What is ancient society? Life and culture in ancient society. Periodization of ancient culture

fr. antiquit?, English antiquity, German Antike) is a term that has passed into Russian. language from Romanesque and Germanic. languages ​​and going back to Lat. antiquitas - antiquity, antiquity. In a general sense, it is quite equivalent to the Russian “antiquity”. More often, however, it has a special use: in the same meaning of “antiquity,” but specifically in application to Dr. Greece and others Rome. Since the Renaissance, the term “ancient,” in contrast to “barbarian,” on the one hand, and “medieval,” on the other, has been understood as a synonym for classic, unsurpassed sample and is closely associated with the basic. direction of humanism. The concepts of antiquity emerge. art, literature, philosophy, i.e. phenomena of cultural life Dr. Greece (and to a lesser extent, Rome, whose culture was considered not so original). Will distinguish. a sign of ancient poets, sculptors, artists, in addition to high skill, is considered to exclude them. attention to all aspects of physical and spiritual life of man, to man. personality, subsequently suppressed by the feud. oppression and especially Christ. church. With increasing interest in socio-economic. history, the term “ancient,” while retaining its previous meaning, began to be used not only in relation to culture. Such concepts as “ancient city”, “ancient economic system”, etc. arise. The most comprehensive is the concept of “ancient form of property” introduced by K. Marx; analysis of the essence of the structure allows us to understand the features of both socio-economic . and political building Greece and Rome, and antiquity. culture in all its manifestations. In history, Africa means the period of ancient history (approximately from the 1st millennium BC to the 5th century AD), covering the history of Greco-Roman. slave owner societies (including Hellenistic states). A. is the highest level in the development of slave ownership. production method. Unlike the ancient about-in, where slavery due to a number of sources. The reasons developed extremely slowly and most of them did not go beyond the patriarch. slavery, antique the company is characterized by the deep penetration of slave labor into the main. industries, and workers. so arr., becomes the main. manufacturer. Antique production relations were based on antiquity. form of ownership, which always appeared in a contradictory, dual form: as state property (joint) and as private property. The essence of this contradiction was that in antiquity. slave owner company to become the owner of the main means of production (land) could only be those who were a full member of the citizenry. communities, antique property is the property of citizens. slave-owning communities. This community is well known. as a city-state (polis), in which free and full-fledged citizen-landowners were opposed by a mass of incomplete citizens and slaves. History of Athens, Sparta, a number of other Greek. state in both the east and west. parts of the Mediterranean, the history of Rome at a certain stage of its development is the history of individual policies in all the originality of their economics. and political being. Antique the world knew other types of state. formations, but the polis, the city-state, was the most specific. form. Development of slaveholding method of production led to an aggravation of the contradictions inherent in it. The basic situation became more and more aggravated. antagonistic There was a contradiction between slaves and slave owners; there was also an intense struggle between the class of small free producers and large landowners. Exacerbation of class. the struggle resulted in widespread people. movements, uprisings of slaves, and subsequently colons. The most striking manifestation of class. the struggle took place in social movements and reforms in Sparta (helot uprisings, the so-called reforms of Agis and Cleomenes, the tyranny of Nabis); in the uprising of Aristonicus (Pergamon), broad people. movements and uprisings of slaves in Rome (the Gracchi movement, the Sicilian slave uprisings, the great uprising of Spartacus (see Spartacus uprising), the Bagauda movement). The most important ist. The emergence of slave owners had progressive significance. democracy, in which full citizens took part in politics. life and government. An integral part of the polis structure, without which it is generally inconceivable, was the people. meeting; however, the degree of democratization of the policies varied. Slave owner democracy, despite its class. parochialism, despite the fact that it was a democracy of only a privileged minority of the free population, was a major step forward for its time. No less important and of great importance for the overall behavior. the movement of mankind is a fact of the high development of antiquity. culture (philosophy, literature, fine arts, architecture). This culture was generated by the class. slave owner about-vom, but went beyond the circle of concepts, feelings and criteria by which this society lived, creating enduring, universal humankind. values, which, according to Marx, continue to serve as “the norm and an unattainable example” (Marx K. and Engels F., Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 12, p. 737). Ancient property and slave ownership. the production method was, however, historically limited. development opportunities. The low productivity of the slave, who was not interested in the results of his activities, set certain and very narrow limits to the progress of technology in the village. x-ve and craft. This led to the fact that the slave owner. production relations inevitably came into conflict with those producing ahead of them in their development. by the forces of the society. Antique slavery has outlived its usefulness, a long period has begun. crisis, and then the death of slave owners. building. In the Western-European era. Middle Ages studying A. as independent. history section science did not exist. By 5 - start. 6th centuries refers to the spelling Byzantine. historian Zosima's "New History", covering the time from Augustus to 410. Zosima's work, as well as the chronicles of John Malala (7th century), George Amartol (9th century), George Sincellus (9th century) were translated into ancient glory . language and influenced early Rus. historiography. The largest representative of chronicle historiography was the Athonite monk John Zonara (12th century). Systematic the study of art began during the Renaissance. Antique works were collected and collected. art, Middle Ages antique manuscripts authors, history and literature were studied. This era was dominated by blind admiration for A. The first historical-critical. research - the work of Lorenzo Valla "Speech on the Falsity of the Gift of Constantine" - appeared in mid. 15th century Franz. the scientist J. Scaliger (1540-1609) in a number of works made an attempt to create a scientific. chronology. English scientist Bentley (late 17th century) laid the foundation for the scientific criticism of the text of ancient authors. But also English. historian E. Gibbon, in his famous work “The History of the Decline and Destruction of the Roman Empire,” which appeared at the end of the 18th century, treated the ancient world with great confidence. traditions. A. in burzh. historiography. In the 18th century a new, critical thing is emerging. direction in the study of A. The founders and ancestors of this direction were: in the field of studying antiquity. culture - German scientist I. Winckelmann (“History of the Art of Antiquity” - J. J. Winckelmann, Geschichte der Kunst des Altertums, 1764, Russian translation 1933), in antiquity. philology - German scientist F. A. Wolf (“Introduction to Homer” - F. A. Wolf, Prolegomena ad Homerum, 1795), in antiquity. history - German scientist B. G. Niebuhr ("Roman History" - V. G. Niebuhr, R?mische Geschichte, 1811). Wolf argued that Homer's poems are the result of the collective creativity of several generations of singers and poets; Niebuhr was critical. analysis of ancient data authors on the early period of Rome. stories. In the 1st half. 19th century the study of A. has progressed significantly. In 1825 German. scientist A. Beck began publishing the “Corpus of Greek Inscriptions” (A. B?ckh, Corpus inscriptionum Graecarum), which marked the emergence of a new branch of science (epigraphy). In the 30s "History of Hellenism" by I. G. Droyzen was published (I. G. Droysen, Geschichte des Hellenismus, Bd 1-2, 1836-43, Russian. lane, vol. 1-3, 1890-93), where for the first time the important period of antiquity was covered in detail and scientifically. history, beginning with the collapse of the monarchy of Alexander the Great. The development of capitalism and the aggravation of class. struggle in Europe countries in the middle 19th century influenced the study of A. More and more clearly, it began to be used as a tool in politics. struggle. Thus, in a work on the history of Greece in English. scientist J. Grote (J. Grote, History of Greece, v. 1-12, 1846-56) ancient Athens was portrayed as an ideal and model for the bourgeoisie. democracy. An even more striking example of the “political actualization” of A. was the “Roman History” in German. scientist T. Mommsen (the first three volumes were published in 1854-56 - Th. Mommsen, R?mische Geschichte, Russian translation, vol. 1-3, 5, 1936-49). It reflects the aspirations of certain circles. bourgeoisie, who dreamed of creating a kind of “democratic monarchy” in Germany, a prototype Mommsen found in the empire of Caesar. Mommsen's "Roman History", written with great brilliance and erudition, had a huge influence on the entire further development of the city. historiography of antiquity. T. Mommsen also owns "Roman State Law" ("R?misches Staatsrecht", Bd 1-3, 1871-78) and "Roman Criminal Law" ("R?misches Strafrecht", 1899), edited by him. important legal documents were issued. monuments from the Roman era. empire, and from 1863 - the “Corpus inscriptionum latinarum” (“Corpus inscriptionum latinarum”) (continues to the present day). End 19 - beginning 20th centuries mark the advent of an era of outstanding archaeological. discoveries. They began with the excavations of G. Schliemann (in the 70s), first at the site of Homeric Troy (M. Asia), and then on the Balkan Peninsula - in Mycenae and Tiryns. Important excavations in Delphi and on the island date back to approximately the same period. Delos (French archaeological school), as well as in Olympia and Miletus (German archaeological institute). For the first time they were put on a strictly scientific basis. the basis of the excavations of Pompeii in Italy (G. Fiorelli). In the beginning. 