Physical geography - Altai-Sayan mountainous country. Lecture: General characteristics of the relief of Russia, reasons for its diversity
1. The relief of Russia: a) monotonous b) diverse
2. The most elevated part of Russia is: a) European b) Asian
3. To the east of the Yenisei, the territory is: a) lowered b) raised
4. The largest lowland in Russia is: a) Caspian b) North Siberian c) West Siberian
5. Match: a) Caucasus b) Sikhote-Alin c) Eastern Sayan d) Western Altai
1 – Baikal _ 2- Mesozoic __
3 – Cenozoic _ 4 – Hercynian __
6. A table containing information about the successive change of eras, periods, the most important geological events, etc. ……………………………………..
7. On ancient platforms there are:
a) East European and West Siberian Plains
b) West Siberian Plain and Central Siberian Plateau
c) Central Siberian Plateau and East European Plain
8. Volcanism and earthquakes are characteristic of areas of ... folding:
a) Hercynian b) Cenozoic c) Baikal d) Mesozoic?
9. Low point Russian surface) is located:
a) on the shore of Lake Elton b) in the Minusinsk Basin c) on the shore of the Caspian Sea d) in the Vasyugan swamps
10. Mountains are located on: a) platforms b) in folded belts c) slabs
RELIEF OF THE RF FI: ___________________________ / 8 _ grade.
1. The general slope of the territory of Russia to: a) north b) west c) east
2. The largest active volcano in Russia: a) Klyuchevskaya Sopka b) Kazbek c) Kronotskaya Sopka d) Shiveluch
3. Towards tectonic structures Not include: a) platforms b) plains c) folded belts d) shields
4. The highest mountains of Russia: a) Altai b) Caucasus c) Sayan Mountains d) Alps
5. When explaining the location of large landforms on the territory of Russia, you need to use a map:
a) geological b) tectonic c) physical
6. Stable areas h. called: a) platforms b) folded areas c) shields d) slabs
7. A common feature The Central Siberian Plateau and the East European Plain is:
a) plateau relief b) the presence of shields c) the same prevailing heights
8. The modern period of geological history refers to:
a) Neogene period of the Cenozoic era b) Paleogene period of the Cenozoic era
V) Quaternary period Cenozoic era d) Cretaceous period Mesozoic era
9. Match the mountains with their highest peaks:
10. In which of the listed territories of Russia are earthquakes most likely?
b) Novaya Zemlya islands d) Kola Peninsula
RELIEF OF THE RF FI: ___________________________ / 8 _ grade.
1. Indicate the mountains that limit the West Siberian Plain to west: a) Caucasus b) Altai c) Ural d) Sayan Mountains
2. The relief is dominated by: a) plains b) mountains c) plateaus
3. To the west of the Yenisei the following prevail: a) low plains b) plateaus and mountains
4. Mountains predominate in: a) north and west b) east and south c) north and south
5. The highest point of Russia is: a) Elbrus b) Belukha c) Klyuchevskaya Sopka
6. The areas of alpine folding in Russia include:
a) Altai b) Caucasus c) Kuril Islands d) Ural
7. The foundation of the East European Plain comes to the surface in the form of ... a shield
a) Baltic b) Anabar c) Aldan
8. Indicate the geological era in which the largest number of periods is distinguished:
a) Cenozoic b) Mesozoic c) Paleozoic d) Archean
9. Volcanoes in Russia are located in: a) Altai b) Kamchatka c) Kuril Islands d) Urals
10. Mountain systems with the Verkhoyansk and Chersky ridges are located...
a) in Kamchatka b) along the Pacific coast c) in the south of the Asian part of Russia d) east of the Lena River
RELIEF OF THE RF FI: ___________________________ / 8 _ grade.
1. Mountains in Russia are located mainly: a) in the north b) in the southwest, south and east
c) in the central part d) in the east
2. The largest plain in Russia: a) Eastern European b) Western Siberian
c) Caspian d) Central Siberian flat.
