandinavian settlements in the east were predominantly Danish, which corresponds to the presence of large detachments here, although they also partly belonged to the Norwegians. From around 900, Norse settlements also appeared in the northwest of England, and place names show that Norwegians and Danes settled here.

Many of them probably came here via Ireland, Scotland, the Isle of Man or East Anglia. Many settlers no doubt converted fairly quickly to the Christian faith, especially in East Anglia, where the first Viking king Gudrum was baptized as early as 878. From the beginning of the 10th century, written sources no longer refer to the Vikings of South East England as pagans, from which it can be concluded that by this time Christianity had already been officially accepted here. In Northern England, the Christian church has long been under the yoke of paganism, as evidenced by archaeological research of burials. Many of them were produced in accordance with pagan ritual. Churches in the north collapsed, fell into decay. But gradually many Scandinavians in northern England accepted the new faith under pressure from other converts. This time was the heyday of the art of stone carving. Most of the stoneware dating back to the first half of the 10th century are crosses and tombstones in the form of houses. Only in York alone, the remains of more than 500 crosses and tombstones were found. Many of them are decorated in the Anglo-Scandinavian style. Some of the stories refer to well-known heroic sagas or Scandinavian mythology. Sigurd slaying the dragon Fafnir; Thor catching the Midgord Serpent, etc. Also speaking of the Scandinavian influence, it can be noted that in York, skaldic art was very popular, especially during the reign of King Erik the Bloody Ax here.

In the 10th century, many Scandinavians turned their eyes to Eastern Europe, which became the source of their income at that time. In addition, the efforts of the Western kings to defend their borders put up a barrier to the warlike aggressiveness of many Vikings. Thanks to this, these territories were temporarily spared from the expansion of the Scandinavians. But since the 80s of the 10th century, the situation has changed. The flow of Arab silver passing through Russia dried up. And already in 980, the Vikings reappeared on English soil. Basically, they rushed to the south and west coast of England. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle tells that in 980 Southampton was ravaged by the Vikings who arrived on seven ships, and in 983 the Vikings arrived on three ships in Portland, and it is possible that many of these detachments came from Ireland. And since 991, large Viking fleets began to appear on the territory of England. This year, Olav Tryggvesson made a trip to England. The chronicle says that he sailed to the shores of South East England in 93 ships "with his Danish people." He defeated the British at the Battle of Maldon in Essex. And mercilessly robbed the local population. The British were forced to pay a "danegeld" of 10,000 pounds of silver in order for the Vikings to stop devastating their lands. Since that time, every year is marked in the Chronicle by the arrival of the Vikings and their merciless ruin of the English.

In 994, Olav Tryggvesson reappears, in alliance with the Danish king Sven Forkbeard. Their fleet consisted of 94 ships. They ravaged the English settlements, tried to capture London (unsuccessfully). And they demanded 16,000 pounds of silver as a ransom. The army camped at Southampton for the winter. The British made an agreement with Olaf. He was baptized, received rich gifts, and promised not to ruin England again. Returning with booty to Norway, Olav became king there. In 1000, due to civil strife in the homeland, the Viking campaigns stopped for a while. A year later, the Viking army reappeared. And she took the "danegeld" in the amount of 24,000 pounds of silver. In 1002-1003, Sven Forkbeard plundered large areas in southern and eastern Anglia. In 1006, the Vikings received from the English "danegeld" in the amount of 36,000 pounds. And in 1009, the Danish hövding Torkil the Long came to England. Settling on the Isle of Wight, he made raids into southern England from there. Shortly after Easter 1012, according to the Chronicle, the huge sum of 48,000 pounds of silver was paid by the English. In 1013, Sven Forkbeard set out with a large flotilla, intending to conquer all of England. He was accompanied by his son, Knud. The army landed in Kent, and within a few months conquered the country. In February 1014, Sven Forkbeard died and Canute was elected king. But the British gathered an army and drove the Vikings from their land.

Returning to Denmark, Knud again gathers an army, and in 1015 again goes on a campaign. England was weakened by requisitions, wars, and in the great battle of Assandun, Canute won the victory. And he became in 1016 the sole king of England. He continued to receive tribute from the population, gradually increasing it. And in 1018 it was a huge amount - 72,000 pounds of silver. During the reign of Cnut, he created a new aristocracy from among his entourage. He redistributed the land in their favor. After the death of his brother Harald, Canute became king of Denmark, while also being king of England. In 1028, he conquered Norway from Olaf the Saint, and became its king. The Scottish king submitted to him. And now Knud called himself the king of all England, Denmark, as well as the king of the Norwegians and some of the Swedes, that is, the Swedes. Knud ensured peace in England, prevented new invasions of the Vikings. The British, on the other hand, were satisfied with the payment of the "danegeld", rather than the conquest of the robberies and murders of the Viking invasions. Knud respected the ancient English laws and brought rich gifts to the church. After Canute's death, his empire collapsed. His children started an internecine struggle. But all died without heirs. And the half-brother of the sons of Cnut, Edward, called the Confessor, became king. After his death in 1066, a new civil strife began. Jarl Harold Godwinsson became king. The king of Norway, Harald the Severe Ruler (Hardraade) also claimed the English throne. He went on a campaign against England, but at the battle of Stamford Bridge his army was defeated by King Harold, and he himself was killed.

Scandinavia borrowed from England, its architectural features, its saints, church terms. Events connected with England, more than ever, contributed to the involvement of Scandinavia in the international historical process.

In parallel, with attacks on England, the Vikings carried out raids on the Western European continent.