20th century English archaeologist A. Evans as a result of excavations on the island. Crete revealed the grandiose centers of Minoan culture (the cities of Knossos and Phaistos). Archaeological the discoveries of these years yielded not only a large number of monuments of material culture and antiquity. claims, but also extremely expanded the epigraphic literature available to science. and papyrological material. The publication of a complete set of Greek has begun. inscriptions, papyri began to be studied and published (W. Wilken, B. P. Grenfell), which led to a number of valuable discoveries (for example, on the reverse side of one papyrus containing household items. report, the text of the most important history was discovered (1890). monument - "The Athenian Polity" of Aristotle). The accumulation of huge factual material on economics and social problems, the revolution produced in the science of society by the works of Marx and Engels could not but influence the development of the bourgeoisie. historiography. Denying Marxism and fighting it, bourgeois. historians, however, were forced to pay more serious attention to problems of economics and social relations. So, for example, a special direction arises, dealing with ch. arr. studying socio-economic. questions in antiquity society. The largest representatives: German. scientists E. Meyer ("History of the Ancient World" - E. Meyer, Geschichte des Altertums, Bd 1-5, 1884-1902, Russian translation 1898, which provides a synchronous account of the history of the countries of the Ancient East, Greece and early Rome), R. Pöhlmann ("History of ancient communism and socialism" - R. P?hlmann, Geschichte des antiken Kommunismus und Sozialismus, Bd 1-2, 1893-1901, Russian translation 1910; the last edition in 1925 was published under the title "History of the social question and socialism in the ancient world" - "Geschichte der sozialen Frage und des Sozialismus in der antiken Welt") and Italian. scientist G. Ferrero (“The Greatness and Fall of Rome” - G. Ferrero, Grandezza e decadenza di Roma, v. 1-5, 1902-07, Russian translation, vol. 1-5, 1915-23). On the works of these historians, on their specific. interest in social relations and economics was also undoubtedly influenced by the further development of capitalism and its transition to the highest and final stage of its development - imperialism. In this same connection, they are related to each other by the extreme modernization of antiquity. society. They “discover” capitalism in it. relationships, they talk about antiquity. the proletariat and are essentially apologists for capitalism. building. However, this direction and the associated modernization of antiquity. the stories met with sharp opposition even among the bourgeoisie themselves. scientists. Against the understanding of antiquity. x-va as capitalist (especially clearly in E. Meyer) came out mute. economist K. Bucher, who argued that the ancient. the farming did not go beyond the scope of natural “home” farming and thus, in principle, differed from capitalist farming. Against modernization, ancient Greek. history was made by a number of French. scientists: P. Giro, G. Glotz and others. Another characteristic direction in the bourgeoisie. historiography con. 19 - beginning 20th centuries is hypercriticism. Its development is due to the fact that a number of representatives of the bourgeoisie. historiography in its struggle against materialism. understanding of history actually moves to the position of agnosticism. Yes, Yu. Beloch in “History of Greece” (J. Beloch, Griechische Geschichte, Bd 1-4, 1893-1904, Russian translation, vol. 1-2, 1905; 2nd ed. in 1911-27 in 4 vols .) denies the Dorian invasion and casts doubt on the plural. events of early Greek history, italian historian E. Pais in “Critical history of Rome during the first five centuries” (E. Pais, Storia di Roma sino all´intervento di Pirro, 1898, new edition “Storia critica di Roma durante i primi cinque secoli”, 1913-20 ) completely denies the authenticity of Rome. traditions: in his opinion, characters, names and events early history Rome are etiological or fictitious according to Greek models. stories; about the reliability of Rome. history can only be talked about from the 3rd century. BC e. In the 20-30s. 20th century A number of multi-volume collective works were published abroad, mainly compilative nature; in bourgeois historiography there is no single and scientifically consistent concept of antiquity. society. These works are valuable as a summary of facts. material, introduction of new data into circulation, criticism of sources ("Cambridge ancient history" - "The Cambridge ancient history", v. 1-12, 1923-39, and "General History" edited by G. Glotz - "Histoire g? n?rale", publ. par G. Glotz, 1926-39). The last major representative of the trend characterized by the modernization of socio-economic. relations in antiquity world, was M. I. Rostovtzeff (“Socio-economic history of the Roman Empire” - M. J. Rostovtzeff, The social and economic history of the Roman empire, 1926, and “Socio-economic history of the Hellenistic world” - “The social and economic history of the hellenistic world", v. 1-3, 1941). Since the early 50s. ten volumes began to appear The World History "("Historia Mundi") and "General History of Civilization" edited by M. Crouzet ("Histoire g?n?rale de civilisations", par M. Crouzet). In 1953 by the English scientist M. Ventris (together with J. Chadwick ) a work was published in which an attempt was made to decipher the Mycenaean writing (M. Ventris, J. Chadwick, Evidence for Greek dialect in the Mycenaean archives). Although the deciphering system proposed by Ventris currently raises some objections, nevertheless, a number of prominent philologists and historians consider it fundamentally correct and are working on its further improvement.Large-scale excavations continued in Greece (Ceramics in Athens, Pylos), Italy (Ostia, Rome, a number of centers of Etruscan culture, for example Spina) , on the island of Crete, in Syria (Palmyra), Dura-Europos, etc. Archaeological and epigraphic discoveries of recent years have radically changed the picture of the early history of Greece (Crete, Mycenae, Achaean Greece) and Italy (pre-Roman period). There are no large, authoritative schools or trends in modern bourgeois historiography of Armenia. The overwhelming majority of scientists are engaged in the study of individual particular issues and deliberately avoid k.-l. broad sources generalizations and conclusions. A characteristic feature of modern bourgeois historiography of A. - the appearance of a large number of popular semi-journalistic works. sense, in which the most unjustified and unscientific are carried out. analogies between Africa and modernity; Often these works are ideological. modern weapons reactions. Interest in the study of A. in Russia arose very early. Even in Kievan Rus, works were translated. ancient authors (Josephus), in the collections of ancient Russian. manuscripts contain translations of the speeches of Demosthenes (14th century). In the 18th century The Academy of Sciences has published a number of good translations of antiquity. authors. The first major researcher, whose work became famous abroad, was M. S. Kutorga. His dissertation on Attic. tribes was written in Latin (1832) and then translated into French. and German language The founder of the Greek epigraphers in Russia are F. F. Sokolov (also the author of a number of studies on the history of Greece 3-2 centuries BC); founder of Russian schools lat. epigraphy should be considered I. V. Pomyalovsky. "The Code of Ancient Inscriptions of the Northern Black Sea Region" was published by V.V. Latyshev (3 vols., 1885-1901). Important works on the history of Athens have been published. V. P. Buzeskul ("Pericles", 1889; "History of Athenian Democracy", 1909, etc.), according to Hellenistic. Egypt - M. M. Khvostov ("History of Eastern Trade of Greco-Roman Egypt", 1907, etc.), on the history of early Rome - V. I. Modestov ("Introduction to Rome. history", parts 1-2, 1902-04). R. Yu. Vipper, a historian of wide range, owns works both on the history of Greece ("History of Greece in the classical era", 1916, etc.), and on history of Rome ("Essays on the History of the Roman Empire", 1908, 2nd ed. 1923).Russian pre-revolutionary historians of Rome, with a few exceptions, typically have a negative attitude towards the modernization of ancient history, as well as towards hypercritical conclusions and constructions. Archaeological excavations important for the study of A. in southern Russia were carried out back in the 20s of the 19th century, but systematic research of Panticapaeum (Yu. A. Kulakovsky), Chersonesus (K. K. Kostsyushko-Valyuzhnich), Olbia ( B.V. Farmakovsky) and other ancient settlements began in the 70-90s of the 19th century. The most valuable archaeological and epigraphic monuments discovered during these excavations adorned the collections of Russian museums (primarily the Hermitage) and gave important material for studying the connections between the Greeks and the local population, and in some cases for studying the history of the ancient society as a whole.The study of antiquity in the USSR.After the Oct. Revolution, the study of antiquity in the USSR received a new and higher development. Sov. historians based on Marxist-Leninist methodology, relying on the progressive traditions of the pre-revolutionary. rus. historiography, began to create new and valuable research in various areas of ancient history. peace. An extremely important role in folding in owls. historians of a correct understanding of the driving forces of development of antiquity. society played the teachings of Marx and Engels about forms of ownership, classes, classes. struggle, socio-economic. formations and laws of societies. development. Of great importance were also specific statements of the founders of Marxism, directly related to A. (K. Marx - in “Capital”, in “Forms Preceding Capitalist Production”, F. Engels - in “The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State”, etc. ). Sov. Historians spoke out primarily against the vulgaristic interpretation of the problems of antiquity. economics and history of social movements in the bourgeoisie. historiography. Back in the 20s. A.I. Tyumenev published "Essays on Economics and social history Ancient Greece" in 3 volumes (1920-22), in which he sharply objected to the modernizing tendency to identify the socio-economic relations of Ancient Greece with modern capitalist relations. The prominent Soviet orientalist V. V. Struve in his The work “Plebeians and Helots” (1933) highlighted one of the most important social problems of Achaia; S. A. Zhebelev, widely known for his pre-revolutionary works (“Achaica. In the field of antiquities of the province of Achaia”, 1903, etc.), published a study "The Last Perisade and the Scythian Uprising in the Bosporus" (1938) is one of the most important Soviet works on the history of slave movements in antiquity. A. V. Mishulin's monograph "The Spartac Uprising" (1936) provides a complete and comprehensive study of this major slave uprising. A number of works by V. S. Sergeev are devoted to the study of socio-economic problems of the history of the Roman Empire ("The Decomposition of the Slave System and the Beginning of Colony in the Roman Empire", 1938, etc.). In the post-war period, Soviet historians published large generalizing works in ancient history, which advanced the Marxist study of the history of slave owners. formations: N. A. Mashkin - “History of Ancient Rome” (1947), V. N. Dyakov - “History of the Roman People in Antiquity” (1947), S. I. Kovalev - “History of Rome” (1948), V. S. Sergeev - “History of Ancient Greece” (2nd ed., 1948). Major studies have appeared on the most important problems of socio-economics. and cultural history of A. The early period of the Greek. history, which has recently attracted special attention, is devoted to the monograph by K. M. Kolobova “From the history of early Greek society” (1951) (history of Rhodes 9-7 centuries BC), the work of S. Ya. Lurie “Language and culture Mycenaean Greece" (1957), built on the further development of the decipherment of Ventris; These works enrich our knowledge about ancient periods Greek stories. Much attention from owls. Historians devote their time to studying the Hellenistic era. The work of V. V. Struve “The significance of certain demotic papyri of the State Museum of Fine Arts named after A. S. Pushkin for the history and culture of Ptolemaic Egypt” (1956) is extremely important. The monograph by A. B. Ranovich “Hellenism and its historical role” (1950) is a general work, which provides an outline of the history of the largest Hellenistic. state-in. The work of K. K. Zelin “Research on the history of land relations in Hellenistic Egypt” (1960) is valuable for its coverage of the problem as a whole and for its detailed analysis of the economy and social relations in Egypt in the 3rd-2nd centuries. BC e. History of Rome. empire and its provinces are explored in the works of N. A. Mashkin “Principate of Augustus” (1949), E. M. Shtaerman “The Crisis of the Slave System in the Western Provinces of the Roman Empire” (1957), O. V. Kudryavtsev “The Hellenic Provinces of the Balkan peninsula in the 2nd century AD." (1954), G. G. Diligensky "Roman Africa in the IV-V centuries." (1961). These works highlight the most important turning points in the history of Roman slave society from the perspective of Marxist methodology: the transition from republic to empire, the crisis of the 3rd century. n. e. and others. In 1955, “World History” began to be published, the 2nd volume (and part of the first) is dedicated to A. The publication of “Bulletin of Ancient History” (founded in 1937) continues - the center. organ of the owls historians of antiquity. Excavations are being carried out on a wide front in the south of the USSR: Panticapaeum (V.D. Blavatsky), Olbia (L.M. Slavin, A.N. Karasev), Chersonesus (G.D. Belov, S.F. Strzheletsky), small towns of the Bosporus (V.F. Gaidukevich), Tanais (T.N. Knipovich, D.B. Shelov), the rural territory of the Bosporan kingdom (I.T. Kruglikova), etc. The largest studies written on the basis of the study of history. materials and archaeological monuments of the North The Black Sea region are the works of V. D. Blavatsky “The Art of the Northern Black Sea Region of the Ancient Era” (1947), V. F. Gaidukevich “The Bosporan Kingdom” (1949), D. P. Kallistov “Essays on the History of the Northern Black Sea Region in the Ancient Era” (1949), T. N. Knipovich “Tanais” (1949), as well as an extensive series of dissertations and monographs under the general title “The Black Sea Region in the Ancient Era” (editor-in-chief V. N. Dyakov), which continues to be published to this day . time. Study of A. by foreign progressive historians. Foreign progressive historians, using the experience of the Marxist study of antiquity, strive to approach the solution of important problems in the history of antiquity. society from the perspective of Marxist-Leninist methodology. The range of interests of these scientists is extremely wide: the history of the Aegean world, the decipherment of Minoan writing, Homeric Greece, agriculture. relations in early Italy, problems of ancient Greek. philosophy, etc. Such scientists can be classified as capitalist. countries J. Thomson (England), E. Sereni (Italy), A. Bonnard (Switzerland), and in the countries of people's democracy - A. Salach (Czechoslovakia), R. Taubenschlag, K. Kumanetsky (Poland), W. Hartke ( GDR), V. Georgiev, D. Dimitrov, X. Danov (Bulgaria), A. Graur, E. Konduraki (Romania), I. Trenchenyi-Valdapfel (Hungary), etc. Scientific institutions studying the history of antiquity (press organs of the institution are given in parentheses after the name of the institution). Austria - Institut f?r alte Geschichte, Archeologie und Epigraphik der Universit?t Wien, main. 1876. Algeria - Soci?t? Arch?ologique du d?partement de Constantine, base. 1852 (“Recueil annuel de notices et de m?moires”); Soci?t? Historique Algerienne, main. 1856 ("Revue Africaine"). Belgium - Soci?t? Royale d´Arch?ologie de Bruxelles, base. 1887 (“Bulletin de la Soci?t? Royale d´Arch?ologie de Bruxelles”); Soci?t? Arch?ologique, main. 1845 (“Annales de la Soci?t? Arch?ologique de Namur”); Academie royale d´Arch?ologie de Belgique, main. 1842 ("Bulletin de l'Academie d'Arch?ologie de Belgique", "Annales de l'Academie d'Arch?ologie de Belgique"). Bulgaria - Archaeological Institute at the Bulgarian Academy on Naukite. Great Britain - British Academy, main. 1901, department of ancient history, department of archeology; Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies, main. 1879 ("Journal of Hellenic Studies"); Ancient Monuments society, main. 1924; British Archaeological Association, main. 1843 ("Journal of..."); British Numismatic Society, main. 1903 ("British Numismatic journal..."); Egyptian Exploration Society, main. 1882 ("Archaeological Survey", "Graeco-Roman Memoirs", "The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology"); Palestine Exploration Fund, main. 1865 (“Palestine exploration quarterly”); Royal Archaeological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, main. 1843 ("Archaeological Journal"); Royal numismatic Society ("Numismatic chronicle"); Society of Antiquaries of London, main. 1707 ("Archaeologia", "Antiquaries Journal"); Classical Association, main. 1903 ("Classical Review", "Classical Quarterly", "Greece and Rome"); Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies, main. 1910 ("Journal of Roman Studies"); Institute of Classical Studies, main. 1953 ("Bulletin of..."). Hungary - Magyar R?g?szeti M?v?szett?rt?neti es ?remtani T?rsulat (“Archaeologiai Ertesit?”); Magyar Tudom?nyos Akad?mia, main. 1825 ("Acta Antiqua"). German Democratic Republic - Deutsche Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, main. 1700, with her: Institut f?r griechischr?mische Altertumskunde (“Klio”, “Das Altertum”, “Philologus”); Staatliche Museen zu Berlin ("Forschungen und Fortschritte", "Mitteilungen aus der ?gyptischen Sammlung"). Greece - American School of Classical Studies at Athens, main. 1881 ("Hesperia") British School at Athens, founded. 1886 ("British School Annual"), Ecole Fran?aise d'Ath?nos, main. 1846 (“Bulletin de correspondance hell?nique”, “Biblioth?que des Ecoles fran?aises d´Ath?nes et de Rome”, “Fouilles de Delphes”, “Exploration arch?ologique de Delos”, “?tudes thasiennes” , "?tudes cretoises", "Travaux et m?moires", "Recherches fran?aises en Turquie", "?tudes peloponnesiennes"). Denmark - Det Kongelige Nordiske Oldskriftselskab, main. 1825; Societas Danica Indagalionis Antiquitatis et Medii aevi, main. 1934 (“Classica et Mediaevalia”). West Berlin - Deutsches Arch?ologisches Institut, main. 1829 ("Jahrbuch des Deutschen Arch?ologischen Instituts", "Mitteilungen..."), has branches in Athens, Rome and a number of other cities. Iraq - American School of Oriental Research..., main. 1923 ("Bulletin", "Iraq"). Spain - Real Academia de la Hist?ria, main. 1738 (“Memorias”,”Memorial hist?rico espa?ol”,”Bolet?n”); Comisaria General de Excavationes Archeol?gicos, main. 1939 (“Acta arqueol?gica”, “Noticiario arqueol?gico hispanico”, etc.); Institut d'Estudis Catalans, main. 1907 (there is a section of classical history and philology). Italy - Associazione Archeologica Romana, main. 1902; British School at Rome, main. 1901 ("Papers of..."); American Academy in Rome, main. 1894; Istituto di Studi Etruschi ed Italici, main. 1926; Istituto papirologico Girolamo Vitelli, main. 1908 (“Papiri Greci e Latini della Societ? Italiana”). Canada - Antiquarian and Numismatic Society of Montreal, main. 1862 ("Journal of..."). China - Institute of History at the Academy of Sciences; Institute of Archeology at the Academy of Sciences; Chinese Historical Society, main. 1952. UAR: Egyptian region - Hellenic Society of Ptolemaic Egypt, op. 1908; Soci?t? Arch?ologique d'Alexandrie, base. 1893 (“Bulletins”, “M?moires”, “Monuments de l´Egypte Greco-Romaine”, “Cahiers arch?ologiques”, “Publications speciales”). Syrian region - National Museum, main. 1919 (“Les Annales Arch?ologiques de Syrie”). Poland - Polskie Towarzystwo Archeologiczne, main. 1953 (“Zapiski archeologiczne”, “Wiadomosci Numismatyczne”, etc.). Portugal - Akademia portuguesa da Historia, main. 1720; Associa??o des arqueologos Portugueses, main. 1863 (“Arqueologia e historia”, “Boletim”); Instituto Portugu?s de Arqueologia, Historia e Etnografia ("Ethnos"). Romania - Institutul de Arheologie, main. 1864; Institutul de Istorie. USSR - Sector of Ancient History at the Institute of History of the USSR Academy of Sciences ("Bulletin of Ancient History"); Sector of Ancient Archeology at the USSR Institute of Archeology; Sector of Ancient Literature at the Institute of Literature of the USSR Academy of Sciences. USA - Archaeological Institute of America, main. 1879 (has branches in Athens and Rome); American Antiquarian Society, main. 1812; American Numismatic Society, main. 1858. Tunisia - Institut National d'Arch?ologie et Arts ("Notes et Documents"). Türkiye - British Institute of Archeology at Ankara, main. 1948 ("Anatolian studies"). Federal Republic of Germany - R?misch-Germanische Kommission des Deutschen Arch?ologischen Instituts, 1829 in Frankfurt am Main ("Jahrbuch...", "Berichte der R?misch-germanischen Kommission", "Germania"). Rheinisches Landesmuseum in Bonn, main. 1820 (“Bonner Jahrb?cher des Rheinischen Museums und des Vereins von Altertumsfreunden in Rheinlande”); R?misch-Germanisches Museum in K?ln ("K?lner Jahrbuch f?r Vor-und Fr?hgeschichte"); R?misch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum zu Mainz, main. 1852 ("Jahrbuch..."). France - Academic des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, main. 1663 (“Comptes Rendus”, “M?moires”, “Monuments Piot”, etc.); Soci?t? Fran?aise d´Arch?ologie, main. 1834 ("Bulletin monumental", Congr?s arch?ologiques de France"); Soci?t? Nationale des Antiquaires de France, founded 1803; Soci?t? Fran?aise de Numismatique, founded 1866 ("Revue numismatique" , "Bulletin mensuel"); Center International de Documentation Classique, founded 1929 ("Bulletin..."); Société Internationale de Bibliographie classique, founded 1922 ("L´ann?e Philologique", etc.) ; Association pour l'Encouragement des ?tudes greques en France, founded 1867 ("Revue des ?tudes greques"); Soci?t? des Etudes latines, founded 1923 ("Revue des ?tudes latines", "Collection des ? tudes latines"); Institut d'Epigraphie et d'?tudes greques, Institut de Droit Romain, Institut d'?tudes Latines at the Sorbonne. Czechoslovakia - Historicky ?stav ceskoslovenske akademie ved Archeologicky ?stav ceskoslovenske akademie ved; Historicky ?stav slovensk? akademie vied; Archeologicky ?stav slovenske akad?mie vied. Switzerland - Antiquarische Gesellschaft, founded 1832 ("Mitteilungen der Antiquarischen Gesellschaft"); Historische und Antiquarische Gesellschaft zu Basel, founded. 1836 (“Basler Zeitschrift f?r Geschichte und Altertumskunde”);Soci?t? d´Histoire et d´Arch?ologie, main. 1838 (“Bulletin”, “M?moires et documents”); Soci?t? vandoise d'histoire et d'arch?ologie, main. 1902 (“Revue historique vandoise”). Yugoslavia - Arheolosko drustvo FNRJ ("Archeologia Jugoslavica"); Numizmaticno drustvo, main. 1930 (“Numizmatika”, “Numismaticke Vijesti”). Many universities are centers for the study of agriculture. Periodic publications on the history of antiquity: "Meander" (Warsaw), "Historia" (Wiesbaden), "Lustrum" (Göttingen), "Gnomon" (Munich). See also above, at scientific institutions. Lit.: Buzeskul V.P., Introduction to the history of Greece, 3rd ed., P., 1915; Mashkin N. A., History of Dr. Rome, 3rd ed., M., 1956, ch. 2; Sergeev V.S., History of Dr. Greece, 2nd ed., M., 1948, ch. 2; Diligensky G. G., Utchenko S. L., Sov. historiography of antiquity for 40 years, "VI", 1958, No. 1. S. L. Utchenko. Moscow, S.I. Kovalev. Leningrad.

