environmental factors. General patterns of action on organisms. Environmental environmental factors Environmental factors environmental conditions presentation
Ecology -
the science of the relationship of living organisms and their communities with each other and with the environment
The term " ecology"Proposed in 1866 by E. Haeckel.
Objects ecology may be populations of organisms, species, communities, ecosystems and the biosphere as a whole
Tasks of ecology
Studies the impact of the environment on plants and animals, populations, species and ecosystems
Studying the structure of the population and their number
The study of how living organisms interact with each other
Studies the impact of environmental factors on humans
Studies the productivity of ecosystems
Biotic - these are the types of influence on organisms from other animals.
Biotic factors
Direct
Indirect
Predator eats its prey
One organism changes the environment of another organism
Anthropogenic factors -
these are forms of human activity that have an impact on wildlife (every year these factors increase
The influence of environmental factors on the body
Environmental factors are constantly changing
Variability of factors
regular, periodic (seasonal temperature changes, low tides. high tides)
Irregular
(weather change, flooding, forest fires)
Numerous and diverse factors simultaneously influence the body.
Each species has its own endurance limits.
wide range endurance animals living in high latitudes have temperature fluctuations. Thus, Arctic foxes in the tundra can tolerate temperature fluctuations within 80 °C.
(from +30 to -45)
Lichens can withstand temperatures from
-70 to +60
Some species of oceanic fish are able to exist at temperatures from -2 to +2
THE ACTION OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR ON THE ORGANISM
Endurance range
organism
the value of the factor that is most favorable for the vital activity of growth and reproduction called the optimum zone
oppression
oppression
normal
vital activity
DEATH
DEATH
Between the optimum zone and extreme points there are zones of oppression or stress zones, which makes life worse
The extreme value of the factor beyond which conditions become unsuitable for life and causes death is the limit of endurance
Liebig (Liebig), justus, famous German chemist, 1803-73, professor of chemistry from 1824 in Giessen, from 1852 in Munich
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Subject Ecology Ecology is the science of the relationship of organisms with each other and with the environment (Greek oikos - dwelling; logos - science). The term was introduced in 1866 by the German zoologist E. Haeckel. Currently, ecology is a branched system of sciences: autecology studies the relationships in communities; population ecology studies the relationship of individuals of the same species in populations, the influence of the environment on populations, the relationship between populations; global ecology studies the biosphere and questions of its protection. Another approach in the division of ecology: ecology of microorganisms, ecology of fungi, ecology of plants, ecology of animals, ecology of man, space ecology.
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The tasks of ecology are to study the relationships of organisms; - to study the relationship between organisms and the environment; - to study the effect of the environment on the structure, life and behavior of organisms; - trace the influence of environmental factors on the distribution of species and the change of communities; - develop a system of measures for nature protection.
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The value of ecology - helps to determine the place of man in nature; - gives knowledge of environmental patterns, which allows predicting the consequences of human economic activity, correctly and rationally using natural resources; - environmental knowledge is necessary for the development of agriculture, medicine, for the development of measures to protect the environment.
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Methods of ecology observation comparison experiment mathematical modeling forecasting
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Principles of ecological classification Classification helps to identify possible ways of adaptation to the environment. Various criteria can be used as the basis for ecological classification: feeding methods, habitat, movement, attitude to temperature, humidity, pressure, light, etc.
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Classification of organisms according to the nature of nutrition 1. Autotrophs: 2. Heterotrophs: A). Phototrophs a) saprophytes B). Chemotrophs b) holozoans: - saprophages - phytophages - zoophages - necrophages
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Autotrophs are organisms that synthesize organic substances from inorganic substances. Phototrophs are autotrophic organisms that use the energy of sunlight to synthesize organic substances. Chemotrophs are autotrophic organisms that use chemical energy to synthesize organic substances; connections. Heterotrophs are organisms that feed on ready-made organic substances. Saprophytes are heterotrophs that use solutions of simple organic compounds. Holozoic are heterotrophs that have a complex of enzymes and can eat complex organic compounds, decomposing them into simple ones: Saprophages feed on dead plant residues; Phytophages are consumers of living plants; Zoophages eat living animals; Necrophages eat dead animals.