The first recorded invasion of the Western European continent dates back to 810. This is mentioned in the Frankish state annals, and it concerned Friesland, which then for many years was at the center of Viking interests. The Viking flotilla consisted of 200 ships. Friesland was plundered and taxed. In 820 another invasion took place. According to the annals, the flotilla consisted of 13 ships that tried to land on the coast of Flanders, but their attack was repulsed. The defense of the coast, organized by Charlemagne, proved to be very effective. Then they landed in the south of France, in Aquitaine, where they captured a lot of booty. The Franks then resorted to another form of coastal defense. Viking Hovdings were given lands near the mouths of large rivers so that they would protect them from the attack of sea robbers. So, Harald Klak received in 826 for life use on terms of service, Rüstringen, an area near the source of the Weser River, on the border between Friesland and Saxony. He was one of the Danish kings and served the Franks for a long time. After the death of Charlemagne in 814, civil war broke out between his children and grandchildren. The defense of the country weakened. This is what the Vikings did.

In 834, and then in 835, 836 and 837, they rob Dorestad, located on the banks of the Rhine. It was one of the largest trading centers in Northern Europe. By the middle of the 9th century, Viking campaigns were gaining momentum. And it was impossible to stop them. In 841, the Vikings sailed up the Seine and demanded tribute there, and then sacked Rouen. A year later they attacked Kventowicz, the center of trade with England, and in 843 on St. John's Day they sacked Nantes. The grandchildren of Charlemagne sometimes used alliances with the Vikings to fight each other. By 843, the first information is that the Viking army wintered on the European continent. This happened in Normontier, and in the Annals of Bertin it is reported that the Vikings moved houses to the island and began to settle down as if they were going to settle here forever. In Nantes, the Vikings were called “Vestfoldings”, that is, “people from Vestfold”, an area near the Oslo Fjord. Campaigns are now becoming international in nature, people from all over Scandinavia take part in them. First of all, the West Frankish kingdom of Charles the Bald suffered from the attacks of the Vikings. But the Vikings did not leave other kingdoms alone, and now they have reached the Mediterranean Sea. In 845, the Seine, Paris, and even the fortifications on the Ile de la Cité were sacked. Charles the Bald had to pay off the Vikings with 7,000 pounds of silver.

It was the first of his many payments to the Vikings. The Danish king Horik in the same year ruined Hamburg. In 845, an epidemic broke out among the Vikings, but she failed to stop them. The threat of war to King Horik of the three Frankish kings did not help either. In 860, the monk Ermentarius of Normontier wrote of the Vikings: “The number of ships is growing. The endless stream of hordes does not dry out. The Vikings destroy everything in their path. Nothing can stop them. They captured Bordeaux, Perigueux, Limoges, Angouleme and Toulouse. Angers, Tours and Orleans they razed to the ground. Their countless flotilla is sailing up the Seine, evil is being done throughout the country. Rouen is destroyed, plundered and burned. Paris, Beauvais and Millau were captured, the fortress of Melun was razed to the ground, Chartres was besieged, Evreux and Bayeux were plundered. All cities are under siege." Not only cities, churches and monasteries became victims. The villagers also suffered. The population was taxed to pay off the Vikings, who robbed, killed, drove into slavery. In some places they founded their settlements. In 845 they “settled peacefully on the ground” in Aquitaine. And in 850 they were given land to settle after they sacked the banks of the Seine.

In 861, King Charles promised a large sum of money to a Viking army led by Weland to expel another Viking army that had occupied one of the islands of the Seine. Weland besieged this army, and it surrendered, and then disintegrated. Weland joined Karl and was baptized. But soon he was killed by another Viking. The most effective way to defend against the Vikings were fortified bridges across the rivers, as well as strengthening the city walls and building new fortresses in the country. Charlemagne began to build them, and his heirs continued. The results were already evident during the long siege of Paris in 885-886. The Vikings were never able to take it, and they had to retreat. In some campaigns, the Vikings reached the Mediterranean. The first reliably established expedition to Spain took place in 844. At the same time, Seville was captured, but the Moors quickly recaptured it. The most famous campaign was led by the chiefs Bjorn, Jernside and Hasting. They left the Loire in 859 with 62 ships and returned only three years later, having traveled to many places, including Spain, North Africa, the Rhone Valley and Italy, and captured a lot of booty and many prisoners. They lost much on the way back, but the rumor of their exploits spread far and wide. This is narrated by the Annals of Bertin, Arabic sources and later sources from Scandinavia and Normandy.

The heirs of Charlemagne, in order to ensure the security of the interior regions of the country, entered into agreements with Viking hevdings, who established their bases near the mouths of the rivers. So, Harald Klak in 841 received Walcheren and other lands in possession. And when another hovding, Rurik, began his raids in the Rhine valley, Dorestad and other counties were given to him in possession. This happened in 850. After the first raids that took place in 834-837, Dorestad was again attacked in 846, 847, 857 and 863, and soon the city lost its significance altogether. In the 70s and 80s of the 9th century, there was a period of calm when most of the Vikings were busy conquering England. But then the attacks resumed with renewed vigor. Basically their activity was great on the coast, but now they invaded inland, into Flanders and along the Rhine. So, for example, in 880 Tornau and the monasteries near the Scheldt River were raided, in 881 there was an invasion of the area between the Scheldt and Somme rivers. The Chronicle has preserved a story dating back to 882, which reports that Hasting of the Loire attacked the coastal regions, and other Vikings burned Cologne and Trier, as well as many monasteries along the rivers Meuse, Moselle and Rhine. Then the youngest son of Louis the German, Charles the Fat, who at that time bore the title of emperor, entered into an alliance with Godfred, who was baptized and received Friesland and other lands that Rurik had previously owned. This was the last time that the Viking hövding ruled in Friesland.

