Philippine Democratic People's Power Party. Philippines: history, population, government and political system. Philippines - US possession
Principles of public administration based on the election of government bodies and the separation of its branches - legislative, executive, judicial. The highest body of legislative power is the bicameral Congress. The upper house - the Senate (24 senators aged at least 35 years), is elected for 6 years with by-elections every 3 years and the right to re-election for a second term.
Head of the upper house Senate President elected by senators. The House of Representatives (head - speaker) is elected for 3 years, consisting of no more than 250 deputies (from the age of 25) with the right to re-election for 3 terms. The President of the Philippines has the supreme executive power (the age for election is not younger than 40 years, residence in the Philippines for at least 10 years before the election).
The president(and vice-president with him) is elected for 6 years without the right to re-election for a second term. At the same time, he is the head of state, government (forms a cabinet responsible to him), supreme commander. The president cannot dissolve parliament, but has the power of veto when bills pass through congress. In extreme situations, the president has the right to declare a state of emergency for a period limited by Congress.
In the Philippines operates universal suffrage for all citizens over 18 years of age. The electoral system of the Philippines is of a mixed type, including elements of the majoritarian (election of the president, vice president, and senators by direct secret ballot of the all-Philippine electorate) and a modified proportional system. Elements of the latter are present in elections to the lower house (the principle of proportional representation in voting by constituencies and party lists).
Save to political system of the Philippines stereotypes of traditional political culture (clan in politics, the system of paternalistic vertical ties, etc.) negatively affects the electoral system. The Philippines is among the developing countries with a consistently high rate of electoral law violations - the practice of vote trading, ballot fraud, pressure from above on the electorate, outbreaks of open violence.
Local authorities- provincial governors, city mayors, provincial legislative assemblies, municipal councils - are formed on the basis of the same electoral system as the highest authorities. The principles of decentralized management have been introduced locally, the authorities have been given broad powers in the field of budgetary, tax policy, etc.
Their activities are controlled congress(a source of corruption among both congressmen and local leaders). The Philippines is also characterized by the unformed multi-party system, which includes fragile conglomerates of parties of the traditional type (associations around leaders, not programs).
Two former leading parties - Nationalists(founded in 1907) and liberal(founded in 1946) - could not consolidate after dispersal during the years of authoritarianism, at present they are weak formations and factions in both pro-government and opposition coalitions and blocs.
F. is a democratic unitary state, a republic with a presidential form of government. The Constitution, adopted in 1987, is in force. Administratively, France is divided into provinces (73) united into 17 administrative and economic regions, municipalities, and barangays (rural districts). Large provinces: Pampanga, Rizal, Quezon, Ilocos (North and South), Cebu, Iloilo, Maguindanao, etc. Large cities: Greater Manila, Davao, Cebu, Iloilo, etc.
The principles of public administration are based on the election of government bodies and the separation of its branches - legislative, executive, judicial. The highest body of legislative power is the bicameral Congress. The upper house - the senate (24 senators aged at least 35 years), is elected for 6 years with mid-term elections every 3 years and the right to re-election for a second term. The head of the upper house is the president of the senate, elected by the senators. The House of Representatives (head - speaker) is elected for 3 years, consisting of no more than 250 deputies (from the age of 25) with the right to re-election for 3 terms. The president of F. has the supreme executive power (the age for election is not younger than 40 years, residence in F. for at least 10 years before the elections). The president (and vice president with him) is elected for 6 years without the right to re-election for a second term. At the same time, he is the head of state, government (forms a cabinet responsible to him), and supreme commander. The president cannot dissolve parliament, but has the power of veto when bills pass through congress. In extreme situations, the president has the right to declare a state of emergency for a period limited by Congress.
F. has universal suffrage for all citizens from the age of 18. The electoral system of F. is of a mixed type, including elements of the majoritarian (election of the president - vice president, as well as senators by direct secret ballot of the all-Philippine electorate) and a modified proportional system. Elements of the latter are present in elections to the lower house (the principle of proportional representation in voting by constituencies and party lists). The persistence of the stereotypes of traditional political culture in the political system of F. (clan politics, the system of paternalistic vertical ties, etc.) negatively affects the electoral system. F. are among the developing countries with a consistently high level of violations of the electoral law - the practice of vote trading, ballot falsification, pressure from above on the electorate, outbreaks of open violence, etc.
Prominent presidents: M. Quezon (1935-44), president of autonomous F., known for the unique phenomenon of mass popularity, combined with a rigid style of government, pro-Americanism, and anti-communism; F. Marcos (1965-86), who failed the program of modernization, but deserves attention due to the reorientation of F.'s unilateral pro-American foreign policy towards expanding cooperation and partnership with Asian states; F. Ramos (1992-98), pragmatist and intellectual who achieved success in economic modernization and stabilization of society without breaking democratic structures and legal orders.