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The history of ecology A great influence on the development of ecology was exerted by: Aristotle (384-322 BC) - an ancient Greek scientist, described animals and their behavior, the confinement of organisms to habitats. K. Linney (1707-1778) - Swedish naturalist, emphasized the importance of climate in the life of organisms, studied the relationship of organisms. J.B. Lamarck (1744-1829) - French naturalist, author of the first evolutionary doctrine, believed that the influence of external circumstances is one of the most important causes of evolution. K. Rulye (1814-1858) - Russian scientist, believed that the structure and development of organisms depended on the environment, stressed the need to study evolution. C. Darwin (1809-1882) - English naturalist, founder of evolutionary doctrine. E. Haeckel (1834-1919) German biologist, introduced the term ecology in 1866. Ch. Elton (1900) - English scientist - the founder of population ecology. A. Tensley (1871-1955) English scientist, in 1935 introduced the concept of an ecosystem. VN Sukachev (1880-1967) Russian scientist, in 1942 introduced the concept of biogeocenoses. K.A. Timiryazev (1843-1920) - Russian scientist, devoted his life to the study of photosynthesis. V.V. Dokuchaev (1846-1903) - Russian soil scientist. VI Vernadsky (1863-1945) Russian scientist, founder of the doctrine of the biosphere as a global ecosystem.
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Habitat Habitat is everything that surrounds and affects an individual. Environmental factors: abiotic - factors of inanimate nature; biotic - factors of wildlife; anthropogenic - associated with human activities. The following main habitats can be distinguished: water, land-air, soil, organism.
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Aquatic environment In the aquatic environment, factors such as salt regime, water density, flow velocity, oxygen saturation, and soil properties are of great importance. The inhabitants of water bodies are called hydrobionts, among them there are: neuston - organisms that live near the surface film of water; plankton (phytoplankton and zooplankton) - suspended, "floating" in the water to the body; nekton - well-swimming inhabitants of the water column; benthos - bottom organisms.
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Soil environment Inhabitants of soils are called edaphobionts, or geobionts, for them the structure, chemical composition and soil moisture are of great importance.
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Ground-air environment For the inhabitants of the ground-air environment, the following are especially important: temperature, humidity, oxygen content, illumination.
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Each organism constantly exchanges substances with the environment and changes the environment itself. Many organisms live in multiple habitats. The ability of organisms to adapt to certain changes in the environment is called adaptation. But different organisms have different ability to withstand changes in living conditions (for example, fluctuations in temperature, light, etc.), i.e. have different tolerance - the range of stability. For example, there are: eurybionts - organisms with a wide range of tolerance, i.e. able to live under various environmental conditions (for example, carp); stenobionts are organisms with a narrow tolerance range that require strictly defined environmental conditions (for example, trout).
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The intensity of the factor, the most favorable for the life of the organism, is called optimal. Environmental factors that adversely affect the life activity, impede the existence of the species, are called limiting. The German chemist J. Liebig (1803-1873) formulated the law of the minimum: the successful functioning of a population or communities of living organisms depends on a set of conditions. A limiting, or limiting, factor is any state of the environment that approaches or goes beyond the stability limit for a given organism. The totality of all factors (conditions) and resources of the environment, within which a species can exist in nature, is called its ecological niche. It is very difficult, more often impossible, to characterize a completely ecological niche of an organism.
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Subject ecology
Ecology is the science of the relationship of organisms with each other and with the environment (Greek oikos - dwelling; logos - science). The term was introduced in 1866 by the German zoologist E. Haeckel. Currently, ecology is a branched system of sciences: autecology studies the relationships in communities; population ecology studies the relationship of individuals of the same species in populations, the influence of the environment on populations, the relationship between populations; global ecology studies the biosphere and questions of its protection. Another approach in the division of ecology: ecology of microorganisms, ecology of fungi, ecology of plants, ecology of animals, ecology of man, space ecology.
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Tasks of ecology
To study the relationships of organisms; - to study the relationship between organisms and the environment; - to study the effect of the environment on the structure, life and behavior of organisms; - trace the influence of environmental factors on the distribution of species and the change of communities; - develop a system of measures for nature protection.
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The value of ecology
Helps to determine the place of man in nature; - gives knowledge of environmental patterns, which allows predicting the consequences of human economic activity, correctly and rationally using natural resources; - environmental knowledge is necessary for the development of agriculture, medicine, for the development of measures to protect the environment.