3. The largest plateau in Russia: a) Vitim b) Central Siberian c) Anadyr
4. The longest mountains: a) Ural b) Sikhote-Alin c) Caucasus
5. Relate: a) Ural b) Western Sayan c) Verkhoyansk Range. d) Middle ridge.
1 – Caledonian __ 2 – Hercynian __ 3 – Cenozoic __ 4 – Mesozoic__
6. The youngest mountains correspond to …………………………….. folding.
7. The areas where strong earthquakes occur in Russia are:
a) Ural, Central Siberian Plateau b) Kola Peninsula, West Siberian Lowland
c) Kamchatka, Kuril Islands, Caucasus
8. The foundation of the Siberian platform comes to the surface in the form of... shields
a) Baltic and Anabar b) Aldan and Baltic c) Aldan and Anabar
9. Match:
10. Complete the sentences by choosing the necessary words ( monotonous, varied, plains, mountains):
The relief of Russia is very …………………: there are both plains and mountains, but the area is dominated by …………………
RELIEF OF THE RF FI: ___________________________ / 8 _ grade.
1. The highest point in Russia - Mount Elbrus has a height of: a) 5895m b) 6960 c) 5642m
2. Mountains in Russia occupy about: a) 1/3 of the territory b) ¼ of the territory c) ½ of the territory
3. An extensive, relatively stable section of the earth's crust: a) plate b) shield c) platform d) folding
4. Mountains located in Southern Siberia: a) Sikhote-Alin b) Caucasus c) Khibiny d) Sayans
5. Establish a correspondence between tectonic structures and landforms:
6. Complete the sentences by choosing the necessary words (north, south, west, east):
The main part of the mountains is concentrated in …………… and ……………… Russia.
7. The modern period of geological history refers to ... folding:
a) Caledonian b) Hercynian c) Mesozoic d) Alpine
8. The main patterns in the relief of Russia are:
1) homogeneous relief and increasing relative heights to the north
2) varied terrain and increasing relative heights to the south
3) varied terrain and increasing relative heights towards the center
4) varied terrain and increased relative heights to the north
9. The Precambrian includes: a) Paleozoic and Mesozoic b) Proterozoic and Paleozoic c) Archean and Proterozoic d) Mesozoic and Cenozoic
10. The highest mountain peak of Altai: a) Shkhara b) Pobeda c) Belukha d) Munku-Sardyk
RELIEF OF THE RF FI: ___________________________ / 8 _ grade.
1. A stable, relatively leveled area of the Earth, to which plains and sedimentary minerals correspond in relief, is called: a) a shield b) a platform c) a folded region d) a marginal trough
2. Choose the highest active volcano in Russia: a) Elbrus b) Kazbek c) Klyuchaya Sopka d) Kronotskaya Sopka
3. Identify the mountains by description. Stretched along the coast of the Lena River in its lower reaches. Formed during the Mesozoic folding. The highest peak has a height of 2389 m.
a) Yablonovy ridge b) Verkhoyansk ridge c) Aldan Highlands d) Stanovoye Highlands
4. Mountains in Russia none in: a) west b) east c) north d) south
5. Young mountains include: a) Altai b) Ural c) Sayans d) Sredinny Range
6. The Altai, Sayan Mountains, the Baikal and Transbaikalia ranges, as well as the Stanovoy Range, the Vitim Plateau, Stanovoe, Patomskoye
and Aldan Highlands are located: a) east of the Lena River b) along the Pacific coast
c) within the Central Siberian Plateau d) in the south of the Asian part of Russia
7. The largest plains of Russia, East European and West Siberian, are separated by: a) the Central Siberian Plateau
b) Middle ridge c) Ural mountains d) the most high mountains Russia - Caucasus
8. The youngest mountains in Russia are: a) the mountains of Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands b) the Ural c) the Caucasus d) the Sayans and Altai
9. In what order geological eras succeeded each other in the history of the formation and development of the Earth?
A. Cenozoic - Mesozoic - Paleozoic - Proterozoic - Archean
B. Archean - Paleozoic - Proterozoic - Mesozoic - Cenozoic
B. Paleozoic - Mesozoic - Cenozoic - Archean - Proterozoic
G. Archean - Proterozoic - Paleozoic-Mesozoic - Cenozoic
10. The highest point of Russia is located within: a) the Caucasus b) Tien Shan c) Pamir d) Altai
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1. Geographical location.