Local authorities - governors of provinces, mayors of cities, provincial legislative assemblies, municipal councils - are formed on the basis of the same system of elections as the highest authorities. The principles of decentralized management have been introduced locally, the authorities have been given broad powers in the field of budgetary, tax policy, etc. Their activities are controlled by Congress (a source of corruption among both Congressmen and local leaders).
F. is characterized by the unformed multi-party system, which includes fragile conglomerates of parties of the traditional type (associations around leaders, not programs). The two leading parties in the past - the Nationalists (founded in 1907) and the Liberal (founded in 1946) - could not consolidate after being dispersed during the years of authoritarianism, at present they are weak formations and factions in both pro-government and opposition coalitions and blocs. The pro-presidential coalition "Lakas" ("Power of the people") unites several parties and blocs, incl. such as the "National Union of Christian Democrats", "Struggle for Philippine Democracy", "Provincial Development Party", etc. Opponents of "Lacas" - "Party of the Masses" of ex-president Estrada, "People's Reform Party", etc. The left flank of the opposition - the legal "Party of Workers" (founded in 2001) with a program of peaceful forms of struggle for the interests of workers. Left radical illegal, operating from con. 1960s the Communist Party of F. (left), leads the armed guerrilla of the New People's Army and is a member of the National Democratic Front.
Leading business organizations: F. Chamber of Industry and Commerce; Federation of Philippine-Chinese Chambers of Commerce and Industry.
Active elements of civil society are non-governmental organizations (NGOs), their development is encouraged by the state, in particular, in the form of financial support. The fields of activity of NGOs are environmental protection, work to improve the life of peasants, etc. Participate in politics: in elections and as organizers of mass peaceful demonstrations with a pro- and anti-government orientation. Anti-globalization organizations are in the process of formation, they adhere to the tactics of non-violent actions. Large NGOs in F.: "Movement for the Transformation of the Village", "Forum of the Greens", etc.
The main tasks in the field of domestic policy of the F. - the implementation of the modernization of the economy as the basis for the stabilization of society; consolidation of the political elite around the presidential reform program, suppression of the opposition, especially its extremist movements. None of these tasks are performed. Criticism of President Arroyo for indecision in the fight against corruption, kronism, inability to solve the problem of poverty and eliminate the hotbed of violence in the Muslim South comes not only from her opponents, but also from her inner circle (representatives of the middle class, the leadership of the Catholic Church, the military elite). The internal political state of F. remains uncertain and unstable.
The formation of F.'s foreign policy and the adoption of foreign policy decisions are concentrated in the hands of the president (maximum authority), the F. Foreign Ministry, its head (often also vice president), the Security Council, and the National Intelligence Coordination Agency. Under the Constitution of 1987, the role of the Congress in shaping the foreign policy course was strengthened (international agreements come into force only after they are ratified by 2/3 of the members of the Senate). Since the presidency of Marcos, F.'s foreign policy has been based on subjectivity in international relations, the priority of the tasks of ensuring national interests, and the independence and versatility of diplomacy. With a multipolar system of foreign policy relations, F. pays special attention to active equal participation in regional affairs and new integration processes in the SEEA region. At the same time, the political elite of F. never faced the question of abandoning the priority of relations with the United States (weakened in the early 1990s after the withdrawal of American military bases from F.) as a guarantor of regional and national security. Under the Arroyo government, the US military presence in the archipelago has been restored, so far in a format that does not violate the F. Constitution. Since the US included F. in the zone of international terrorism, Arroyo invited American military advisers and counterterrorism experts to help local troops in operations against Muslim separatists. The strengthening of pro-Americanism in F.'s foreign policy worries their ASEAN partners (especially Muslim countries) and causes an increase in anti-Americanism among Filipinos, who fear the possibility of direct American participation in military operations (in violation of the Constitution). Meanwhile, the Muslim South is still far from peace. One of the reasons is the low professionalism and outdated technical equipment of the army of F., the weakest in the ASEAN countries. The army in F. is regular, formed partly on the basis of universal military service (from the age of 20), partly from persons hired for 3 years under contracts. It consists of the Ground Forces, the Air Force and the Navy. The total number is less than 200 thousand people. The Constitution fixes the priority of civil power over the Armed Forces, the military cannot engage in business and politics (except for participation in elections). But among a part of the officer corps, dissatisfaction with the inefficiency of state policy is brewing, so attempts at military conspiracies and rebellions are not ruled out (such precedents have already happened during the years of C. Aquino's presidency).