Antiquity(from lat. antiquitas- antiquity, antiquity) is an era in the historical and cultural development of the world's population, associated with the Greco-Roman civilization (c. 7th century BC - 4th century AD).

The civilization of Ancient Greece and Old Rome is often considered as the initial era, source, base of European and modern world civilization and civilization in a number of eras: Antiquity - Middle Ages - Modern times. This point of view is due to the fact that Antiquity formed a state structure that became a model for modern civilization - democracy, and in the process of its formation created a culture that became one of the most significant reasons for the next world civilization. Therefore, the heyday of Greek democracy (V-IV centuries BC) is usually assessed as the era of traditional Greece.

In the architecture of the Antiquity period, an order system was created, the arch and vault were introduced, the building was formed as a single complete compositional whole, and a permanent urban planning system was created. In Antiquity one should find the sources of many values ​​that later formed European culture.

Also, from time to time, any very old periods are called antiquity, using the concept synonymously with the word “antiquity.”

Since Antiquity accounts for few centuries of human history, it is usually divided into eras and periods.

General periodization of Antiquity

In general, the general periodization of Antiquity looks like this:

Time periods may vary slightly within the geopolitical context. Thus, the Golden Age of Antiquity in Ancient Greece was celebrated earlier than in the Roman Empire. In addition, the ancient civilization in the Eastern Roman Empire arose earlier and died out later than in the Western part, where its way of life was destroyed by the invading Germans. Nevertheless, the ancient cultural heritage (mainly in the late antique form) was quite well preserved in the life, culture, language and traditions of the majority of modern Romanesque peoples, and from them was passed on to other peoples of the Mediterranean (South Slavs, Arabs, Turks, Berbers, Jews).

The final period of Antiquity is designated as Hellenic-Roman, since after Rome's conquest of the last Hellenistic monarchy - Egypt (30 BC) - the higher Greek civilization and culture continued to coexist with Roman culture, exerting a strong influence on it. In addition to democracy, among the achievements of Antiquity, it is necessary to emphasize art, architecture, literature, Roman law, and philosophy.

Many elements of traditional Antiquity (traditions, laws, customs, etc.) were perfectly preserved in the Asia Minor core of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire until the 11th century, before the invasion of the Seljuk Turks.

Geography of Antiquity

Balkan Greece in ancient times occupied the area ca. 88 thousand sq. km. In the northwest it bordered with Illyria, in the northeast with Macedonia, in the west it was washed by the Ionian (Sicilian), in the southeast by the Myrtoian sea, in the east by the Aegean and Thracian seas. It included three regions - Northern Greece, Central Greece and Peloponnese. Northern Greece was divided into western (Epirus) and eastern (Thessaly) parts by the Pindus mountain range. Central Greece was delimited from Northern Greece by the Timfrest and Eta mountains and consisted of 10 regions (from west to east): Acarnania, Aetolia, Locris Ozole, Doris, Phocis, Locris Epiknemidskaya, Locris Opunta, Boeotia, Megaris and Attica. The Peloponnese was connected to the rest of Greece by the narrow (up to 6 km) Isthmus of Corinth.

The central region of the Peloponnese was Arcadia, which was bordered on the west by Elis, on the south by Messenia and Laconia, on the north by Achaea, on the east by Argolis, Phliuntia and Sicyonia; Corinthia was located in the last northeastern corner of the peninsula. Insular Greece consisted of several hundred islands (the largest are Crete and Euboea), forming three huge archipelagos - the Cyclades in the southwest of the Aegean Sea, the Sporades in its eastern and northern parts and the Ionian Islands off the western coast of Asia Minor. Balkan Greece is mainly a mountainous country (it is pierced from north to south by two branches of the Dinaric Alps) with a very indented coastline and countless gulfs (the largest are Ambracian, Corinthian, Messenian, Laconian, Argolid, Saronic, Malian and Pagasian).