2. Geological structure and relief.
3. Climate and water.
4. Soils, plant and animal world.
Geographical position
The Altai-Sayan mountainous country is located in the center of Asia and occupies the western part of the mountains of Southern Siberia. The country's borders are determined by faults and displacement of block structures during tectonic movements. The border with the West Siberian Plain passes along fault ledges 300-500 m high. In the northeast, the border with the Central Siberian Plateau. In the southeast, the country borders on the Baikal mountainous country along a rift zone - the Tuva graben. In the southwest the border passes with Kazakhstan and Mongolia. The country includes: mountain systems and intermountain basins - Altai, Salair Ridge, Kuznetsky Alatau, Western and Eastern Sayans, Tuva Highlands, as well as the Tuva, Minusinsk, Kuznetsk basins, etc.
Geological structure and relief
Altai-Sayan folded-block geostructures frame the Siberian platform from the southwest. The most ancient mountain-building movements occurred at the end of the Proterozoic. As a result, the Sayano-Baikal fold belt was created in the east. At the beginning of the Paleozoic, the structures of the Caledonian folding (Sayan and most of Altai). The last folding, the Hercynian, appeared in the west of the country. By the beginning of the Cenozoic, the structures were severely destroyed and experienced new tectonic movements in the Cenozoic: faults and volcanoes formed, high elevations (up to 3000 m) and intermountain basins were created. These processes led to the formation of folded-block mountains, highlands and intermountain basins. The country experienced ancient glaciations, so the relief preserved glacial forms (karas, troughs, moraine hills, etc.). Erosion landforms are also widespread. External (exogenous) processes determined the morphological zonation: the first zone – highlands with nival-glacial forms (peaks of Altai, Sayan, etc.); the second belt is the ancient peneplain, these are high mountain ranges with a leveled surface; the third belt is erosion-denudation lowlands. The direction of the country's mountain ranges is different. Altai has the shape of a fan facing northwest. highest peak– Mount Belukha (4500 m). The Kuznetsk Alatau and the Salair ridge extend from southeast to northwest, parallel to each other. The Western Sayan has a northeastern direction and runs almost perpendicular to the Eastern Sayan. Average heights are 1000-3000 m. The Western Sayan slopes steeply to the Minusinsk and Tuva basins. The Eastern Sayan is a watershed between the basins of the Angara and Yenisei rivers.
Climate and water
The climate of the country is sharply continental, with very cold winter and warm (in hollows) summers. The climate is influenced by continental air of temperate latitudes, mountainous terrain and westerly transport air masses, which is most pronounced on windward slopes. The Tuva Basin has the most continental climate. In winter, the country's climate is influenced by the Asian High. Average January temperatures vary from -18˚C in the Altai foothills to -30˚C in the Tuva Basin. Characteristic temperature inversions. On the windward slopes of Altai and Sayan, up to 2 meters of snow falls. Average July temperatures range from +12˚C+14˚C in the mountains and up to +20˚C in the foothills and basins. During the year, precipitation ranges from 250 mm in the basins to 2000 mm in the mountains on windward slopes.
The river network is well developed. In the Altai-Sayan country are the sources of the Ob and Yenisei rivers and many of their tributaries. All rivers are mountainous in nature. The feeding is mixed snow, rain, and for some rivers also glacial. High water from May to July. The warm period accounts for up to 80-90% of the annual runoff. Most large rivers: Biya, Katun, Chulyshman, Big Yenisei, Small Yenisei, etc. There are many lakes in Altai, most of which are located in ancient glacial carts. But the largest lake, Teletskoye, is of tectonic origin. It is mountainous and lies at an altitude of 436 m above sea level. The length of the lake is 78 km, the average width is 3.2 km. Maximum depth 325 m (the second deepest in Russia), many rivers flow into it (Chulyshman and others), and the Biya River flows out. Modern glaciation has developed in this mountainous country. Largest quantity There are about 1500 glaciers in Altai (area 910 km2). In the Sayan Mountains, glaciation is less common, only in the east. The height of the snow line rises from 2300 m in the west to 3000 m in the east.