F. have diplomatic relations with the Russian Federation (established with the USSR in 1976).
After gaining independence in 1946, the Philippines had a two-party system: the Liberal Party (ruling in 1946-1954 and 1961-1965) and the Nationalist Party (in power in 1954-1961 and since 1965) were in power. In 1972, political activity was banned by President Ferdinand Marcos, who declared a state of emergency, and in 1978 created a new ruling party, the Movement for a New Society. After the overthrow of the Marcos regime in 1986, a multi-party system was restored. However, the alignment of political forces has changed.
The following political forces currently operate in the Philippines: "People Power - Christian and Muslim Democrats" - a political coalition formed in 1992 as the People Power - National Union of Christian Democrats bloc, which was later joined by the United Muslim Democrats of the Philippines party . She was in power in 1992-1998 (President Fidel Ramos), but her candidate was defeated in the 1998 presidential election. She returned to power in 2001, when President Joseph Estrada was removed from power and the powers of the head of state were transferred to Vice President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo. In the 2004 elections, Power of the People - KMD led the coalition of Truth and Experience for the Future (Four Ks), which won the presidential election. The party has 93 seats in the House of Representatives and 7 seats in the Senate. Leaders - Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo (President), F. Ramos, Jose de Venezia.
The Nationalist People's Coalition (NPC) is a conservative political organization founded before the 1992 elections. Since 2000, she has supported the government of Gloria Macanagal-Arroyo, and joined the Four K coalition. Has 53 seats in the House of Representatives. Leaders - Eduardo Cojuangco, Frisco San Juan.
Liberal Party (LP) - founded in 1946. It is part of the Liberal International, a member of the ruling Four K coalition. It has 34 seats in the House of Representatives and 3 seats in the Senate. Leaders - Franklin Drilon, Jose Atienza.
The Nationalist Party is the oldest political party in the country, founded in 1907 and leading the struggle for the independence of the Philippines. Takes a conservative position. It is a member of the ruling Four K coalition. Leader - Manuel Villar.
People's Reform Party (PRP) - formed before the 1992 elections to support the presidential candidacy of the former judge Maria Defensor-Santiago, who became famous for fighting corruption. It is a member of the ruling Four K coalition. In the 2004 elections, she received 1 of 12 elected seats in the Senate.
The Fighting Democratic Filipinos (BDF) is a conservative party that took shape in 1988 as the main support of President Corazon Aquino (1986-1992). In 1992, the party was defeated in the elections, although it retained influence in Congress. In 2003, it split into factions of Edgaro Angara and Aquino-Panfilo Lacson. In the 2004 elections, the Angara faction led the opposition United Filipinos Coalition. Lakson's faction acted independently. The party has 11 seats in the House of Representatives. In the 2004 elections, the Angara faction won 1 out of 12 elected seats in the Senate.
The Philippine Mass Party (PFM) is a populist party founded in the early 1990s by supporters of the famous actor Joseph Estrada (president of the country in 1998-2001). In 2001, she went into opposition, in 2004 she joined the United Filipinos Coalition, has 2 seats in the Senate. Leaders - Joseph Estrada, Juan Ponce Enrile.
The Philippine Democratic Party - Struggle is a centrist party founded in 1982. In 2004, she joined the opposition United Filipinos Coalition and won 1 of 12 elected seats in the Senate. Leader - Aquilino Pimentel.
The Alliance of Hope is an opposition coalition created for the 2004 elections by the centrist parties that supported President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo until 2003. It included the Democratic Action Party (leader - Paul Roko), the Reform Party (leader - Renato de Villa) and the Party for the Primary Development of the Provinces (leader - Lito Osmeña).
The following parties also legally operate: the Movement "Arise, Philippines" (leader - Eduardo Villanueva), "One Nation, One Spirit" Party (leaders - Rodolfo Pajo, Eddie Gil), Movement for a New Society (party of former supporters of F. Marcos), centrist Progressive Party, Green Party, left-wing Civil Action Party, Nation First (legal branch of the Communist Party, formed in 1999), Workers' Party, Trotskyist Revolutionary Labor Party, etc.
The Filigtin Communist Party (CPF) is a Maoist party founded in 1968 by splinter groups from the pro-Soviet Communist Party (established in 1930). He advocates under the slogans of Marxism-Leninism, leads an insurgent armed struggle to overthrow the existing regime of the Philippines. He heads the "New People's Army", which has up to 11 thousand fighters and operates mainly on the island of Luzon.
The official name is the Republic of the Philippines (Republika сg Pilipinas, Republic of the Philippines). They are located on 7107 islands of the Philippine archipelago southeast of the Eurasian continent. The area is 300.8 thousand km2, the population is 84.5 million people. The official language is Filipino; the official languages are Filipino and English. The capital is Greater Manila, since 1975 it has consisted of Manila itself and 16 satellite cities with a population of 9.2 million people. (2002). Public holiday - Independence Day June 12 (since 1970). The monetary unit is the peso (equal to 100 centavos). The Philippines claims ownership of 8 islands of the Spratly archipelago in the South China Sea.