The largest of the Greek islands are Crete, southeast of the Peloponnese and Euboea, separated from Central Greece by a narrow strait. The countless islands of the Aegean Sea form two huge archipelagos - the Cyclades in the southwest and the Sporades in the eastern and northern parts. The most significant of the islands off the west coast of Greece are Kerkyra, Lefkada, Kefallenia and Zakynthos.

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pedagogical thought and educational practice. Pedagogical thought and the system of educational institutions first reached mature forms in Greece by the 4th century. BC. after a long evolution of the polis (city-state), in Rome - by the end of the 1st century. BC, when the slave-owning republic was replaced by an empire. Ancient Greece. The idea of ​​an ideal model of behavior already existed in the myths and poems of Homer, from which it was known that boys were taught to run, hunt, play the lyre, etc., and were instilled with the concepts of heroism and dignity. Basic The method of education was imitation of models, incl. mythological; Homer's heroes themselves subsequently became models for the noble young aristocrat. Education was considered as one of the main. functions of the state; Here, for the first time, the task of educating and educating children (mainly boys) of the entire free population was set. Basic educational institute in policies of the 8th-6th centuries. BC. there was a system of religious celebrations that required preliminary training in the “musical arts”: dancing, music, and speech. Other basic An element of education was military training, which took exaggerated forms in Sparta (the so-called Spartan education). At the beginning of the 6th century. A military state was created in Sparta with its own system of educating soldiers, soldiers' wives and soldiers' mothers. Ch. The direction of the Spartan system was moral education, the goal of which was considered to be the complete subordination of the individual to the interests of the social group. Upbringing and education were strictly regulated by the state. State education was administered by a pedon official and included 3 cycles: two cycles of 4 years (boys from 8 to 11 years old and teenagers from 11 to 15 years old) and one 5-year cycle - ephebia (boys from 16 to 20 years old, t .n. irene, or eiren). The main thing was physical education, developing strength, agility, etc. Girls also did physical education. Intellectual education was reduced to a minimum (the rudiments of reading and writing) and was left to private teachers. Music, songs - everything was aimed at mobilizing soldiers. For example, the songs of Tyrtaeus (2nd half of the 7th century BC) called for disdain for any glory other than military glory. The Olympic Games and other competitions were of great importance, victories in which supported the aristocratic prestige of young men. The popularity of pan-Greek and local competitions testified to the extraordinary development of the competitive spirit among the Greeks, which also manifested itself in the intellectual sphere. By the end of the 6th century. BC. the Greeks began to cultivate intellectual virtues. The introduction of written laws (for example, the laws of Solon in Athens, 594), the development of legal proceedings and judicial eloquence had a decisive significance. By the 5th century. BC. eloquence became an element in the training system for young men. OK. 560 BC In Athens, Homeric poems were written down and their study became the basis of school education. At the same time, historical prose arose: throughout antiquity, poets and historians sought to educate future generations using examples from the past. In Attica from the 6th century. BC. theatrical performances spread. From the 6th century BC. Cosmology, arithmetic, geography, astronomy, and harmony were studied. The first schools appeared: the philosophical (Pythagorean) school in Croton (c. 532 BC), medical schools in Croton and Cyrea (late 6th century BC). From the end of the 6th century. BC. Attica, led by Athens, began to play a leading role in the development of Greek culture and education. The Athenian education system combined mental (musical) and physical (gymnastic) education. From the age of 7, boys, accompanied by slave teachers, simultaneously attended the palaestra (place of physical education), music and grammar schools (mostly private). By the 5th century. BC. Military education (ephebia) became mandatory for boys aged 18-20. Basic The sophists (sages, people knowledgeable in the field of philosophy) tried to formulate the ideas of Greek pedagogical thought. The concept of "paideya" (comprehensive development) and the ideal of "kalokagathia" (physical and moral improvement) were cultivated. The Sophists established a set of sciences and arts that were supposed to ensure success in the civil field for free young men. Young people were taught dialectics (the art of argument) and rhetoric (eloquence), which in turn required knowledge of mythology, history, and legislation. The formation of higher education begins with the sophists. However, the relativism of the sophists (for example, the proof of the correctness and incorrectness of any position depending on the circumstances) destroyed the foundations of traditional piety and the education built on it. The relativity of the moral norms of the sophists aroused objections already from Socrates, who contrasted the practicality of the sophistic school with the idea of ​​​​the independent meaning of virtue, the objectivity of moral norms. By the 4th century. BC. The democratic polis entered an era of decline, but it was during this period that philosophical schools were created by the students of Socrates - Euclid (in Megara), Phaedo (in Elis), Antisthenes and Plato (in Athens). OK. 390 BC Isocrates opened the school of rhetoric. Critical Role in the history of ancient pedagogy belongs to Aristotle. His writings became the basis. textbooks on logic, physics, metaphysics and other sciences. Hellenism. Along with the Academy and Lyceum in Athens at the end of the 4th century. BC. The philosophical schools of Epicurus (Garden) and Stoics (Porticus) arose, which turned Athens into a center of education. New scientific and cultural centers in Alexandria (early 3rd century BC) - the famous museum with the Library of Alexandria and in Pergamon - the Pergamon Library. Textbooks appeared in all branches of knowledge, many of which were written by philosophers of the Stoic school. The nature of primary education has remained virtually unchanged compared to the classical era. At a higher level of education in the grammar school, education was already determined by the new nature of Hellenistic education. Boys aged 7-14 attended a citharist school, a palestra school, and a grammar school. Under the guidance of a grammarian, the works of Homer, Hesiod, and later Apollonius of Rhodes, Sappho, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Menander, Herodotus, Demosthenes and others were read in the gymnasium. The reading and interpretation of the authors was accompanied by a writing exercise. Eloquence was studied at the rhetoric school. The ephebes' higher education system included physical and military training, lessons, lectures, and performances. Grammar, philosophy and rhetoric were studied, less often mathematics and medicine. Vocational education was acquired privately in the most famous training centers. Ancient Rome. In the 3rd century. BC. Rome became a leading state militarily, but was at a relatively low stage of cultural development. Unlike the ancient Greeks, who considered the ideal of a noble hero, the Romans cultivated the ideal of an independent farmer. Family education dominated. Slaves and children were equally subordinate to the father of the family; the mother's authority was maintained throughout life. Girls were raised in the family and for family life, boys received a practical education. Literacy instruction in primary school was elementary. At the age of 15-16, young men, under the guidance of a speaker, studied civil rights and spent a year in military service. The first obvious fact of Greek influence is the free translation into Latin of Homer's Odyssey, made by the Greek freedman Livius Andronicus (3rd century BC). Since then, the Odyssey has been the basis for almost 2 centuries. a teaching aid in the Latin school. The Romans did not inculcate elements of Greek education (gymnastics, learning music, singing, dancing); they, embarrassed by nudity, rejected the palaestra and sports, preferring gladiator fights, etc. Scientific knowledge was formed. In 168 BC e. In Rome, the Pergamon philologist Crates gave lectures on literature and language. In the 60s 2nd century BC. grammar schools appeared; Greek and Latin schools existed in parallel. In 155 BC Representatives of three philosophical schools of Athens (the academician Carneades, the peripatetic Critolaus and the Stoic Diogenes) gave lectures in Rome. Noble Roman families hired Greek teachers. The first higher school of rhetoric was opened by Lucius Plotius Gallus in 93 BC. (closed as contrary to the morals of our ancestors). However, rhetoricians continued their activities in 85 BC. the famous “Rhetoric of Herennius” appeared, which became a classic textbook until the Renaissance (in the 4th-15th centuries AD it was attributed to Cicero). Unlike the Greek tradition, the Roman school did not offer fictitious mythological subjects, but real facts of Roman history, but completed higher education according to the Greek model. The encyclopedist Marcus Terentius Varro ("the father of Roman education") created the textbook "Sciences" (33 BC), which included grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, music, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, medicine and architecture. The first seven subjects made up the trivium and quadrivium - the so-called. seven liberal arts. At the same time, Cicero (treatise “On the Orator”, etc.) introduced the concept of “h Rhetorical schools developed in Rome in the era of Augustus (27 BC - 14 BC) and in the 1st century AD. BC - throughout the empire. Law schools became the achievement of Rome. By the 1st century AD, the system of humanitarian education included elementary (for children 7-12 years old; reading, writing, arithmetic), grammar (12-15 years old; reading and interpretation of classical authors) and rhetorical (15-18 years old; exercises in eloquence) schools. In grammar schools they taught according to Greek models, but they studied Virgil, Ovid, Statius, Terence, Sallust, etc., especially Cicero. The program of the rhetorical school can be judged based on Quintilian's work "On the Education of the Orator". The first Latin grammar was created in the 1st century AD by Remmius Palaemon (not preserved). In the 4th century AD Donatus compiled a grammar manual, an abbreviated translation of which was popular in the Middle Ages The most detailed presentation of grammar was given by Priscian (early 6th century AD).In the 1st century AD, Roman emperors began to exercise control over school education, some of them established a number of privileges for teachers and introduced restrictions: the city was supposed to have no more than 5 grammarians and rhetoricians. Marcus Aurelius in 176 restored 4 philosophical schools in Athens and the school of rhetoric. In 425, Theodosius and Valentinian finally approved the state nature of the school and banned private teaching. At the beginning of the 6th century. AD Justinian expelled pagan teachers from the school and in 529 closed pagan schools in Athens. The ancient education system was adopted by the Middle Ages, and pedagogical ideas formed the basis of the pedagogy of humanism (see. Renaissance). See also Neo-Humanism, Palaestra, Rhetoric, Seven Liberal Arts

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ANTIQUITY

pedagogical thought and educational practice. Ped. thought and system will educate. institutions first reached mature forms in Greece by the 4th century. BC e. after long evolution of the polis (city-state), in Rome - towards the end. 1st century BC e., when the slave owner. The republic was replaced by an empire. Despite the limited material and social base of antiquity. culture, it was in antiquity that ped. ideals that served as a model for subsequent eras.