Soils, flora and fauna
Altitudinal zonation is clearly visible in the distribution of soil and vegetation cover. At the foothills of Altai, the Salair Ridge, the latitudinal extent of the Russian steppes ends and the steppes extend onto the slopes of the ridges, up to 500 m, and into intermountain basins. There are steppes at the foothills of Altai and the Salair Ridge, but they are especially widespread in the Tuva Basin. The soils are predominantly chernozem; in the east, in areas of dry steppes, they are chestnut. Foothill steppes – forb-turf-grass; from forbs (geranium, iris, anemone, etc.) and from cereals (feather grass, fescue, tonkonogo); there are shrubs (honeysuckle, rose hips, caragana, bean grass, meadowsweet, etc.). In the mountain steppes, edelweiss, astragalus, sweetgrass, etc. appear. The Tuvan steppes are drier - small-grass-grass with the presence of tansy, snakeweed, wheatgrass, wormwood, and sweetgrass. Forests cover the slopes of the mountains, they give way to steppes and rise to a height of 1800-2400 m. On the most humid slopes spruce-fir forests grow with an admixture of aspen on mountain sulfur forest soils, as well as on mountain podzolic soils. Sometimes they contain cedar. On the inner slopes of mountains with a more continental climate grow larch forests with an admixture of pine and cedar on podzolic soils, and in permafrost areas - on permafrost-taiga podburs. These forests rise the highest on the mountain slopes up to 2000-2500 m. Above the forests there is a high-mountain belt of shrubs (erniks) - dwarf birch, juniper and cedar shrubs, willow trees, red currants, honeysuckle. Even higher are subalpine meadows on mountain meadow soils. Grasses (orch grass, bluegrass, oats), umbellifers, knotweed, etc. grow here. Subalpine meadows gradually turn into low-grass alpine meadows, consisting of brightly colored flowers: Siberian columbine, lights, pansies, anemones, poppies, buttercups, gentians, etc. Mountain peaks cover mountain tundras (made up of mosses and lichens on tundra-mountain soils) and rocky placers; in some places there are glaciers.
The fauna is characterized by great diversity. This is due to the diversity of modern landscapes from mountains to plains, the history of their formation and the border position of two zoogeographic regions: European-Siberian and Central Asian. Therefore, the fauna consists of taiga, steppe and mountain-tundra species. Taiga fauna predominates in the north and west of the country. This Brown bear, wolverine, lynx, wolf, fox, weasel, sable, chipmunk, squirrel, flying squirrel, ermine, otter, mountain hare, elk, deer, musk deer. Among the birds - wood grouse, hazel grouse, nutcracker, deaf cuckoo, bee-eater, woodpeckers, owls, falcons, etc. The steppe fauna gravitates to the south, intermountain basins, especially Tuva. Numerous ground squirrels, Mongolian marmot, pikas, jerboa, tolai hare, corsac fox, manul cat, and gazelle antelope live there. Birds include the red duck, demoiselle crane, Mongolian bustard, sajja, Mongolian auklet, etc. The argali (mountain sheep) live in the high mountainous regions. Mountain goat, reindeer(mountain subspecies), snow leopard (leopard), Altai vole, pika; birds - snowcock, mountain turkey, white partridge, mountain pipit, Altai finch, red-billed jackdaw, etc.
Nine nature reserves have been created within the country: Stolby, Altai, Katunsky, Sayano-Shushensky, etc.
Position, orography and hypsometry. The west of the country is occupied by ridges and basins Altai. Alpine Central Altai consists of ridges: Katunsky with the highest point Altai - Sayan country Belukhoy (4506 m), Severo- and Yuzhnochuysky, Kuraisky, Listvyag, Terektinsky, Kholzun. They are separated by intermountain basins - the “steppes” of Abai, Kurai, Uimon, Chui and the Ukok plateau. Southern Altai stretches in a sublatitudinal direction from Sailyugem in the east through the Tavan-Bogdo-Ula mountain node with a height of up to 4082 m, the Southern Altai, Tarbagatai, Sarymsakty ridges to Narymsky in the west. Ridges Eastern Altai(Shapshalsky, Chikhacheva) have a submeridional strike; they are adjacent to the Chulyshman Plateau. All of the above regions can be combined as high-mountain and mid-mountain core Altai.