Member of the UN (since 1945) and its committees and organizations, as well as the IMF, IBRD, APEC, ASEAN (1967), etc.
Sights of the Philippines
Geography of the Philippines
Located between 21°25' and 4°23' north latitude and 116°40' and 127° east longitude. They are washed by the waters of the Pacific Ocean and the South China Sea. 100 km from the archipelago in the Pacific Ocean is the Philippine Trench with a depth of 10,789 m. The coastline is approx. 18 thousand km is indented, there are few good harbors. The largest islands are Luzon (105 thousand km2) and Mindanao (95 thousand km2). All borders are maritime: with Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia and the island of Taiwan. More than 3/4 of the territory of the Philippines - mountains and hills. The largest mountain system is the Central Cordillera (with the highest point of 2934 m) on the island of Luzon. The highest point in the Philippines is the Apo volcano (2954 m) on the island of Mindanao. Lowland - narrow strips along the coasts or along the course of rivers. The largest plains are the Central, or Manila, on the island of Luzon and Cotabato on the island of Mindanao. There are few lakes, the largest are Laguna de Bai, Taal and Lanao. St. 400 rivers, mostly small, they are rapids and stormy; the largest - Cotabato (550 km) and Cagayan (350 km) are navigable in the lower reaches. 5 inter-island seas - Sibuyan, Samar, Visayan, Kamote and Mindanao (the last deepest - 1975 m). Lateritic soils predominate. Among the 10 thousand plant species, more than 9 thousand are higher, 40% of the species are endemic, 5.5 million hectares are covered with forest. The fauna is peculiar: a large percentage of endemics, no large mammals, more than 450 species of birds. The seas are rich in fish - more than 2 thousand species; mother-of-pearl and pearls are obtained from some shells. Large deposits of copper ore (probable reserves in metal 9.2 million tons), chromites (10-15 million tons), gold ore (14 million tons), iron (590 million tons), nickel (3 million tons in metal). Fuel and energy resources do not meet the needs of the country, oil is imported. The climate is maritime tropical monsoon type. The annual rainfall is from 1000 to 4500 mm, the annual air temperature is approx. +27°С with fluctuation amplitude of 2-4°С. The archipelago is prone to typhoons.
Population of the Philippines
Since the 1970s the population doubled, and the annual growth rate fell from 2.9% to 1.1%. Infant mortality 31 people per 1000 newborns (2001). 59% of the total population lives in cities. There are slightly more men than women. Average life expectancy is 69 years. The population is young. Nearly 95% of the population over the age of 15 is literate. More than ½ of Filipinos speak English.
The population is polyethnic - up to 100 ethnic groups; large - Bisayans (1/3 of the population), Tagals (1/4 of the population; play a leading role in the life of the country), Ilokans, Bikols. The indigenous population is anthropologically homogeneous, belongs to the South Asian variety of the Mongoloid race, speaks almost 100 related languages (the Philippine group of the western branch of the Austronesian language family). Of the small nationalities, the Aeta, or Negrito, stand out - the descendants of the Negro-Australoid aborigines of the equatorial race. Of the non-indigenous people, the Chinese predominate. According to the Constitution, the church is separated from the state, freedom of religion is confirmed. The vast majority of the population are Christians, of which St. 80% are Catholics (they were converted to Catholicism by the Spaniards in the 17th century), more than 5% are Protestants, 5-6% are Muslims, approx. 2% - animists, etc.