Greece. The idea of ​​an ideal model of behavior already exists among the heroes of Homer’s poems, whom Plato called the first educator of the Hellenes. From Homer's poems and myths it is known that boys were taught javelin throwing, running, horse riding, hunting, and playing the lyre. Conduct yourself with dignity not only in council and in battle, but also during sports. competitions, and at the feast (“Always be the best and surpass others”) requires the honor of the hero, and his valor allows him to maintain his dignity.

Basic the method of education is imitation of models, including mythological ones; Homer's heroes themselves subsequently become models for the noble young aristocrat. In Greek policy, education was considered as one of the main. functions of the state; Here, for the first time, the task of teaching and raising children (mainly boys) of the entire free population was set. Basic will educate institute in policies of the 7th-6th centuries. BC e. there was a system of religions. festivities that required preliminaries. teaching “musical arts”: dance, music, words. The rite of the holiday cemented the community from within. From the outside, constant strife forced us to unite. Therefore, other basic The military became an element of a young man’s upbringing. training that took on hypertrophied forms in Sparta (the so-called Spartan education).

The need to constantly maintain the dominance of a small group of Spartiates over the mass of subordinate perieci and conquered helots led to the creation (beginning of the 6th century BC) and conservation for 3 centuries of military forces. state with its own system of educating soldiers, soldiers' wives and soldiers' mothers. Ch. The direction of the Spartan system was morals. education, the goal of which was considered to be the complete subordination of the individual to the interests of the social group. The most important feature was the strict regulation by the state of various aspects of life, including the upbringing and education of children. State education of boys, administered by the state. official pedonom, began at the age of 8 and consisted of 3 cycles: two cycles of 4 years - from 8 to 11 years ("boys") and from 11 to 15 years ("teenagers") and a 5-year "ephebia" - from 16 up to 20 years (“irenes” or “airens” is the Spartan name for ephebes). The young men were divided into squads, squads into units; The age hierarchy demanded unconditional submission to the older boys who stood at the head of the detachment, as well as to all adult men.

Phys. the exercises involved the development of strength, agility, endurance, but not physical beauty. Constant clashes between peers developed an insensitivity to pain, demonstrated during the ritual of public flagellation; at the festival of gymnopedia (from the mid-6th century BC), young men who performed naked (which initially had a purely ritual meaning) showed their ability to endure the heat; During cryptia (secret forays to intimidate and kill helots) in winter they walked barefoot and slept on the bare ground. Gymnastics, running competitions, and a strict lifestyle physically strengthened the girls and were supposed to serve to improve the Spartan breed.

The intellectual education of the Spartiates was reduced to a minimum (the rudiments of reading and writing) and was left to private teachers. Music was valued for its ability to organize and mobilize warriors. Will bring up evidence of militarization. programs in Sparta are the songs of Tyrtaeus (2nd half of the 7th century BC), who called for neglecting any glory (including sports) except military glory. This, however, did not mean a reduction in the role of sports in the military training system in Sparta. A sense of collectivism was also maintained by societies. meals.

On the physical character. preparation was influenced by the program of pan-Greek (Olympic, Isthmian and other games) and local competitions: running, wrestling, pentathlon (pentathlon: running, jumping, discus and javelin throwing, wrestling), horse racing, chariot racing. At the Pythian Games in honor of Apollo, flutists and cithara players also competed, and competitions in wisdom were held. In the winners, not only strength and dexterity were valued, but rather, their chosenness both before the gods who allowed the victory, and among people. Victory in the competition was primarily a means of maintaining the aristocracy. prestige. Popularity of common Greek and local sports. competitions testified to the extraordinary development of the agonistic (competitive) spirit among the Greeks, which also manifested itself in the intellectual sphere. K con. 6th century BC e. the Greeks began to gradually cultivate intellectual virtues, although physical. qualities continued to remain paramount.

The introduction of written laws (for example, the laws of Solon in Athens, 594), the development of legal proceedings and judicial eloquence had a decisive influence on the formation of life in the city. By the 5th century. BC e. eloquence has become fundamental. element in the system of education of young men. The formation of a written tradition in literature was important. OK. 560 BC e. Homeric poems were written down in Athens; to the 5th century BC e. reading them and memorizing them became the basis of the school. education. At the same time, history arose. prose: throughout antiquity, poets and historians, using examples from the past, sought to educate future generations, in Attica from the end. 6th century BC e. theater and performances spread. At the same time, scientific research was formed. knowledge. From the 6th century BC e. Arithmetic, geometry, geography and astronomy developed. In the first philosophical school - Pythagorean (c. 532 BC, in Croton), which still had the character of a relit, community, cosmology, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and harmony were studied. In con. 6th century BC e. honey was founded in Croton and Cyrene. schools. Honey enjoyed great influence. school o. Kos (Hippocrates belonged to it).

The democratization and intellectualization of polis life affected the Greek. culture and education. In their development from the end. 6th century BC e. Attica, with Athens at its head, began to play the leading role. The Athenian education system included a combination of mental (musical) and physical (gymnastic) education. From the age of 7, boys, accompanied by slave teachers, simultaneously visited the palaestra (where they were introduced to physical education), music. and grammatical schools, which, as a rule, were private. By the 5th century. BC e. carried out by the state obligated. military education (“ephebia”) was limited to two years (from 18 to 20 years).

Intellectualization of morals. and citizen ideals undermined traditions. belief in the innateness of virtue. Back in the 1st quarter. 5th century BC e. Pindar proclaimed: “The wise know many things from birth, but those who need teaching croak chatteringly and idly,” but already in the middle. 5th century BC e. so-called the senior sophists (Gorgias, Protagoras) declared their task to be “the education of people.”

The sophists tried to formulate the basic. ideas of Hellenic ped. thoughts. The concept of “found” (comprehensive development, education and culture) and the ideal of “kalokagathia” (physical and moral perfection) were cultivated. The Sophists established a set of sciences and arts, which were supposed to provide free young men with success in citizenship. field. First of all, they taught dialectics (the art of argument) and rhetoric (eloquence), which in turn required knowledge of mythology, history, and legislation. The formation of the highest begins with the sophists. education: appropriate programs and textbooks appeared, but there were still no permanent higher education. schools.

The relativism of the sophists (for example, the proof of the correctness and incorrectness of any position depending on the circumstances) destroyed the foundations of tradition. piety and education built on it. Relativity of morals. the norms preached by the Sophists aroused objections from Socrates. Without leaving the framework of sophistry. rationalism in the formulation and resolution of ped. problems, Socrates contrasted practicality with sophistry. schools' idea of ​​self-sufficiency. the meaning of virtue, the objectivity of morals. normal

By the 4th century. BC e. democr. The polis and the polis system itself entered an era of decline. However, it was at this time that philosophies were created. schools - the students of Socrates Euclid (in Megara), Phaedo (in Elis), Antisthenes and Plato (in Athens). OK. 390 BC e. Isocrates opened the school of rhetoric. Sophists Jr. generations no longer played a leading role in the development of pedagogy. thoughts of Greece. For Plato and Isocrates, most. outstanding teachers of the 4th century. BC e., characterized by the desire to educate citizens in the spirit of ancient nobility with worthy examples and instructions. By criticizing the sophists, they limited the competence of the sophists. “science”: morality and virtue cannot be taught, as they teach the art of calculation or argument. The most important role in the history of antiquity. pedagogy belongs to Plato's student Aristotle, who continued the work begun by the Sophists on the development of school methods. education. Even at the Academy (under Plato), and subsequently at the Lyceum, Aristotle taught courses in rhetoric, logic, etc., and therefore created a number of works, which after 3 centuries became the main ones. textbooks on logic, physics, metaphysics and other sciences.