Mid-mountain and low-mountain-foothill ridges fan out from this core. Within Russia these are numerous ridges North-Eastern Altai(Aigulaksky, Sumultinsky, Chulyshmansky, Korbu, Iolgo, Altyntu, Seminsky, Cherginsky, Anuysky, Bashelaksky, Korgonsky, Abakansky, Biyskaya Griva, Koksuysky, Tigiretsky and others). The Russian part of Altai stands out as Mountain Altai(or Eastern Altai in the broad sense of the term); tectonically, it is characterized by relatively ancient Early Paleozoic (mainly Salair) folded structures. Ranges are located within Kazakhstan Northwestern or Rudny Altai, corresponding to relatively younger (Epihercynian) folded structures. The southeastern part of Altai, located within the PRC and Mongolia, is divided into Mongolian(maximum height 4362 m.) and Gobi Altai(in the northwest – up to 4 km, in southeast– 500 – 1000 m.). The western border of Altai with the Tien Shan and Kazakh small hills is formed by the Zaisan depression and the Irtysh valley, the northern border with the West Siberian Plain is drawn along the “northern face” of Altai - a clearly defined transition from flat to mountainous terrain.
Salair-Kuznetsk region located north of Altai. It includes the Salair Ridge, the Tom-Kolyvan Plain, the Kuznetsk Basin and the Kuznetsk Highlands. The western and northern borders with the West Siberian Plain are very arbitrary. They approximately coincide with the valleys of the rivers Chumysh, Berd, Ob and southern border West Siberian plate. The eastern border of the Kuznetsk Alatau is complicated by the presence of a number of basins separated by ridges. From north to south they successively change: the Arga ridge (the far spur of the Eastern Sayan, bordered on three sides by the Chulym bend, along which a fragment of the administrative border of the Kemerovo region passes), the Nazarovskaya depression, the Solgon ridge - the far ledge of the Eastern Sayan with a maximum height of 875 m, Chulymo - Yenisei Basin, Batenevsky Ridge (spur of the Kuznetsk Alatau), Minusinsk Basin.
Western Sayan stretches from the river basin. Abakan on southwest to the Udinsky ridge of the Eastern Sayan on northeast. Its axis is the Sailyg-Khem-Taiga ridges (crowned by Mount Karagosh with a maximum height of 2930 m for the Eastern Sayan), Sayansky, Oysky, Ergaki, Tazarama (Ergak-Targak-Taiga), Kurtushibinsky with heights of 1800-2500 m. They are accompanied by numerous feathers northwestern ridges (Joysky, Dzhebashsky, Borus, Kulumys) and southeast(Khemchiksky, Mirsky) macroslopes, inferior to the axial zone in height only on the periphery.
Eastern Sayan extends from the Solgon Ridge in the northwest to the Tunka Basin, separating it from the Baikal country, in the southeast. The highest axial ridges are two parallel chains: Udinsky and Kryzhina (Grandiozny peak - 2922 m) and separated from them by the longitudinal valleys of Kazyr and Uda, the Dzhuglymsky ridge and Agulskie Belki with peaks 2-2.5 km high. Feathering ridges are separated by the valleys of the Kan and Angara tributaries northeast macroslope (Biryusinsky, Gutarsky, Tagulsky, Kanskoye and Manskoye Belogorye). In the extreme southeast there are differently oriented ridges (chars): Okinsky, Belsky, Kitoisky, Tunkinsky, Bolshoi Sayan. They highlight the complexly constructed basin of the upper Oka with heights of 1-1.5 km.
Tuva differs in the complexity of orography. To the east of the Shapshalsky ridge stretches a chain of ridges of southern Tuva (Tsagan-Shibetu, Western and Eastern Tannu-Ula, Sengilen). They separate the Ubsunur (its foreign part predominates) and Tuva basins. The latter is separated from the Todzha Basin by the Academician Obruchev Ridge.
Geological development and structure. From a fixist point of view, folding in the Altai-Sayan country began in the Riphean period of the Proterozoic and continued until the end Paleozoic era. It first appeared in the northeast, at the southwestern edge of the Siberian Platform, during the Baikal folding era. Sites of Baikalides have been identified in the axial zone of the Eastern Sayan and in Tuva. Middle Cambrian folded structures (Salairids) predominate in more western regions: central Tuva, Eastern Altai, Kuznetsk Alatau and Mountain Shoria. In the Western Sayan, Caledonian folded structures predominate, and in the extreme west of the Altai-Sayan country, Hercynian folding has appeared. Sometimes the so-called early Hercynides are distinguished, where folding occurred in the Devonian period (according to the terminology of Siberian geologists, this is the Telbes phase of folding) - on Salair and in the eastern part of Rudny Altai. Typical or late Hercynides completed their formation in the Carboniferous-Permian, these are the structures of the Tom-Kolyvan folded zone and the Kazakh part of the Rudny Altai. At the same time, the formation of the Kuznetsk marginal trough took place and its degeneration into an intermountain trough.