History of the Philippines
From antiquity to the beginning of European expansion (the last quarter of the 16th century), the Philippines was a peripheral part of the cultural and historical Malay-Indonesian area. Since the 1580s to con. 1890s Philippines - a colony of Spain, freed from colonial dependence as a result of the national revolution of 1896-98. With the victory of the rebels in 1898, the First Independent Republic was formed and the democratic Constitution of 1898 was adopted. In the same year, under the terms of the Paris Peace Treaty, which ended the Spanish-American War of 1898, the Philippines became a colony of the United States. Since 1901 and almost the entire 1st floor. 20th century The Philippines is a colony of the United States, which proclaimed a liberal course to prepare Filipinos for self-government (in particular, they introduced a system of elections and parties since 1907). Since 1934, the United States introduced an autonomy regime in the Philippines - a 10-year "transitional period" before full sovereignty. The Constitution was adopted in 1935, and the Filipino President M. Quezon (1935-44) was elected. In 1941-45 the Philippines survived the Japanese occupation. After the expulsion of the invaders (spring 1945) - the beginning of decolonization. In April 1946 - the election of the first president of the independent Philippines - M. Rojas (1946-48), protege of the United States, a politician of an extremely conservative persuasion. The American model of decolonization, which in many ways infringed on the sovereignty of the Philippines, did not suit the majority of Filipinos. Social tension resulted in a bloody peasant war of 1948-53, led by the communists. The decisive role in defeating the uprising was played by R. Magsaysay, from 1950 - Minister of Defense, then President of the Philippines (1954-57). All R. 1950s - ser. 60s in the Philippines, a kind of facade "oligarchic" democracy was established (real power is in the hands of several landowning clans who manipulated democratic laws and institutions). Since 1965, the President of the Philippines, F. Marcos, was re-elected in 1969. In September 1972, he introduced a state of emergency in the Philippines, establishing a regime of personal power. His plans for accelerated modernization were not implemented due to the growth of corruption, kronism, and the crisis in the economy (the turn of the 1970s and 80s). In February 1986, the dictatorship was destroyed as a result of mass bloodless actions in Manila of opponents of authoritarianism (the "power of the people" revolution). For the first time in the history of the Philippines, a woman became president - K. Aquino (1986-92). In 1987 a democratic constitution was adopted. Otherwise, the deepening of the crisis in the economy and destabilization continued. The 1992 elections were won by F. Ramos (1992-98), the only one of the "post-authoritarian" leaders who managed to stabilize the situation. In contrast to the reformer Ramos, the 1998 elections were won by a populist, former film actor J. Estrada, convicted of corruption and removed from power in 2000 (the People Power-2 revolution). Since January 2001, the President of the Philippines has again been a female politician, G. Macapagal-Arroyo. Her government received a heavy legacy from J. Estrada, and so far attempts to improve the economy and resume the course of modernization have been ineffective.
State structure and political system of the Philippines
The Philippines is a democratic unitary state, a republic with a presidential form of government. The Constitution adopted in 1987 is in force. Administratively, the Philippines is divided into provinces (73), united in 17 administrative and economic regions, municipalities, barangays (rural districts). Large provinces: Pampanga, Rizal, Quezon, Ilocos (North and South), Cebu, Iloilo, Maguindanao, etc. Large cities: Greater Manila, Davao, Cebu, Iloilo, etc.
The principles of public administration are based on the election of government bodies and the separation of its branches - legislative, executive, judicial. The highest body of legislative power is the bicameral Congress. The upper house - the Senate (24 senators aged at least 35), is elected for 6 years with by-elections every 3 years and the right to re-election for a second term. The head of the upper house is the president of the senate, who is elected by the senators. The House of Representatives (head - speaker) is elected for 3 years, consisting of no more than 250 deputies (from the age of 25) with the right to re-election for 3 terms. The President of the Philippines has the supreme executive power (the age for election is not younger than 40 years, residence in the Philippines for at least 10 years before the election). The President (and together with him the Vice President) is elected for 6 years without the right to re-election for a second term. At the same time, he is the head of state, government (forms a cabinet responsible to him), supreme commander. The president cannot dissolve parliament, but has the power of veto when bills pass through congress. In extreme situations, the president has the right to declare a state of emergency for a period limited by Congress.
The Philippines has universal suffrage for all citizens from the age of 18. The electoral system of the Philippines is of a mixed type, including elements of the majoritarian (election of the president - vice president, as well as senators by direct secret ballot of the all-Philippine electorate) and a modified proportional system. Elements of the latter are present in elections to the lower house (the principle of proportional representation in voting by constituencies and party lists). Preservation in the political system of the Philippines stereotypes of traditional political culture (clan in politics, the system of paternalistic vertical ties, etc.) has a negative impact on the electoral system. The Philippines is among the developing countries with a consistently high rate of electoral law violations - the practice of vote trading, ballot fraud, pressure from above on the electorate, outbreaks of open violence, and so on.
Outstanding presidents: President of the autonomous Philippines - M. Quezon (1935-44), known for the unique phenomenon of mass popularity, combined with a tough style of government, pro-Americanism and anti-communism; F. Marcos (1965-86), who failed the modernization program, but deserves attention by reorienting the unilateral pro-American foreign policy of the Philippines towards expanding cooperation and partnership with Asian states; F. Ramos (1992-98), pragmatist and intellectual who achieved success in economic modernization and stabilization of society without breaking democratic structures and legal orders.
Local authorities - governors of provinces, mayors of cities, provincial legislative assemblies, municipal councils - are formed on the basis of the same system of elections as the highest authorities. The principles of decentralized management have been introduced locally, the authorities have been given broad powers in the field of budgetary, tax policy, etc. Their activities are controlled by Congress (a source of corruption among both Congressmen and local leaders).