Hellenism. Along with the Academy and Lyceum in Athens at the very end. 4th century BC e. Philosophy arose. the school of Epicurus (“Garden”) and the Stoics (“Portic”), which turned Athens into a center of education, a kind of “pedagogical province” of Hellenistic. world, the ideal of the cut inspired thinkers and teachers of the West. Europe 18 - early 19th centuries During the Hellenistic era, new scientific studies were created. and cultural centers: in Alexandria in the beginning. 3rd century BC e. the famous Museyon was organized with a library, a menagerie and a botanical garden. garden In the Alexandria library they gathered and studied the works. in all branches of literature, science and culture, philology was formed here. tradition of working with texts (primarily with the works of the “classics” used in schools). Other scientific the center was Pergamon; big tits Apamea, Antioch, and Syracuse were famous. Rhodes was a famous center of rhetoric.

Teachers appeared. manuals on all areas of knowledge of the Hellenistic era. A number of op. in logic and linguistics belonged to representatives of Stoic philosophy. A textbook of the Alexandrian tradition has reached us - the grammar of Dionysius of Thracia, who had plural. followers. Aristoxenus's manual “The Beginnings of Harmony” (2nd half of the 4th century BC) in Sv. BC e. was adapted for the needs of the school by Kleonidom, the author of “Introduction to Harmony.” In the beginning. 3rd century BC e. Euclid created the Elements, ca. 100 N. e. Nicomachus of Ge-rasa wrote “Introduction to Arithmetic.” Astronomy according to Eudoxus of Cnidus was presented in hexameters by Aratom (mid-3rd century BC); development of astronomy in the 3rd-2nd centuries. BC e. Aristarchus of Samos and Hipparchus found a popular exposition among the 1st century Stoics. BC e. Gemina of Rhodes.

The character of the beginning education in the Hellenistic era compared to the classical. virtually unchanged by the era. At the age of 7-14 years, boys attended, under the guidance of a “teacher,” a cytharist school, a palaestra, a grammar school, where they studied the alphabet, learned to write syllables, words, and then copied coherent texts from Homer or tragedians; learned to read (aloud) from selections from Homer, sometimes adapted from Aesop's fables, as well as edification. anthologies of lyric poetry; numeracy was taught (four arithmetic operations, fractions, monetary units, measures of weight and length). Corporal punishment was used at school.

The range of classes at a higher level is in grammar. school - was already determined by the new character of the Hellenistic. education. Under the guidance of a grammarian, usually in the gymnasium, “authors” were read, primarily Homer, Hesiod, and later Apollonius of Rhodes; lyricists Alcman, Alcaeus, Sappho, Pindar and others (at the choice of the teacher, often contemporaries); tragedians - Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and among comedians - Menander. The prose of Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon and Hellanicus was studied to a lesser extent. Of the speakers, special attention was paid to Demosthenes. The student was introduced to the work by a summary: the text was read aloud “with expression”, interpreted word by word, some words were explained through synonyms; then came comments - grammatical, metrical, historical. In conclusion, the text was assessed and a moral was derived. Reading and interpretation of the “authors” were accompanied by an exercise in writing, and schoolwork was practiced. the genres of these exercises are progymnasms (preliminary exercises). Training in eloquence was special. the task of the rhetoric school.

State system higher education - the upbringing of ephebes - presupposed primarily military. and physical exercises, as well as lessons, performances and lectures. The exercises were carried out in the gymnasium, in the special. a room, usually richly decorated, - “ephebeion”; Grammar, philosophy and rhetoric were studied, less often mathematics, and sometimes medicine. Wide education the program was introductory in nature and was not designed for profs. training, which was acquired privately through the study of rhetoric, philosophy and medicine from famous teachers and in general. famous Hellenistic centers education.

Rome. Hellenistic influence education in the 3rd century. BC e. extended to Rome, which by this time had become leading in the military. in relation to the state of the Mediterranean, but was at a relatively low stage of cultural development. If the Greeks, from ancient times, had as their ideal of behavior a noble - “god-like” - hero, hero and warrior, then “rural Latium” cultivated the ideal of an independent farmer. Emphasized loyalty to the morals of the ancestors was kept primarily in the family, the influence of which on the upbringing of the child was dominant. Slaves and children were equally in complete submission to the father of the family; The authority and influence of the mother, who herself fed the child, were great for him throughout his life. The girls were raised in the family and for family life. The boys received practical training. education and, accompanying his father, became acquainted with the range of his responsibilities and with the affairs of the state. Teaching literacy in the beginning. school (ludus littera-rius) was of an elementary nature. Under the guidance of a mentor (magister ludi or litterator), they learned to read according to the “Laws of the 12 Tables” and memorized certain sacred formulas. At the age of 15-16, young men put on a man's goga and practiced under the guidance of a practical speaker. studying civics license and were in military service for a year. service (tirocinium fori and tirocinium militiae, which corresponded to the Greek ephe-bia).

The first obvious fact is Greek. influence on the character of Rome. education - free translation into Lat. language “The Odyssey” of Homer, made by the Greek freedman Livnus Andronicus (3rd century BC) for the school he organized in Rome. Since then, the translation of the Odyssey has been the main one for almost two centuries. uch. allowance in lat. school. Shk. teacher (grammaticus or literatus) and playwright Ennius (late 3rd century BC) set himself the task of rebuilding Rome. literature and Rome education in Greek samples. In this he was supported by the Hellenophile circle of Rome. commander Scipio the Elder. The Romans did not take root. components of the Greek education: gym-nasgika, teaching music, singing, dancing. Shy about nudity, the Romans rejected the palaestra and sports; they preferred a circus with horse races and an amphitheater with gladiator fights to competitions. The spiritual wealth of the Greeks was assimilated. In 168 BC e. In Rome, the Pergamon philologist Crates gave lectures on literature and language. In the 60s 2nd century BC e. grammar began to appear in Rome. schools (scholae), where Greek was taught. language, and the program is lat. schools became more complicated. Greek and Lat. schools existed in parallel. The Greeks began to teach philosophy and rhetoric. Greek influence rhetoric was reflected in the speeches of Rome. politicians, and the influence of the Greek. philosophy in particular intensified after the lectures (155 BC in Rome) by representatives of the three philosophies. schools of Athens: the academician Carneades, the peripatetic Critolaus and the Stoic Diogenes. Nobles of Rome. families hired Greek tutors for their children. Against the Hellenization of Rome. way of life was made by Marcus Porcius Cato, who himself, however, did not escape the influence of the Greeks: according to the Greek. His manual “On Agriculture” was written on the basis of samples.

The first higher (rhetorical) school was opened by Lucius Plotius Gallus in 93 BC. e., but a year later it closed as an institution contrary to the morals of its ancestors. However, “lat. Rhetors" continued their teaching activities. In 85 BC e. the famous “Rhetoric of Herennius” appeared, which remained a classic. a manual on rhetoric until the Renaissance (in the 4th-15th centuries AD it was attributed to Cicero). The textbook reflected the Roman tendency to create independence. traditions of the highest education, in accordance with the cut for rhetoric. The developments proposed were not fictional myths. topics, but real facts from Rome. stories using lat. Greek equivalents terms. However, the highest education in Greek sample.

The need for lat. uch. manuals for a complete course of education of a free citizen lay at the heart of the work of the encyclopedist scientist Marcus Terence Varro, “the father of Rome. education." He wrote the “Sciences” (Disciplinae; 33 BC), which included grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, music, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy; medicine, architecture (the first seven made up the trivium and quad-rivium of the so-called seven liberal arts). At the same time, in the works of Cicero (including in the treatise “On the Orator”), the concept of humanitas was developed, corresponding to the Greek. paideia. Cicero formulated the cultural ideal of a person who combines philosophical education (as a means of individual improvement) and rhetorical education (as a means of social influence).

Rhetoric schools began to strengthen in Rome from the era of Augustus (27 BC - 14 AD) and in the 1st century. n. e. spread throughout the empire. Study in Rome grammatical and rhetoric schools theoretically included music, geometry, and astronomy, but in practice they did little of this. But the undoubted achievement of the Romans were legal schools.

By the 1st century. n. e. in Rome, a 3-degree system of humanitarian education was established: elementary school (age children 7-12 years old; reading, writing, counting), grammatical school (12-15 years old; reading and interpretation of classical authors) and rhetorical school (15-18 years old ; exercises in eloquence). Although Rome grammarians and rhetoricians were taught in Greek. samples, Rome. Tradition had an independent meaning for the Middle Ages. cultural tradition, ch. arr. because in Rome. grammatical schools from the beginning 1st century BC e. gradually established its own set of classics. authors: in 26 BC e. Quintus Caecilius introduced Epirotes into the school. the texts of Virgil, who had not yet completed work on the Aeneid, were used in everyday life (during the authors’ lifetime, the works of Ovid and Statius were also studied at school). In addition, Terence was required to be studied at grammar school; from historians - Sallust. Will exclude. place - as a role model - was occupied by Cicero. To study a number of authors (for example, Horace), the level of grammatical. school was considered insufficient, so their works were mastered in rhetoric schools. About the program of the rhetoric school in the 1st century. n. e. can be judged from op. Quintilian "On the Education of the Orator." First lat. grammar was created in the 1st century. Remmiem Palemon (not preserved). Among the comments on Wed. centuries, the works of Donatus, Servius, and Macrobius were popular. In the 4th century. n. e. Donat amounted to school. a grammar manual, an abbreviated version of which is especially common in Wed. century. max. gave a detailed presentation of grammar in the beginning. 6th century n. e. Priscian.