Regardless of the age of folding, units of a lower rank are distinguished in the listed structures - structural-formational zones, subdivided into horst-anticlinoria (Katunsky, Kurtushibinsky, Abakansky and others) and graben-synclinoria (Uymen-Lebedsky, Anui-Chuysky). Within the former, denudation processes predominated, exposing ancient (Precambrian and Early Paleozoic) strata. Sedimentation processes took place in the grabens-synclinoriums, and strata of relatively young Late Paleozoic or even Meso-Cenozoic sediments accumulated. Structural and formational zones are separated, as a rule, by long-established, extensive and deep (often mantle) zones of deep faults. An example is the Kuznetsk-Altai deep fault, which separates the Kuznetsk Basin and the Kuznetsk Alatau and continues over a significant part of Altai.
There are also mobilist views (developed, in particular, by L.P. Zonenshain), which consider the development of the entire country or its individual parts(for example, Kuznetsk Alatau and Salair) as a result of the convergence of small lithospheric plates drifting over considerable distances, prevailing in the Altai-Sayan country. According to mobilists, the existence of a mechanism of subduction and obduction in the geological past is indicated by a large number of ophiolite plates, representing fragments of the ancient ocean floor, pushed onto the hard edges of blocks of the continental crust. A large number of Such plates (allochthons), consisting of ultrabasic rocks of the basaltic layer of the oceanic crust or even mantle rocks, were discovered in Kuznetsk Alatau and Salair.
Features of the tectonic structure are reflected in the orography and morphostructure of the region. Horst anticlinoria usually correspond to axial zones of mountain structures, in which crystalline rocks predominate: ancient metamorphic and intrusive rocks of different ages, predominantly of acidic composition (granites and granitoids). Graben-synclinores correspond to intermountain basins composed of relatively young volcanogenic, carbonate and terrigenous (conglomerates, sandstones, siltstones, mudstones) rocks. Important role played by secondary (superimposed) orogenic basins of various ages (Episalairian Minusinsk and Rybinsk, small Mesozoic basins within the Kuznetsk trough and others). Seismic focal zones that generate fairly strong earthquakes are associated with deep faults. In this regard, not only the entire territory of the Altai-Sayan country, but also the adjacent areas of the plains are seismic. The highest seismicity (up to 9 points or more) is characteristic of the extreme southern regions (Tuva, southern Altai). In the northern direction, the degree of seismicity naturally decreases and in the extreme northern territories is 5-6 points.
With the completion of the formation of folded structures, the leading role passed to block dislocations and structures. In the Triassic, echoes of the events of the Tunguska syneclise appeared in the Kuznetsk trough, where they led to outpourings of basalts, the introduction of diabase intrusions and the formation of thick strata of tuff conglomerates of the trap formation. IN Jurassic period differentiated block movements caused the appearance of a highly dissected relief. Due to the destruction of relief protrusions, coarse sediments became widespread everywhere from Kuzbass to Baikal, which served as the source material for the formation of conglomerates and sandstones. At the same time, in numerous lakes that arose in depressions of the relief, significant reserves of organic residues accumulated, which later turned into fossil coals. However, in the Cretaceous and Paleogene periods, the intensity of tectonic processes noticeably decreased, and the processes of peneplanation of the relief and the formation of various weathering crusts became widespread.
Recent tectonics and morphostructure. As in the predominant part of Russia, the formation of the modern morphostructure of the Altai-Sayan country occurred under the influence of modern tectonics. Differentiated recent uplifts appeared regardless of the age of folded structures. In a number of areas in the region, intense block and arch uplifts were observed, which led to the revival of the high- and mid-mountain topography of Altai, Sayan, the mountains of southern Tuva, Kuznetsk Alatau and Mountain Shoria. Along their periphery, the uplifts were moderate, leading to the renewal of the low-mountain and foothill relief of mountain structures, as well as the high plains of Salair. Finally, weak uplifts, which led to the emergence of the relief of low-lying and elevated plains, divided their surface into many isolated flat or slightly convex watersheds with deeply incised terraced river valleys.