The Viking raids continued, but at the same time, more and more fortresses were being built, and the defense was getting stronger and better organized. By the end of the 9th century, good times for the Vikings had passed. In 890, the Vikings tried to take advantage of the internecine struggle in independent Brittany, but they were defeated here and went north. In 891, they were defeated by the German king Arnulf at the battle of the Dyla River, a tributary of the Scheldt. After several successful raids in 892, the Viking army set off for England with their families and all their property, apparently intending to settle there. But in England, King Alfred organized an effective defense, and the Viking army was forced to retreat. Part of it went to East Anglia, to Northumbria, a kingdom under Viking rule, while others returned to the Seine River region. Since that time, information about the stay of the Vikings on the Western European continent almost disappears, but some groups may have continued to be here. The last thing known is that King Rudolph of the West Franks paid tribute to them in 926. From Brittany, where the Vikings maintained their power for a number of years, they were finally expelled around 937. But their power in Normandy was still strong.

In 911, King Charles the Simple gave the city of Rouen and the nearby lands along the Seine River to the sea, paying them for protection from other Vikings. This marked the beginning of the Duchy of Normandy. Rollo and his family concentrated power in their hands and expanded their possessions, which was not possible for other hevdings who received land in Western Europe. Gradually, many Scandinavians moved to this rich and fertile land. The first local rulers were called counts of Rouen. Rollo did not immediately receive the entire territory, which later became known as Normandy. This territory was formed during the 10th century, during numerous wars. The most important conquests date back to 924 and 933. The name "Normandy" (terra Normannorum or Nortmannia) occurs for the first time at the beginning of the 11th century. The word means "land of the Normans", reflecting the ethnic origin of its rulers. A strong and centralized government was established in Normandy.

It remained independent until 1204, when it was conquered by the French king Philip Augustus. But, it is obvious that all its rulers recognized the formal supremacy of the French king. Rollo and his son, William Longsword, revived and strengthened churches and monasteries. Rouen prospered, in part, thanks to a brisk trade with the Vikings, who sold their booty here. The minting of coins resumed, and they bore the names of the Norman rulers, and not the French king. In the 10th century, interest in Scandinavian culture began to fade at the court of Rouen. And the rule of the Scandinavian language had ceased even before that time. It is also characteristic that not a single ruler of Normandy after Rollo bore a Scandinavian name. Meanwhile place names with Scandinavian elements show that the Vikings came to Normandy from different places - mainly from Denmark, but some also from Norway and England. Such place names are found mainly in the area between Rouen and the sea, that is, in the central part of Normandy, as well as along the coast.

Today we know about the stay of the Vikings on the Western European continent, mainly thanks to written sources. There is very little archaeological evidence of the Vikings staying here. Only a few precious metal objects have been found in Dorestad, a few silver hoards in Holland, and Scandinavian-type burials in northern France.

Geographical discoveries and colonization

By the “Viking Age” Iceland was discovered by Irish monks, but the colonization that took place at the end of the 9th century was certainly carried out by the Norwegian Vikings. The first settlers were the leaders with their entourage, who fled from Norway from the despotism of King Harold, nicknamed Fair-Haired. For several centuries, Iceland remained independent, it was ruled by influential leaders, who were called godar. They met annually in the summer at meetings of the Althing, which was the prototype of the first parliament. However, the Althing could not resolve the feuds between the leaders, and in 1262 Iceland submitted to the Norwegian king. It regained its independence only in 1944. In 986, the Icelander Eric the Red led several hundred colonists to the southwestern coast of Greenland, which he had discovered several years earlier. They settled in the locality of Vesterbygden (“western settlement”) at the edge of the ice cap on the banks of the Ameralik Fjord. Even for hardy Icelanders, the harsh conditions of southern Greenland proved to be a difficult test. Engaged in hunting, fishing and whaling, they lived in the area for approx. 400 years. However, around 1350 the settlements were completely abandoned. Historians have yet to figure out why the colonists, who had accumulated considerable experience of living in the North, suddenly left these places. Here, the cooling of the climate, the chronic shortage of grain, and the almost complete isolation of Greenland from Scandinavia after the plague in the middle of the 14th century could probably play a major role.

One of the most contentious issues in Scandinavian archeology and philology has to do with the study of the Greenlanders' attempts to establish a colony in North America. Two Icelandic family sagas, the Saga of Eric the Red and the Saga of the Greenlanders, detail a visit to the American coast c. 1000. According to these sources, North America was discovered by Byadni Herjolfsson, the son of the first settler of Greenland, but the main heroes of the sagas are Leif Eriksson, the son of Erik the Red, and Thorfinn Thordarson, nicknamed Karlsabni. Leif Eriksson's base, apparently, was located in the area of ​​\u200b\u200bL "Anso Meadow, located in the far north of the coast of Newfoundland. Leif, along with his associates, carefully examined the more temperate region located much to the south, which he called Vinland. Karlsabni gathered a detachment to create a colony in Vinland in 1004 or 1005 (the location of this colony could not be established).The newcomers met with resistance from the locals and were forced to return to Greenland three years later.