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Ecology methods
observation comparison experiment mathematical modeling forecasting
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Principles of ecological classification
Classification helps to identify possible ways of adaptation to the environment. Various criteria can be used as the basis for ecological classification: feeding methods, habitat, movement, attitude to temperature, humidity, pressure, light, etc.
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Classification of organisms according to the nature of nutrition
1. Autotrophs: 2. Heterotrophs: A). Phototrophs a) saprophytes B). Chemotrophyb) holozoans: - saprophages - phytophages - zoophages - necrophages
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Autotrophs are organisms that synthesize organic substances from inorganic substances. Phototrophs are autotrophic organisms that use the energy of sunlight to synthesize organic substances. Chemotrophs are autotrophic organisms that use chemical energy to synthesize organic substances; connections. Heterotrophs are organisms that feed on ready-made organic substances. Saprophytes are heterotrophs that use solutions of simple organic compounds. Holozoic are heterotrophs that have a complex of enzymes and can eat complex organic compounds, decomposing them into simple ones: Saprophages feed on dead plant residues; Phytophages are consumers of living plants; Zoophages eat living animals; Necrophages eat dead animals.
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History of ecology
A great influence on the development of ecology had: Aristotle (384-322 BC) - an ancient Greek scientist, described animals and their behavior, the confinement of organisms to habitats. K. Linney (1707-1778) - Swedish naturalist, emphasized the importance of climate in the life of organisms, studied the relationship of organisms. J.B. Lamarck (1744-1829) - French naturalist, author of the first evolutionary doctrine, believed that the influence of external circumstances is one of the most important causes of evolution. K. Rulye (1814-1858) - Russian scientist, believed that the structure and development of organisms depended on the environment, stressed the need to study evolution. C. Darwin (1809-1882) - English naturalist, founder of evolutionary doctrine. E. Haeckel (1834-1919) German biologist, introduced the term ecology in 1866. Ch. Elton (1900) - English scientist - the founder of population ecology. A. Tensley (1871-1955) English scientist, in 1935 introduced the concept of an ecosystem. VN Sukachev (1880-1967) Russian scientist, in 1942 introduced the concept of biogeocenoses. K.A. Timiryazev (1843-1920) - Russian scientist, devoted his life to the study of photosynthesis. V.V. Dokuchaev (1846-1903) - Russian soil scientist. VI Vernadsky (1863-1945) Russian scientist, founder of the doctrine of the biosphere as a global ecosystem.
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Habitat
Habitat is everything that surrounds an individual (population, community) and affects it. Environmental factors: abiotic - factors of inanimate nature; biotic - factors of wildlife; anthropogenic - associated with human activities. The following main habitats can be distinguished: water, land-air, soil, living organisms.
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Water environment
In the aquatic environment, factors such as salt regime, water density, flow velocity, oxygen saturation, and soil properties are of great importance. The inhabitants of water bodies are called hydrobionts, among them there are: neuston - organisms that live near the surface film of water; plankton (phytoplankton and zooplankton) - suspended, "floating" in the water to the body; nekton - well-swimming inhabitants of the water column; benthos - bottom organisms.
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soil environment
The inhabitants of the soil are called edaphobionts, or geobionts, for them the structure, chemical composition and soil moisture are of great importance.
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Ground-air environment
For the inhabitants of the ground-air environment, the following are especially important: temperature, humidity, oxygen content, and illumination.
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Each organism constantly exchanges substances with the environment and changes the environment itself. Many organisms live in multiple habitats. The ability of organisms to adapt to certain changes in the environment is called adaptation. But different organisms have different ability to withstand changes in living conditions (for example, fluctuations in temperature, light, etc.), i.e. have different tolerance - the range of stability. For example, there are: eurybionts - organisms with a wide range of tolerance, i.e. able to live under various environmental conditions (for example, carp); stenobionts are organisms with a narrow tolerance range that require strictly defined environmental conditions (for example, trout).
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The intensity of the factor, the most favorable for the life of the organism, is called optimal. Environmental factors that adversely affect the life activity, impede the existence of the species, are called limiting. The German chemist J. Liebig (1803-1873) formulated the law of the minimum: the successful functioning of a population or communities of living organisms depends on a set of conditions. A limiting, or limiting, factor is any state of the environment that approaches or goes beyond the stability limit for a given organism. The totality of all factors (conditions) and resources of the environment, within which a species can exist in nature, is called its ecological niche. It is very difficult, more often impossible, to characterize a completely ecological niche of an organism.