In the 1st century n. e. Rome. Emperors began to exercise control over the school system. education. Vespasian (reigned 69-79) began to subsidize both Roman and Greek. grammarians and rhetoricians (including Quintilian) from the imperial treasury. Tra-yan (98-117) introduced an allowance for the education of a certain number of unemployed children. citizens. Anthony Pius (138-161) exempted grammarians, rhetoricians and philosophers from certain taxes and gave a number of privileges (the right not to serve in the army, etc.). At the same time, restrictions were established: the city was supposed to have no more than 5 grammarians and rhetoricians. Marcus Aurelius restored 4 philosophies in 176. schools in Athens and established a school of rhetoric. Constantine the Great, by edicts 321, 326 and 333, expanded the privileges of teachers: they were allowed to hold judicial positions, they themselves and their families were declared free from taxes. Julian the Apostate (361-363) tried to remove Christian teachers from the school. Gratian in 376 doubled the amount paid from the mountains. funds for the maintenance of the school. In 425, Theodosius and Valentinian finally approved the state. character of the school by prohibiting private teaching. In the beginning. 6th century n. e. Justinian expelled pagan teachers from schools and in 529 closed the language. Philosopher schools in Athens. However, the main antique elements education systems, antique textbooks, texts and commentaries were adopted by the Middle Ages, and pedagogy. the ideals of antiquity form the basis of the pedagogy of humanism (see Renaissance).

Incomplete definition ↓

Very often in Everyday life You may hear the word for the time period of Ancient Greece and Rome called “antiquity.” What is this period? You will find the answer to this question in this article.

Geography

What is antiquity? This is an era in history that significantly influenced the further development of many states. Those countries considered to be examples of this period were located in the territories of Southern and Central Europe, Asia Minor and North Africa. The most prominent are such states as Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. In these countries, the spiritual sphere of society has reached its highest point of development. They belong to the Central part.

On the periphery of the ancient world, for example, in the Mediterranean, in the river basin called the Danube, as well as in North Africa, there were states that became part of the ancient world a little later.

Stages of Antiquity

What is antiquity? This is a long period of universal history, which is conventionally divided into several stages. The first of them began in Ancient Greece even before our era, namely at the end of the 2nd - beginning of the 1st millennium. In the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. The period of Italian antiquity began.

Before the culture and art of Ancient Greece became exemplary, there was an active development of the Crete-Mycenaean civilization, which arose at the turn of the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC. It influenced the historical path of ancient states. The ancient world ended its existence in the middle of the 1st millennium AD. e. Historians believe that the final date of ancient history is 476 AD. In general, the length of antiquity is 1.5 thousand years.

Society and economy

What is antiquity? This is not only the culture and art of Ancient Greece and Rome. This is also the socio-political structure of these states, their economy. What characterized these areas of life? The society was represented complex structure, which, of course, gave rise to deep internal contradictions. This was also one of the reasons why ancient states were rocked by numerous social conflicts, unrest, uprisings and even civil wars. The state was represented by a polis.

The economic development of the Ancient Greeks and Romans was quite successful for that time. Private property was of great importance. Even poor people owned at least a small plot of land, a boat or a workshop. More successful citizens, whose financial situation was good, simply put, the nobility, could afford larger plots of land and more developed workshops.

Story

This science developed in Ancient Greece. It was founded by the scientist Herodotus, thanks to whom information about the Greco-Persian Wars was preserved. Subsequently, many philosophers and scientists made their contribution to such a science as the history of Antiquity. In the works of that time one can see attempts to substantiate the reasons for this or that event, the role of a specific historical figure, and so on. Especially famous to this day are the works of Emperor Marcus Aurelius, who, by the way, was depicted on many statues.

Architecture

The Age of Antiquity is closely connected with the development of architecture. Firstly, urban planning has reached a high level. Thus, all cities were carefully planned and thoroughly built. They contained theaters, gymnasiums (sports complexes), markets, stadiums, and temples. The roads on the streets were paved with pottery shards, cobblestones or stone slabs. The water supply and sewerage system was also well developed.

Both the Greeks and Romans were able to build complex structures, while adding interesting architectural designs to the buildings. Thus, an order system appeared in Ancient Greece. Temples were built on a rectangular foundation; Believers gathered on the steps leading inside. There was a statue of some god in the temple. Therefore, many buildings were called something like this: “Temple of Nika Apteros.”

The Romans adopted many elements of Greek architecture, such as columns. However, they also brought something new to the art of antiquity. For example, arched structures and domed vaults. New durable construction material was also invented by them. That's what it's called: Roman concrete.

Theater and public speaking

The culture of Antiquity is inextricably linked with such concepts as “theater” and “oratory”. Indeed, theater was one of the main types of mass entertainment. Civil consciousness was formed through plays. Playwrights such as Aeschylus and Sophocles, Aristophanes and Menander are known throughout the world. Ancient Roman theatrical art was originally a direct imitation of the Greek. However, the population of this state preferred comedies. Thanks to the addition of musical numbers, dances and even special effects, the performances became much more spectacular.

Oratory was a practical need of ancient society. It was during this period that the theory of eloquence was created, which was widely used in political struggles and legal disputes. The most famous speakers were Demosthenes and Cicero, who lived in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, respectively.

Literature

What is antiquity? This is a period that left a profound light on the development of European states. One of the greatest cultural achievements of this time is fiction. In the main centers of art, namely Greece and Rome, many literary genres developed.

These include: poetry (lyrical and epic), tragedy, comedy, novel. Such works as “The Iliad”, “Odyssey”, “The Golden Ass” are the best of their kind and belong to ancient Greek culture. Ancient Roman literature is known from the poem "Aeneid".

Influence on other states

Ancient antiquity had a great influence on other states. Thus, architectural elements were borrowed from here and used in many styles and directions. Statues of gods and historical figures became examples of grace and beauty, the standard by which new works of art were subsequently created. They returned to antiquity as a model during the Renaissance and Classicism, considering the works of this period to be the ideal of proportionality.

During the period of Antiquity, the foundations of theatrical and oratory art, as well as literature, were laid. Moreover, the social structure of ancient states was partially adopted by more modern countries. And finally, the language and writing of the ancient period formed the basis of many modern languages, such as English, German, Spanish, Italian, French and even Russian. Many sciences were laid down at this time and became the foundation for their further study. The Latin language was used in Antiquity and the Middle Ages, and now it is scientific.

(Latin antiquus - ancient) - preserved values ​​of the Greek-Roman. antiquity, especially in the region. literature and art, which are considered classical. The term "A." appeared at the beginning of the 18th century. in fr. language and originally meant (which has survived to this day) a special type of art dating back to early history. periods. The appearance of plural research related to the history of art led to a narrowing of the concept of “A” to Greek-Roman. antiquities. A. as a cult. the legacy of Ancient Greece and Rome had a huge influence on politics. and religious thinking, literature and art, philosophy. and legal views of all the peoples of Europe and all of modern times. world. Moreover, in the Romanesque countries, mainly developed in Rome. traditions; In Germany, from the end of the Middle Ages, Greek became increasingly influential. culture, and the peoples of the East. Europe, Transcaucasia and certain regions of the Bl. The East was influenced by Byzantine culture. Humanistic began antique heritage more than once in history have become the ideological arsenal of progressive forces, for example, during the Renaissance, during the period of France. revolution and in the German era. classicism. Due to the great influence of antiquity. ideas and traditions per person society history classic. antiquity and other languages ​​occupied a special preserved during many. centuries place in Europe. science and education. V.I.Polishchuk

Excellent definition

Incomplete definition ↓

ANTIQUITY

lat. - antiquity, antiquity) - the civilization of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, considered as the initial era, the source, the basis of European and modern world civilization and culture in a number of eras: antiquity - the Middle Ages - Modern times. This point of view is due to the fact that antiquity formed a state structure that became a model for modern civilization - democracy, and in the process of its formation created a culture that became one of the most significant factors in subsequent world culture. Therefore, the heyday of Greek democracy (V - IV centuries BC) is usually assessed as the era of classical Greece. The time of the formation of democracy (VP - VI centuries BC) is called the archaic (i.e. initial, ancient) period, and the even earlier time of the beginning of the collapse of the clan community is called prehistoric, i.e. from which written evidence has not survived ( XI - VIII centuries BC) or "Homeric" (named after the creator of the great poems) period. The source of antiquity was the Cretan-Mycenaean civilization (3 - 2 thousand BC). The era of the decline of the Greek democratic states, but at the same time the spread of Greek civilization and culture from the Mediterranean basin to India (as a result of the conquests of Alexander the Great), is called the era of Hellenism (338 - 30 BC).