The brothers of Leif Eriksson Thorstein and Thorvald also took part in the exploration of the New World. It is known that Thorvald was killed by the natives. The Greenlanders made voyages to America for the forest after the end of the Viking Age.

Creation of the first Viking states

It was mainly the Danish Vikings who penetrated England. In 835 they made a campaign at the mouth of the Thames, in 851 they settled on the Isles of Sheppey and Thanet in the estuary of the Thames, and from 865 they began the conquest of East Anglia. King Alfred the Great of Wessex eventually stopped their advance, but was forced to cede the lands located north of the line running from London to the north-eastern edge of Wales. This territory, called the Danelag (Danish law area), was gradually reconquered by the British in the next century, but repeated Viking raids in the early 11th century. led to the restoration of the power of their king Cnut and his sons, this time over all of England. Ultimately, in 1042, as a result of a dynastic marriage, the throne passed to the British. However, even after that, Danish raids continued until the end of the century.

Norman raids on the coastal regions of the Frankish state began at the end of the 8th century. Gradually, the Scandinavians gained a foothold at the mouth of the Seine and other rivers of northern France. In 911, the French king Charles III the Simple concluded a forced peace with the leader of the Normans, Rollo, and granted him Rouen with the adjacent lands, to which new territories were added a few years later. The Duchy of Rollo attracted a lot of immigrants from Scandinavia and soon received the name Normandy. The Normans adopted the language, religion and customs of the Franks.

In 1066, Duke William of Normandy, who went down in history as William the Conqueror, the illegitimate son of Robert I, a descendant of Rollon and the fifth Duke of Normandy, invaded England, defeated King Harold (and killed him) at the Battle of Hastings and took the English throne. The Normans undertook aggressive campaigns in Wales and Ireland, many of them settled in Scotland.

At the beginning of the 11th c. the Normans penetrated into southern Italy, where, as hired soldiers, they participated in hostilities against the Arabs in Salerno. Then new settlers began to arrive here from Scandinavia, who established themselves in small towns, taking them by force from their former employers and their neighbors. The sons of Count Tancred of Hauteville, who captured Apulia in 1042, enjoyed the loudest fame among Norman adventurers. In 1053 they defeated the army of Pope Leo IX, forcing him to make peace with them and give Apulia and Calabria as a fief. By 1071, all of southern Italy fell under the rule of the Normans. One of the sons of Tancred, Duke Robert, nicknamed Guiscard ("Sly"), supported the pope in the fight against Emperor Henry IV. Robert's brother Roger I started a war with the Arabs in Sicily. In 1061 he took Messina, but only 13 years later the island was under the rule of the Normans. Roger II united the Norman possessions in southern Italy and Sicily under his rule, and in 1130 Pope Anaclet II declared him king of Sicily, Calabria and Capua.

In Italy, as elsewhere, the Normans demonstrated their amazing ability to adapt and assimilate in a foreign cultural environment. The Normans played an important role in the crusades, in the history of the Kingdom of Jerusalem and other states formed by the crusaders in the East.

In England, the Vikings were called askemanns, i.e. sailing on ash trees (ascs). since the upper plating of the Viking warships was made from this tree, or by the Danes, regardless of whether they sailed from Denmark or Norway, in Ireland - finngalls, i.e. "bright foreigners" (if we were talking about Norwegians) and dubgalls - "Dark foreigners" (if it was about the Danes), in Byzantium - the Varangians, and in Russia - the Varangians. - Note. translator

The origin of the word "Viking" (víkingr) is still unclear. Scientists have long associated this term with the name of the region of Norway, Vik (Viken), adjacent to the Oslo Fjord. But in all medieval sources, the inhabitants of Vik are called not “Vikings”, but differently (from the word vikverjar or vestfaldingi). Some believed that the word "Viking" comes from the word vík - bay, bay; viking - one who hides in the bay. But in this case, it can also be applied to peaceful merchants. Finally, they tried to associate the word "Viking" with the Old English wic (from Latin vicus), denoting a trading post, a city, a fortified camp.

At present, the hypothesis of the Swedish scientist f. Askeberg, who believes that the term comes from the verb vikja - “to turn”, “to deviate”. The Viking, according to his interpretation, is a person who sailed away from home, left his homeland, that is, a sea warrior, a pirate who went on a campaign for prey. It is curious that in ancient sources this word was more often called the enterprise itself - a predatory campaign, than a person participating in it. Moreover, the concepts were strictly divided: a trading enterprise and a predatory enterprise. Note that in the eyes of the Scandinavians, the word "Viking" had a negative connotation. Icelandic sagas of the thirteenth century. Vikings were called people engaged in robbery and piracy, unbridled and bloodthirsty. - See: A. Ya. Gurevich. Viking expeditions. M., Nauka, 1966, p. 80.- Note. translator

More accurately, Tacitus' quote is set out in the book "Germany", published in the series "Literary Monuments": "...Rugii and Lemovii (live) near the Ocean; a distinctive feature of all these tribes is round shields, short swords and obedience to kings. Behind them, in the midst of the Ocean itself, live the communities of the Svions; in addition to warriors and weapons, they are also strong in the fleet. Their ships are notable for the fact that they can approach the mooring place at any of their extremities, since both of them have the shape of a bow. Svions do not use sails and do not fasten the oars along the sides in a row one after another, they have them, as is customary on some rivers, removable, and they row them as needed, either in one direction or the other. - Cornelius Tacitus. Op. In 2 volumes. T. 1. L., Nauka, 1969, p. 371.- Note. reviewer