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Habitat adaptations
Adaptations can be morphological, physiological and behavioral.
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Morphological adaptations
Morphological adaptations are manifested in a change in the shape and structure of organisms. For example, the development of thick and long fur in mammals when raised at low temperatures; Mimicry is the imitation of one species by another in color and shape. Often organisms with different evolutionary origins are endowed with common structural features. Convergence - the convergence of features (similarity in structure), which arose under the influence of relatively identical conditions of existence in different organisms. For example, the shape of the body and limbs of a shark and a dolphin.
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Physiological adaptations
Physiological adaptations are manifested in a change in the vital processes of the body, for example, the ability to thermoregulate in endothermic (warm-blooded) animals, which are able to receive heat due to biochemical reactions
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Behavioral adaptations
Behavioral adaptations are often associated with physiological ones, such as suspended animation, migration.
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Many adaptations have developed in organisms under the influence of seasonal and diurnal rhythms, such as leaf fall, nocturnal and diurnal lifestyle. The response of organisms to the length of daylight hours, which has developed in connection with seasonal changes, is called photoperiodism. Under the influence of ecological rhythms, organisms have developed a kind of "biological clock" that provides orientation in time, preparation for expected changes. For example, flowers bloom at a time when optimal humidity, light and other conditions for pollination are usually observed: poppy - from 5 to 14-15 hours; dandelion - from 5-6 to 14-15; calendula - from 9 to 16-18; wild rose - from 4-5 to 19-20
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Subject Ecology Ecology is the science of the relationship of organisms with each other and with the environment (Greek oikos - dwelling; logos - science). The term was introduced in 1866 by the German zoologist E. Haeckel. Currently, ecology is a branched system of sciences: autecology studies the relationships in communities; population ecology studies the relationship of individuals of the same species in populations, the influence of the environment on populations, the relationship between populations; global ecology studies the biosphere and questions of its protection. Another approach in the division of ecology: ecology of microorganisms, ecology of fungi, ecology of plants, ecology of animals, ecology of man, space ecology.
The tasks of ecology are to study the relationships of organisms; - to study the relationship between organisms and the environment; - to study the effect of the environment on the structure, life and behavior of organisms; - trace the influence of environmental factors on the distribution of species and the change of communities; - develop a system of measures for nature protection.
The value of ecology - helps to determine the place of man in nature; - gives knowledge of environmental patterns, which allows predicting the consequences of human economic activity, correctly and rationally using natural resources; - environmental knowledge is necessary for the development of agriculture, medicine, for the development of measures to protect the environment.
Principles of ecological classification Classification helps to identify possible ways of adaptation to the environment. Various criteria can be used as the basis for ecological classification: feeding methods, habitat, movement, attitude to temperature, humidity, pressure, light, etc.
Autotrophs are organisms that synthesize organic substances from inorganic substances. Phototrophs are autotrophic organisms that use the energy of sunlight to synthesize organic substances. Chemotrophs are autotrophic organisms that use chemical energy to synthesize organic substances; connections. Heterotrophs are organisms that feed on ready-made organic substances. Saprophytes are heterotrophs that use solutions of simple organic compounds. Holozoic are heterotrophs that have a complex of enzymes and can eat complex organic compounds, decomposing them into simple ones: Saprophages feed on dead plant residues; Phytophages are consumers of living plants; Zoophages eat living animals; Necrophages eat dead animals.
History of ecology A great influence on the development of ecology was exerted by: Aristotle (BC) - an ancient Greek scientist, described animals and their behavior, the confinement of organisms to habitats. K. Linnaeus () - a Swedish naturalist, emphasized the importance of climate in the life of organisms, studied the relationship of organisms. J.B. Lamarck () - French naturalist, author of the first evolutionary doctrine, believed that the influence of external circumstances is one of the most important causes of evolution. K. Ruler () - a Russian scientist, believed that the structure and development of organisms depended on the environment, emphasized the need to study evolution. C. Darwin () - English naturalist, founder of evolutionary doctrine. E. Haeckel () German biologist, in 1866 introduced the term ecology. Ch. Elton (1900) - English scientist - the founder of population ecology. A. Tensley () an English scientist, in 1935 introduced the concept of an ecosystem. V. N. Sukachev () Russian scientist, in 1942 introduced the concept of biogeocenoses. K. A. Timiryazev () - Russian scientist, devoted his life to the study of photosynthesis. V. V. Dokuchaev () - Russian scientist - soil scientist. V. I. Vernadsky () Russian scientist, founder of the doctrine of the biosphere as a global ecosystem.