The Philippines is characterized by an unformed multi-party system, which includes fragile conglomerates of parties of the traditional type (associations around leaders, not programs). The two leading parties in the past - the Nationalists (founded in 1907) and the Liberal (founded in 1946) - could not consolidate after being dispersed during the years of authoritarianism, at present they are weak formations and factions in both pro-government and opposition coalitions and blocs. The pro-presidential coalition "Lakas" ("Power of the people") unites several parties and blocs, incl. such as the "National Union of Christian Democrats", "Struggle for Philippine Democracy", "Provincial Development Party", etc. Opponents of "Lacas" - "Party of the Masses" of ex-president Estrada, "People's Reform Party", etc. The left flank of the opposition - the legal "Party of Workers" (founded in 2001) with a program of peaceful forms of struggle for the interests of workers. Left radical illegal, operating from con. 1960s Communist Party of the Philippines (left), leads the armed guerrilla of the "New People's Army" and is part of the "National Democratic Front".
Leading business organizations: Philippine Chambers of Industry and Commerce; Federation of Philippine-Chinese Chambers of Commerce and Industry.
Active elements of civil society are non-governmental organizations (NGOs), their development is encouraged by the state, in particular, in the form of financial support. The fields of activity of NGOs are environmental protection, work to improve the life of peasants, etc. Participate in politics: in elections and as organizers of mass peaceful demonstrations with a pro- and anti-government orientation. Anti-globalization organizations are in the process of formation, they adhere to the tactics of non-violent actions. Major NGOs in the Philippines: Village Transformation Movement, Green Forum, etc.
The main tasks in the field of domestic policy of the Philippines are the implementation of economic modernization as the basis for stabilizing society; consolidation of the political elite around the presidential reform program, suppression of the opposition, especially its extremist movements. None of these tasks are performed. Criticism of President Arroyo for indecision in the fight against corruption, kronism, inability to solve the problem of poverty and eliminate the hotbed of violence in the Muslim South comes not only from her opponents, but also from her inner circle (representatives of the middle class, the leadership of the Catholic Church, the military elite). The internal political state of the Philippines remains uncertain and unstable.
The formation of the foreign policy of the Philippines and the adoption of foreign policy decisions are concentrated in the hands of the president (maximum authority), the Philippine Foreign Ministry, its head (often also the vice president), the Security Council, and the National Intelligence Coordination Agency. Under the 1987 Constitution, the role of the Congress in shaping the foreign policy course was strengthened (international agreements come into force only after they are ratified by 2/3 of the members of the Senate). Since the presidency of Marcos, the foreign policy of the Philippines has been based on subjectivity in international relations, the priority of the tasks of ensuring national interests, the independence and multilateralism of diplomacy. With the multipolar system of foreign policy relations of the Philippines, special attention is paid to active equal participation in regional affairs and new integration processes in the SEEA region. At the same time, the political elite of the Philippines has never been faced with the question of giving up the priority of relations with the United States (weakened in the early 1990s after the withdrawal of American military bases from the Philippines) as a guarantor of regional and national security. Under the Arroyo government, the US military presence in the archipelago has been restored, so far in a format that does not violate the Constitution of the Philippines. As the United States placed the Philippines in a zone of international terrorism, Arroyo brought in US military advisers and counterterrorism experts to assist local troops in operations against Muslim separatists. The increase in pro-Americanism in Philippine foreign policy worries their ASEAN partners (especially Muslim countries) and causes an increase in anti-Americanism among Filipinos, who fear the possibility of direct participation of Americans in military operations (in violation of the Constitution). Meanwhile, the Muslim South is still far from peace. One of the reasons is the low professionalism and outdated technical equipment of the Philippine army, the weakest in the ASEAN countries. The army in the Philippines is regular, formed partly on the basis of compulsory military service (from the age of 20), partly from persons hired for 3 years under contracts. It consists of the Ground Forces, the Air Force and the Navy. The total number is less than 200 thousand people. The Constitution fixes the priority of civil power over the Armed Forces, the military cannot engage in business and politics (except for participation in elections). But among a part of the officer corps, dissatisfaction with the inefficiency of state policy is brewing, so attempts at military conspiracies and rebellions are not ruled out (such precedents have already happened during the years of K. Aquino).
The Philippines has diplomatic relations with the Russian Federation (established with the USSR in 1976).
Economy of the Philippines
The Philippines is one of the five most advanced economies in Southeast Asia, known as the "Asian Tigers" of the second wave. The economic policy of all governments of the period of independence reflected the nature of the political regime, for example, authoritarian under F. Marcos, "new democracy" under C. Aquino, F. Ramos, G. Arroyo. The Philippines later than other states of the "five" (it includes, in addition to the Philippines, Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand and Indonesia) began to modernize the economy. The country suffered several serious economic and socio-political crises, which greatly weakened the economy and hindered its modernization. Since 2000, the negative impact on the Philippines of the recession in the world economy, especially in the United States, and the aggravation of the socio-political situation in the country itself, incl. separatist armed uprisings in Muslim areas in the South. The restructuring of the economy is hindered by corrupt bureaucracy and management of the so-called. crowns, or "friends". Important economic reforms remain largely on paper.