The construction of the Danish Wall lasted for three and a half centuries (from the beginning of the 9th century to the 60s of the 12th century). This shaft, 3 m high, 3 to 20 m wide, stretching along the southern part of Jutland from the Baltic to the North Sea, served the Danish troops for defense purposes as early as the Danish-Prussian war of 1864 - Note. reviewer

The information given here and below regarding the size of the fleet and military strength of the Vikings is known from the vanquished. Since a defeat from a numerous and correspondingly strong enemy hurt the honor of the vanquished less, inflated figures have come down to us. At the same time, those who were attacked could hardly distinguish the Norwegians from the Danes. The reason for this was the language, which only at that time began to split into Norwegian and Danish-Swedish. - Note. author

Stones with runes, of which there are about 2500 in Denmark alone, were placed in 950-1100. in memory of the fallen. According to Ruprecht's research, a third of these cenotaph stones were placed on the territory that turned out to be abroad: the dead Vikings were mostly young and died a violent death during the campaigns. Here are some examples of texts: "King Svein (Forkbeard) set a stone for Skarbi, his warrior, who went west and met his death near Khaitabu." “Nafni erected this stone for his brother Toki. He found death in the west." "Tola set this stone after Guyer, his son, a respected young warrior who found death on the western Viking route." - Note. author

The huge tapestry, 70 m long and 0.5 m wide, contains more than 70 scenes. - Note. translator

In the XI century. In addition to England, the Normans captured Sicily and Southern Italy, establishing here at the beginning of the 12th century. "Kingdom of the Two Sicilies". The author mentions exclusively the predatory and military campaigns of the Danes and Norwegians and does not say anything about the Swedes, whose expansion was directed mainly to Eastern Europe, including Russia. - See "World History" for details. In 12 volumes. M., Gospolitizdat. T. 1, 1957; A. Ya. Gurevich. Viking expeditions. M., Nauka, 1966. - Note. translator

The decisive battle between Harald and his opponents at Hafrsfjord took place shortly before 900, and therefore there was no direct connection between the migrations to Iceland and the political events in Norway. - Note. translator

Currently, there are about forty hypotheses about the location of Vinland. The hypothesis of the Norwegian ethnologist X. Ingstad, who in 1964 discovered the ruins of a settlement in Newfoundland, which he identified as Vinland of the Normans, is equally indisputable. A number of scholars believe that this settlement belongs to the Eskimo Dorset culture. In addition, in the sagas, the climate of Vinland is assessed as mild, which does not correspond to the harsh subarctic climate of Newfoundland. - Note. reviewer

During archaeological excavations in Greenland in 1951, a fragment of an instrument was found, which is considered a direction-finding card (wooden compass) of the Vikings. The wooden disc, believed to have 32 divisions along the edge, rotated on a handle threaded through a hole in the center and, being oriented relative to the cardinal points (by sunrise or sunset, by shadow at noon, by the rising and setting of certain stars), showed course. - Note. translator

R. Hennig cites interesting information about Oddi: “The history of Icelandic culture knows a certain strange “Star” Oddi, who lived around 1000. This Icelander was a poor commoner, a farm laborer of the peasant Tord, who settled in the desert northern part of Iceland near Felsmuli. Oddi Helgfasson fished for Tord on about. Flatey and, all alone in the vast expanse, used his leisure time for observations, thanks to which he became one of the greatest astronomers that history knows. Engaged in tireless observations of celestial phenomena and solstice points, Oddi depicted the movement of celestial bodies in numerical tables. By the accuracy of his calculations, he significantly surpassed his contemporary medieval scientists. Oddy was a remarkable observer and mathematician, whose astonishing achievements have been appreciated only in our day. - R. Hennig. Unknown lands. M., Izd-vo inostr. literature, 1962, vol. III, p. 82.- Note. translator

It could also be a crystal of Icelandic spar, in which two images appeared during the bearing on the Sun due to the polarization of light. - Note. translator

The author, speaking of the navigational knowledge of the Vikings, is mistaken. It is unlikely that the Vikings determined the coordinates to find their place. They probably had only rough maps, similar to future portolans, with a grid of only directions. Portolans themselves, or compass charts, as you know, appeared in Italy at the end of the 12th - beginning of the 13th century; the use of nautical charts with a grid of latitudes and longitudes refers only to the 16th century. Then, in order to get from one point to another, it was required to know only the direction and approximate distance. The Vikings could determine the direction (without a compass) during the day by the Sun, using the gnomon (especially knowing the points of sunrise and sunset during the year), and at night by the Polar Star, the distance traveled was from the experience of navigation.

For the first time, the Portuguese Diego Gomes determined the latitude by the North Star during a voyage to the coast of Guinea in 1462. Observations for this purpose of the highest altitude of the Sun began to be carried out ten or twenty years later, since it required knowledge of the daily declination of the Sun.

Sailors began to perform independent determination of longitude at sea (without reckoning) only at the end of the 18th century.

This, however, does not mean that the Vikings did not control their location on the high seas. O. S. Reiter (O. S. Renter. Oddi Helgson und die Bestiminung der Sonnwenden in alten Island. Mannus, 1928, S. 324), who dealt with this issue, believes that the “solar board” used for this purpose was a rod , installed on board the ship in a vertical position, and by the length of the midday shadow from it, which fell on the bank, the Vikings could judge whether they adhere to the desired parallel.

It is not difficult to imagine how this could happen. The Vikings swam in the summer, while the declination of the Sun on the day of the summer solstice (now June 22) is 23.5 ° N, and for example, a month before and after this day - 20.5 ° N. Bergen is located at about 60°N. sh. Therefore, in order to adhere to this latitude, the height of the Sun at noon on the day of the summer solstice is H=90°-60°+23.5°=53.5°.