Habitat Habitat is everything that surrounds an individual (population, community) and affects it. Environmental factors: abiotic - factors of inanimate nature; biotic - factors of wildlife; anthropogenic - associated with human activities. The following main habitats can be distinguished: aquatic, terrestrial - air, soil, living organisms.
Aquatic environment In the aquatic environment, factors such as salt regime, water density, flow velocity, oxygen saturation, and soil properties are of great importance. The inhabitants of water bodies are called hydrobionts, among them there are: neuston - organisms that live near the surface film of water; plankton (phytoplankton and zooplankton) - suspended, "floating" in the water to the body; nekton - well-swimming inhabitants of the water column; benthos - bottom organisms.
Each organism constantly exchanges substances with the environment and changes the environment itself. Many organisms live in multiple habitats. The ability of organisms to adapt to certain changes in the environment is called adaptation. But different organisms have a different ability to withstand changes in living conditions (for example, fluctuations in temperature, light, etc.), that is, they have different tolerance - a range of stability. For example, there are: eurybionts - organisms with a wide range of tolerance, that is, capable of living under various environmental conditions (for example, carp); stenobionts are organisms with a narrow tolerance range that require strictly defined environmental conditions (for example, trout).
The intensity of the factor, the most favorable for the life of the organism, is called optimal. Environmental factors that adversely affect the life activity, impede the existence of the species, are called limiting. The German chemist J. Liebig () formulated the law of the minimum: the successful functioning of a population or communities of living organisms depends on a set of conditions. A limiting, or limiting, factor is any state of the environment that approaches or goes beyond the stability limit for a given organism. The totality of all factors (conditions) and resources of the environment, within which a species can exist in nature, is called its ecological niche. It is very difficult, more often impossible, to characterize a completely ecological niche of an organism.
Morphological adaptations Morphological adaptations are manifested in changes in the shape and structure of organisms. For example, the development of thick and long fur in mammals when raised at low temperatures; Mimicry is the imitation of one species by another in color and shape. Often organisms with different evolutionary origins are endowed with common structural features. Convergence - the convergence of features (similarity in structure), which arose under the influence of relatively identical conditions of existence in different organisms. For example, the shape of the body and limbs of a shark and a dolphin.
Physiological adaptations Physiological adaptations are manifested in a change in the vital processes of the organism, for example, the ability to thermoregulate in endothermic (warm-blooded) animals that are able to receive heat due to biochemical reactions 25 Many adaptations have developed in organisms under the influence of seasonal and daily rhythms, for example, leaf fall, night and day Lifestyle. The response of organisms to the length of daylight hours, which has developed in connection with seasonal changes, is called photoperiodism. Under the influence of ecological rhythms, organisms have developed a kind of "biological clock" that provides orientation in time, preparation for expected changes. For example, flowers bloom at a time when optimal humidity, light and other conditions for pollination are usually observed: poppy - from 5 to 12 hours; dandelion - from 5-6 to o'clock; calendula - from 9 to o'clock; wild rose - from 4-5 a.m.
Temperature. Any organism is able to live only within a certain temperature range. Somewhere within this interval, the temperature conditions are most favorable for the existence of a given organism. As the temperature approaches the boundaries of the interval, the speed of life processes slows down and, finally, they stop altogether - the organism dies.
For most of its history, wildlife was represented exclusively by aquatic forms of organisms. Having conquered the land, they nevertheless did not lose their dependence on water. Water is an integral part of the vast majority of living beings: it is necessary for their normal functioning. A normally developing organism constantly loses water and therefore cannot live in absolutely dry air. Sooner or later, such losses can lead to the death of the body. Water
Plants take in water using their roots. Lichens can capture water vapor from the air. Plants have a number of adaptations that ensure minimal water loss. All land animals need a periodic supply of water to compensate for the loss of water. Many animals drink water; others, such as amphibians, absorb it through the integument of the body. Most desert animals never drink.
Important are the so-called secondary climatic factors, such as wind, atmospheric pressure, altitude. The wind has an indirect effect: by increasing evaporation, it increases dryness. This action is important in cold places, in the highlands or in the polar regions.