Since the 1970s The Philippines began to lag behind other economically more developed countries in Southeast Asia in terms of economic growth. In 2003, the economic growth rate increased to 4.5%, and the volume of GDP - up to 80 billion US dollars.
In the consumption of GDP, the share of personal consumption is the highest: in 2001 it amounted to 2561.2 billion pesos, exceeding 5.8 times government spending and 4.1 times gross savings. Gross national income per capita in 2001 amounted to 1050 US dollars, and more than 1/4 of the population was below the poverty line. Most of this group is in rural areas. A sharp problem remains a sharp inequality in the distribution of income. Inflation 4.5% (2003).
3/4 of the labor force, or 32.5 million people, was the labor force, incl. 29.4 million were employed and 3.1 million were unemployed. With an increase in the technological level of production, the quality of labor indicators is changing - the number of qualified specialists is growing. Labor legislation is in force from con. 1980s and applies only to a minority of the labor force - members of trade unions. It determines wage matters, including minimums and allowances, working hours, and so on. Pensions and other benefits are provided by two insurance organizations, unemployment assistance is provided exclusively by charitable organizations.
Sectoral structure of GDP (1981 and 2001,%): industry 39.2 and 31.2, agriculture 24.9 and 15.2, services 35.9 and 53.6.
In industry, the greatest changes in the technical level have occurred in the largest group of industries - the manufacturing industry. But its share (as well as the entire industrial sector) has decreased to 22.4% of GDP in 2001; the share of construction increased to 5.4%, utilities to 3%, and mining decreased to 0.2%. The structure of the manufacturing industry is changing most noticeably due to an increase in the production of high-tech products for export.
In agriculture, the most backward sector of GDP, 2/3 of the value falls on agriculture, 1/3 - on other sectors - animal husbandry, poultry farming, fishing and forestry. Rice and corn, vegetables and fruits are mainly grown for the local market, but there is not enough food of their own.
The largest branch of the service sector is trade, which in 2001 accounted for 14.6% of GDP, followed by personal and public services - 11.7 and 9.9% respectively, other services (real estate transactions, transport, communications, warehousing economy and financial transactions) - 17.4%. Trade, both in terms of value and number of employees, dominates among other services. Wholesale prices are growing more slowly than consumer prices - in 2001 they increased to 134.7 points at 1995 = 100, and consumer prices - up to 149.6 points.
In the Philippines, an island and mountainous country, an important place is occupied by the transportation of passengers and goods by road and shipping. There are few railroads. Air traffic is poorly developed. The communication system - telephone, telegraph and telex - does not satisfy the needs of the population in its services. In terms of the development of foreign tourism - the income received from it and the number of tourists - the Philippines lags far behind the most economically advanced countries in Southeast Asia. In 2002, the number of tourists from the USA, Japan, China, the EU, Australia and other countries was approx. 3 million people
The central bank, established in 1949, manages and controls the credit and financial system. It manages gold and foreign exchange reserves, maintains the peso exchange rate, carries out foreign exchange transactions, controls the operations of commercial banks, and performs other functions. The credit and financial system is dominated by commercial banks. The volume of resources of development banks, savings and agricultural, insurance is much less. Usury persisted in rural areas. Domestic and foreign loans and credits are one of the main forms of financing the economic development of the Philippines. The national capital market is poorly developed. The role of the stock exchanges (Manila, Makati, Metropolitan) in the mobilization of capital remains insignificant. The government makes extensive use of state credit to cover the state budget deficit. Foreign loans lead to an increase in external debt, which in 2001 was 73.3%, or 2/3 of GDP, with foreign exchange reserves of 13.44 billion US dollars and gold reserves of 2.2 billion US dollars, or 4 times higher than them. Net foreign exchange reserves as of May 2003 were $12.5 billion.
The current monetary system was introduced with the creation of a central bank, which was assigned the right to control money circulation and the monopoly right to issue money against the security of foreign exchange reserves, commercial bills, government securities, etc. The structure of money circulation is dominated by deposit money. To the beginning 2002 of the 2139.0 billion pesos in circulation, they accounted for 1746.8 billion pesos, cash - 392.25 billion.
In public finance, a special place is occupied by the state budget, the basis of which is the central budget. It finances local budgets. The bulk of income is tax revenue. Expenses go mainly to finance social and economic development. The state budget for the most part is reduced to a deficit, especially from the con. 1990s Revenues in 2001 amounted to 561.9 billion pesos, expenses - 706.4 billion i.e. the deficit accounted for almost 150 billion pesos. In 2002 it increased to over 200 billion pesos, or 3.3% of GDP. In 2003, it was expected to grow to 4.7% of GDP. The use of loans from international financial institutions and individual states to cover the deficit, in addition to loans from the central and commercial banks, leads to an increase in external debt.