Therefore, with a solar board length of 100 cm (according to Reuters), the length of the shadow should be 0.74 m and, accordingly, a month before and after the solstice - 82.5 cm. Thus, it was enough to have these marks on the bank so that the Vikings in midday checked their position. - Note. translator

For several centuries, before and after the year 1000, Western Europe was constantly attacked by "Vikings" - warriors who sailed on ships from Scandinavia. Therefore, the period from about 800 to 1100 years. AD in the history of Northern Europe is called the "Viking Age". Those who were attacked by the Vikings perceived their campaigns as purely predatory, but they pursued other goals as well.

Viking detachments were usually led by representatives of the ruling elite of Scandinavian society - kings and hövdings. Through robbery, they acquired wealth, which they then divided among themselves and with their people. Victories in foreign countries brought them fame and position. Already in the early stages, the leaders also began to pursue political goals and take control of territories in the conquered countries. Little is said in the chronicles that trade increased significantly during the Viking Age, but archaeological finds attest to this. In Western Europe there was a flourishing of cities, the first urban formations appeared in Scandinavia. The first city in Sweden was Birka, located on an island in Lake Mälaren, about 30 kilometers west of Stockholm. This city existed from the end of the 8th to the end of the 10th century; its successor in the Mälaren area was the city of Sigtuna, which today is an idyllic small town about 40 kilometers northwest of Stockholm.

The Viking Age is also characterized by the fact that many inhabitants of Scandinavia forever left their native places and settled in foreign countries, mainly as farmers. Many Scandinavians, primarily those from Denmark, settled in the eastern part of England, no doubt with the support of the Scandinavian kings and hevdings who ruled there. Large-scale Norse colonization took place in the Scottish Isles; Norwegians also sailed across the Atlantic Ocean to previously unknown, uninhabited places: the Faroe Islands, Iceland and Greenland (Even attempts were made to settle in North America). During the 12th and 13th centuries, vivid stories about the Viking Age were recorded in Iceland, not entirely reliable, but still indispensable as historical sources, giving an idea of ​​the pagan faith and way of thinking of the people of that time.

Contacts made during the Viking Age with the outside world radically changed Scandinavian society. Missionaries from Western Europe arrived in Scandinavia as early as the first century of the Viking Age. The most famous of these is Ansgar, the "Scandinavian Apostle", who was sent by the Frankish king Louis the Pious to Birka around 830 and returned there again around 850. In the late Viking Age, an intensive process of Christianization began. The Danish, Norwegian and Swedish kings realized what power Christian civilization and organization could give to their states, and carried out a change of religions. The process of Christianization was most difficult in Sweden, where at the end of the 11th century there was a fierce struggle between Christians and pagans.

Viking Age in the East.

Artist V. Vasnetsov "The calling of the Varangians". 862 - invitation of the Varangians Rurik and his brothers Sineus and Truvor.

This fact that the marches to the east are less known than the marches to the west is partly due to the fact that there are not many written sources about them. The letter came into use in Eastern Europe only in the later period of the Viking Age. However, from Byzantium and the Caliphate, which were the real great powers of the Viking Age from an economic and cultural point of view, there are travel descriptions contemporary to this era, as well as historical and geographical works telling about the peoples of Eastern Europe and describing trade travels and military campaigns from Eastern Europe to countries south of the Black and Caspian Seas. Sometimes among the characters in these images, we can notice the Scandinavians. As historical sources, these images are often more reliable and more complete than the Western European chronicles written by monks and bearing a strong imprint of their Christian zeal and hatred of pagans. A large number of Swedish runestones are also known from the 11th century, almost all of them are from the vicinity of Lake Mälaren; they are erected in memory of relatives who often traveled to the east. As for Eastern Europe, there is a wonderful Tale of Bygone Years dating back to the beginning of the 12th century. and telling about the ancient history of the Russian state - not always reliable, but always lively and with an abundance of details, which greatly distinguishes it from Western European chronicles and gives it a charm comparable to the charm of the Icelandic sagas.

Ros - Rus - Ruotsi (Rhos - Rus - Ruotsi).

This story is important for the study of the Viking Age in Scandinavia. It and some other manuscripts from Byzantium and the Caliphate more or less clearly show that in the east in the 8th-9th centuries the Scandinavians were called "ros" / "rus" (rhos / rus). At the same time, this name was used to designate the Old Russian state, or, as it is often called, Kievan Rus (see map). The state grew during these centuries, and from it modern Russia, Belarus and Ukraine trace their origins.

The ancient history of this state is told in the Tale of Bygone Years, which was recorded in its capital, Kyiv, shortly after the end of the Viking Age. In the record of 862, one can read that unrest reigned in the country, and it was decided to look for a ruler on the other side of the Baltic Sea. Ambassadors were sent to the Varangians (that is, the Scandinavians), namely to those who were called "Rus"; Rurik and his two brothers were invited to rule the country. They came "with all Russia", and Rurik settled in Novgorod. "And the Russian land got its name from these Varangians." After the death of Rurik, the rule passed to his relative Oleg, who conquered Kyiv and made this city the capital of his state, and after the death of Oleg, Rurik's son Igor became prince.