General Laws of the Action of Environmental Factors on the Organism The law of optimum (lat. Optimum - "the best") reflects the reaction of species to a change in the strength of any factor. There are certain limits of action of each factor, within which the viability of organisms increases. This is the optimum zone. With deviations from this zone in the direction of decreasing or increasing the force of the impact of the factor, the viability of organisms decreases. This is a zone of oppression, or pessimum (lat. pessimus - "very bad"). If the action of the factor goes beyond certain, minimum or maximum limits possible for the species, the organisms die. The destructive value of the factor is called the critical point.
The law of optimum is of great practical importance. There are no entirely positive or negative factors, it all depends on their dosage. All forms of influence of the environment on organisms have a purely quantitative expression. In order to control the vital activity of a species, one should first of all prevent various environmental factors from going beyond their critical values and try to maintain the optimum zone. This is very important for crop production, animal husbandry, forestry and, in general, all areas of human interaction with wildlife. The same rule applies to the person himself, especially in the field of medicine.
The use of the law of optimum is complicated by the fact that the optimal dosages of factors are different for each species. What is good for one species may be pessimistic or beyond critical limits for another. For example, at a temperature of 20 ° C, a tropical monkey shivers from the cold, and the northern inhabitant - the polar bear - languishes from the heat. Moth moths are still fluttering in November (at 6°C) when most other insects go into a torpor. Rice is grown in fields flooded with water, and wheat in such conditions gets wet and dies.
The law of ecological individuality of species reflects the diversity of the relationship of organisms with the environment. It testifies that in nature there are no two species with a complete coincidence of optima and critical points in relation to a set of environmental factors. If the species coincide in resistance to one factor, then they will certainly disperse in resistance to another. Ignorance of the law of ecological individuality of species, for example, in agricultural production, can lead to the death of organisms. When using mineral fertilizers, pesticides, these substances are often applied in excessive amounts, regardless of the individual needs of plants.
The law of the limiting factor The law of the limiting factor is closely related to the law of optimum and follows from it. There are no entirely negative or positive factors in the environment: everything depends on the strength of their action. Living beings are simultaneously affected by many factors, and besides, most of them are changeable. But in each specific period of time, one can single out the most important factor on which life depends to the greatest extent. It turns out to be the environmental factor that deviates the most from the optimum, i.e. limits the life of organisms in this period. Any factor influencing organisms can become either optimal or limiting, depending on the strength of its influence.
The law of indispensability of factors indicates that it is impossible to completely replace one factor with another. But often, with the complex influence of factors, one can see the substitution effect. For example, light cannot be replaced by excess heat or carbon dioxide, but by acting on changes in temperature, photosynthesis can be increased in plants. However, this is not a replacement of one factor by another, but a manifestation of a similar biological effect caused by changes in the quantitative indicators of the combined action of factors. This phenomenon is widely used in agriculture. For example, in greenhouses to produce products, they create an increased content of carbon dioxide and moisture in the air, heating, and thereby partly compensate for the lack of light in autumn and winter.
In the action of environmental factors on the planet, there is a periodicity associated with the time of day, the seasons of the year, sea tides and the phases of the moon. This periodicity is due to cosmic reasons - the movement of the Earth around its axis, around the Sun and interaction with the Moon. Life on Earth is adapted to this constantly existing rhythm, which is manifested in changes in the state and behavior of organisms.
The length of daylight is the only accurate signal of the approach of winter or spring, i.e. changes in the whole complex of environmental factors. Weather conditions are deceptive. Therefore, plants, for example, reacting to the length of the day, do not open their leaves during winter thaws and do not turn to leaf fall during short-term summer frosts. Plants also bloom at a certain length of the day. Plant flowering is one of the manifestations of photoperiodism. This is a common problem for growers. Therefore, among plants, it is important to distinguish between short-day and long-day species or varieties. Long-day plants are distributed mainly in temperate and subpolar latitudes, and short-day plants in areas closer to the equator.
Questions 1. What are environmental factors? 2. What groups are environmental factors divided into? 3. What is called environmental conditions? 4. What is the essence of the law of optimum? What value does it have? 5. Why is it necessary to take into account the law of ecological individuality of species? 6. What is the limiting factor? 7. What is the essence of the law of joint action of factors? 8. What is the substitution effect? 9. What is photoperiodism?