Foreign economic relations of the Philippines are focused on the United States, Japan, China (including Hong Kong), EU countries, Australia and, to a lesser extent, on the countries of Southeast Asia. Foreign direct investment comes mainly from US and Japanese multinationals. After the crisis of 1997-98 they dropped significantly. Assistance (loans and credits) is provided by international financial organizations - the IMF, the World Bank Group, the Asian Development Bank, as well as governments of individual states and private institutions.
The growth rate of foreign trade outstrips the growth rate of GDP. In foreign trade relations (goods and services) of the Philippines, trade with the USA, Japan, China, EU countries, Australia prevails, and from Southeast Asian countries - with Singapore. The export of goods and services (in 2002 it was equal to 35.2 billion US dollars, or almost half of the country's GDP) was dominated by the export of goods. From Ser. 1980s electronic components occupy the first place in merchandise exports: in 2001, out of 31.2 billion US dollars, they accounted for 16.8 billion. Among traditional exports, its largest items are: coconut palm products, abaca fiber, raw sugar, copper concentrates . Merchandise imports in 2002 amounted to $35.5 billion; half of its value fell on capital equipment and 1/10 - on fuel and energy raw materials, mainly oil. The rest of the imports were dominated by food (cereals).
As a result of the monetary and financial crisis of 1997-98, the national currency was seriously devalued. The peso exchange rate against the US dollar has significantly exceeded the pre-crisis level. 1 US dollar equals 53.5 pesos (June 2003).
Science and culture of the Philippines
In the field of science, the National Research Council of the Philippines and the National Science Administration are the most important coordinating centers. From Ser. 1970s the Philippine Center for Basic Research at the University of the Philippines operates, coordinating the scientific activities of various universities and other scientific institutions. The Center participates in the development of state programs for the development of science. The main sources of funding for science are the state budget and assistance from the governments of individual countries and international organizations. Practical research is carried out mainly in large corporations. Leading universities are the State University of the Philippines, private ones are St. Thomas University, Manila Ateneo, Silliman University. Science lacks funds to finance it.
Education is led by the Ministry of Education and Culture. State institutions of higher learning are governed by Councils of Regents. Primary education is public, compulsory and free. The secondary school is 95% private, the higher school is 80%. The lack of state funding of the education system hinders its development. Almost 84% of public spending on education goes to primary school, approx. 15% - to the secondary and 1% - to the higher. In 2002, about 15 million children aged 7-12 studied in elementary school, 6 million in secondary school, and St. 2.5 million
For a long period (almost 400 years), the Philippines was the object of Westernization, which had a profound impact on the development of spiritual culture, in which foreign cultural values brought from the West were partially rejected, partially assimilated by the Filipinos in accordance with their worldview and aesthetic experience. The modern spiritual culture of the Philippines is marked by the growth of "cultural nationalism", the search for identity and cultural identity of the Filipinos. The Philippine Constitution defines national culture as "unity in diversity". The state encourages freedom of creativity, supports cultural figures and creative associations through a system of grants, scholarships, etc. outside the country. His literary works and journalism had a decisive influence on the development of the national identity of the Filipinos, although he wrote mainly in Spanish. Modern Philippine literature is rich in names, genres, trends. English-language and Tagalog-language literature stands out in terms of large-scale and depth of subject matter, highly artistic style (literature in regional languages is also developing). Many works of writers and poets writing in English and Tagalog are published in the USA and Europe, including Russia. Major names in English-language prose are N.V. Gonzalez, Nick Joaquin, poets H. Lansang Jr., R. Tinio, F. Cruz and many others. The largest figure in Tagalog-language literature is the poet and short story writer A.V. Hernandez (1903-70), on whose works generations of modern writers were brought up. The Spaniards also noted the unusual giftedness of the Filipinos in the visual arts, their special sense of color (the colors of the tropics). Visual arts of the Philippines 20th century. up to the present day, it absorbs a variety of influences: from academicism, realism, impressionism, abstractionism, various kinds of modern avant-garde movements to a kind of Philippine primitivism. The most famous names in the visual arts of the Philippines: artists C. Francisco, V. Manansala, A. Luz, Anita Magsaysay-Ho, sculptors N. Abueva, S. Saprid and others. The history of the country is reflected in the architecture of Philippine cities: each era left its symbols (Spanish baroque of the 16th-17th centuries, neoclassicism of the early 20th century, constructivism of the 1930s, modern high-rise buildings of business districts, for example, Makati in Greater Manila). The most famous Filipino architects of the 1970-90s. - L. Loksin, S. Consio.