The legend about the calling of the Varangians, contained in the Tale of Bygone Years, is a story about the origin of the ancient Russian princely family, and as a historical source is very controversial. The name "Rus" has been tried to be explained in many ways, but now the most common opinion is that this name should be compared with the names from the Finnish and Estonian languages ​​​​- Ruotsi / Rootsi, which today mean "Sweden", and previously indicated peoples from Sweden or Scandinavia. This name, in turn, comes from the Old Norse word meaning "rowing", "rowing expedition", "members of the rowing expedition". Obviously, the people who lived on the western coast of the Baltic Sea were known for their sea voyages on oars. There are no reliable sources about Rurik, and it is not known how he and his "Rus" came to Eastern Europe - however, this hardly happened as simply and peacefully as the legend says. When the clan established itself as one of the ruling in Eastern Europe, soon the state itself and its inhabitants began to be called "Rus". The fact that the family was of Scandinavian origin is indicated by the names of the ancient princes: Rurik is the Scandinavian Rörek, a common name in Sweden even in the late Middle Ages, Oleg - Helge, Igor - Ingvar, Olga (Igor's wife) - Helga.

To speak more definitely about the role of the Scandinavians in the early history of Eastern Europe, it is not enough just to study a few written sources, one must also take into account archaeological finds. They show a significant number of objects of Scandinavian origin dating from the 9th-10th centuries in the ancient part of Novgorod (Rurik's settlement outside modern Novgorod), in Kyiv and in many other places. We are talking about weapons, horse harness, as well as household items, and magical and religious amulets, for example, Thor's hammers found at the sites of settlements, in burials and treasures.

It is obvious that in the region under consideration there were many Scandinavians who were engaged not only in war and politics, but also in trade, crafts and agriculture - after all, the Scandinavians themselves came from agricultural societies, where urban culture, just like in Eastern Europe, began to develop only during these centuries. In many places, the northerners left clear imprints of Scandinavian elements in culture - in clothing and the art of jewelry making, in weapons and religion. But it is also clear that the Scandinavians lived in societies whose structure was based on Eastern European culture. The central part of the early cities was usually a densely populated fortress - citadel or kremlin. Such fortified cores of urban formations are not found in Scandinavia, but were characteristic of Eastern Europe for a long time. The way of construction in the places where the Scandinavians settled was mainly Eastern European, and most household items, such as household ceramics, also bore a local imprint. Foreign influence on culture came not only from Scandinavia, but also from countries to the east, south and southwest.

When Christianity was officially adopted in the Old Russian state in 988, Scandinavian features soon practically disappeared from its culture. Slavic and Christian Byzantine cultures became the main components in the culture of the state, and Slavic became the language of the state and church.

Caliphate - Serkland.

When Islamic written sources mention "rus" - by which, generally speaking, one can mean both the Scandinavians and other peoples from the Old Russian state, interest is shown primarily in their trading activity, although there are also stories about military campaigns, for example, against the city Berd in Azerbaijan in 943 or 944. In the world geography of Ibn Khordadbeh, it is said that Russian merchants sold the skins of beavers and silver foxes, as well as swords. They came on ships to the lands of the Khazars, and, having paid a tithe to their prince, they set off further along the Caspian Sea. Often they carried their goods on camels all the way to Baghdad, the capital of the Caliphate. "They pretend to be Christians and pay the tax established for Christians." Ibn Khordadbeh was the minister of security in one of the provinces along the caravan route to Baghdad, and he was well aware that these people were not Christians. The reason they called themselves Christians was purely economic - Christians paid a lower tax than pagans who worshiped many gods.

Besides fur, perhaps the most important commodity coming from the north were slaves. In the Caliphate, slaves were used as labor force in most public sectors, and the Scandinavians, like other peoples, could get slaves during their military and predatory campaigns. Ibn Khordadbeh relates that slaves from the country of "Saklaba" (roughly meaning "Eastern Europe") served as interpreters for the Rus in Baghdad.

The flow of silver from the Caliphate dried up at the end of the 10th century. Perhaps the reason was the fact that silver mining in the mines in the east was reduced, perhaps the war and unrest that reigned in the steppes between Eastern Europe and the Caliphate influenced. But another thing is also possible - that in the Caliphate they began to conduct experiments to reduce the silver content in the coin, and in connection with this, interest in coins in Eastern and Northern Europe was lost. Eonomics in these territories was not monetary, the value of the coin was considered according to its purity and weight. Silver coins and ingots were cut into pieces and weighed on a scale to get the price that a person was willing to pay for the goods. Silver of varying purity made this type of payment transaction difficult or nearly impossible. Therefore, the views of Northern and Eastern Europe turned towards Germany and England, where in the late period of the Viking Age a large number of full-weight silver coins were minted, which were distributed in Scandinavia, as well as in some regions of the Russian state.

However, as early as the 11th century, it happened that the Scandinavians reached the Caliphate, or Serkland, as they called this state. The most famous campaign of the Swedish Vikings in this century was led by Ingvar, whom the Icelanders called Ingvar the Traveler. An Icelandic saga is written about him, however, very unreliable, but about 25 East Swedish runestones tell about the people who accompanied Ingvar. All these stones indicate that the campaign ended in disaster. On one of the stones near Gripsholm in Södermanland you can read (according to I. Melnikova):

“Tola ordered this stone to be installed after her son Harald, brother of Ingvar.

They bravely left
far beyond the gold
and in the east
fed the eagles.
Died in the south
in Serkland.

So on many other rune stones, these proud lines about the campaign are written in verse. "To feed the eagles" is a poetic simile meaning "to kill enemies in battle". The meter used here is the old epic meter and is characterized by two stressed syllables in each verse line, and also by the fact that the verse lines are connected in pairs by alliteration, that is, repeated initial consonants and changing vowels.

Khazars and Volga Bulgars.

The Khazar Khaganate early adopted Judaism as the state religion, and the Volga Bulgar state officially adopted Islam in 922. In this regard, the country was visited by Ibn Fadlan, who wrote a story about his visit and meeting with merchants from Russia. The most famous is his description of the burial of the heading of the Rus in the ship - a burial custom characteristic of Scandinavia and also found in the Old Russian state. The funeral ceremony included the sacrifice of a slave girl, who was raped by the warriors from the squad before they killed her and burned her along with their hevding. This is a story full of brutal details that can hardly be guessed from the archaeological excavations of the graves of the Viking Age.

Varangians at the Greeks in Miklagard.

The emphasis on the role of Byzantium is a simplification of reality. The Scandinavians came primarily to the Old Russian state and settled there. And trade with the Caliphate through the states of the Volga Bulgars and the Khazars should have been of the most important economic importance for Eastern Europe and Scandinavia during the 9th-10th centuries.

However, during the Viking Age, and especially after the Christianization of the Old Russian state, the importance of ties with the Byzantine Empire increased. This is evidenced primarily by written sources. For unknown reasons, the number of finds of coins and other objects from Byzantium is relatively small in both Eastern and Northern Europe.

Around the end of the 10th century, the Emperor of Constantinople established a special Scandinavian detachment at his court - the Varangian Guard. Many believe that the beginning of this guard was laid by those Varangians who were sent to the emperor by Kyiv Prince Vladimir in connection with his adoption of Christianity in 988 and his marriage to the emperor's daughter.

The word vringar originally meant a people bound by an oath, but in the late Viking Age it became a common name for the Scandinavians in the east. Waring in the Slavic language became known as Varangian, in Greek - Varangos (varangos), in Arabic - Varank (warank).

Constantinople, or Miklagard, the great city, as the Scandinavians called it, was incredibly attractive to them. The Icelandic sagas tell of many Norwegians and Icelanders who served in the Varangian guard. One of them, Harald the Severe, became King of Norway on his return home (1045-1066). Swedish runestones of the 11th century often speak of a stay in Greece than in the Old Russian state.

On the old path leading to the church at Ede in Uppland, there is a large stone with runic inscriptions on both sides. In them, Ragnvald talks about how these runes were carved in memory of his mother Fastvi, but above all he is interested in talking about himself:

"These runes commanded
carve Ragnvald.
He was in Greece
was the leader of a detachment of warriors.

Soldiers from the Varangian Guard guarded the palace in Constantinople and took part in military campaigns in Asia Minor, the Balkan Peninsula and Italy. The country of the Lombards, mentioned on several runestones, implies Italy, the southern regions of which were part of the Byzantine Empire. In the port suburb of Athens, Piraeus, there used to be a huge luxurious marble lion, which was transported to Venice in the 17th century. On this lion, one of the Varangians, during a holiday in Piraeus, carved a runic inscription in a serpentine shape, which was typical of Swedish runestones of the 11th century. Unfortunately, when it was discovered, the inscription was so badly damaged that only a few words can be read.

Scandinavians in Gardarik in the late period of the Viking Age.

Relations between the rulers of Scandinavia and the Old Russian state during the 11th-12th centuries were very lively. Two of the great princes of Kiev took wives in Sweden: Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054, formerly reigned in Novgorod from 1010 to 1019) married Ingegerd, the daughter of Olaf Schötkonung, and Mstislav (1125-1132, formerly reigned in Novgorod from 1095 to 1125) - on Christina, daughter of King Inga the Old.

Novgorod - Holmgard and trade with the Saami and Gotlanders.

Novgorod, which the Scandinavians called Holmgard, acquired great importance over the centuries as a trading metropolis. The Gotlanders, who continued to play an important role in Baltic trade in the 11th-12th centuries, created a trading post in Novgorod. At the end of the 12th century, the Germans appeared in the Baltic, and gradually the main role in the Baltic trade passed to the German Hansa.

End of the Viking Age.

It is impossible to name the exact date when this world shrank and the Viking Age ended. Gradually, during the 11th and 12th centuries, the ways and connections changed their character, and in the 12th century, travel deep into the Old Russian state and to Constantinople and Jerusalem ceased. When the number of written sources in Sweden increased in the 13th century, the campaigns to the east became only memories.

In the Elder Edition of the Westgötalag, written in the first half of the 13th century, in the Chapter on Succession, there is, among other things, the following statement regarding one who is acquired abroad: He does not inherit anyone while he is sitting in Greece. Did the Vestgets really still serve in the Varangian guard, or did this paragraph remain from bygone times?

In Gutasag, an account of the history of Gotland recorded in the 13th or early 14th century, it is said that the first churches on the island were consecrated by bishops on their way to or from the Holy Land. At that time, the path went east through Russia and Greece to Jerusalem. When the saga was being written, the pilgrims made their way around Central or even Western Europe.

Translation: Anna Fomenkova.

Do you know that...

Another runic inscription from Uppland, from Stacket in Kungsengen, tells of a determined and fearless woman: Ingerun, daughter of Hord, ordered runes to be carved in memory of herself. She goes east and to Jerusalem.

In 1999, the largest hoard of silver objects dating back to the Viking Age was found on Gotland. Its total weight is about 65 kilograms, of which 17 kilograms are Islamic silver coins (approximately 14,300).

The material used drawings from the article.
games for girls