As a result, the morphostructure of block- and arch-folded mountains and highlands, as well as the erosion-denudation plains associated with them, took a dominant position. A subordinate role is played by the accumulative plains and lava plateaus of the Eastern Sayan, Tuva, the melaphyre horseshoe of the Kuznetsk Basin and other regions. Intense block movements along a developed system of tectonic faults engulfed the Todzha Basin at the beginning of the Pleistocene. They were accompanied by active volcanism. Eruptions of mafic composition predominated, forming lava flows at least 80 km long and basalt (lava) plateaus with a thickness of 70 to 200 m. In the early Pleistocene, along with lavas, pyroclastics erupted, due to which shield volcanoes (predominant) and ethno-Vesuvian stratovolcanoes Sorug-Chushku-Azu, Shivit, Derby were formed - Taiga and others - a total of 16 volcanoes. Stratovolcanoes reached 1000 m in height and up to 15 km in diameter.
Minerals. Folded structures of various ages are rich in endogenous deposits. Given the global trend towards the depletion of Early Paleozoic structures in metals, the Altai-Sayan country, on the contrary, is rich in iron deposits, sometimes with titanium impurities. They are concentrated in Mountain Shoria and Kuznetsk Alatau. Geologists emphasize their connection with a vast magma chamber enriched in iron that existed in the Cambrian. Currently, the presence of a so-called iron belt has been revealed, stretching from the Ampalyk deposit in the north of Kuznetsk Alatau to titanomagnetite occurrences in the Mrassu basins and magnetite ore deposits in Khakassia. Genetically, sulfides of copper, zinc, lead, silver, antimony, and arsenic are closely related to magnetites, but when using Gornoshorsky ores, all these impurities are simply lost. There are deposits of polymetals on Salair, but the main role is played by deposits of the Kazakh part of Rudny Altai. Mercury is confined to deep fault zones Gorny Altai(Aktash) and Salair. Tuva is rich in endogenous deposits (cobalt, asbestos, talc, chromium, nickel, etc.). In the Kuznetsk Alatau, the Kiya-Shaltyrskoye deposit of nepheline syenites is distinguished. In all mountain structures there are numerous outcrops of decorative and semi-precious stones (marble, jasper, hornfels, etc.).
Among the exogenous deposits, the Paleozoic and Jurassic coals of Kuzbass, as well as Tuva and Khakassia, are especially prominent; bauxites of Eastern Sayan and Salair; various Construction Materials and gold deposits in many areas.
Impact of Pleistocene events on modern nature. Morphosculpture. A noticeable cooling and increased climate aridity, which manifested itself in the Neogene, reached a maximum in the Pleistocene. The mountainous regions were covered by ground glaciation, and permafrost was widespread on the plains. The heat-loving flora and fauna mostly died, only in rare shelters (refugia) individual representatives of pre-glacial vegetation were preserved. The most famous refugium is the Kuzedeevsky “linden island”, in which, in addition to the Siberian linden, about 35 relicts of pre-Pleistocene vegetation are known. Tundra-steppes with the dominance of hard grains and “ mammoth fauna"from cold-tolerant animals with long hair, capable of digesting rough food. To this day, the forms of glacial-exaration and glacial-accumulative relief, as well as the corresponding moraine deposits, have been preserved. Relics of cryogenic relief are more difficult to identify, but they were widespread. Fluvioglacial forms alternated with glacial forms. In non-glacial lowland areas located in periglacial zones, under conditions of significant aridity of climate, there was an accumulation of fine dusty material carried from the surface of glaciers by water flows or, rarely, by wind. Over thousands of years, strata of loess-like or cover loams of deluvial or aeolian origin were formed from it.
Several warming eras were observed, when glaciers were greatly reduced, and an interglacial - the complete disappearance of glaciers. The climate simultaneously became humid, black soil steppes, forests and even swamps became widespread. They were inhabited by forest and steppe animals, in particular, small steppe inhabitants, especially rodents, were widespread. The bones of small animals are quickly leached completely; only rodent teeth protected by enamel are preserved in the loess. Evidence of the existence in the past of repeated relatively warm pluvial epochs is the horizons of buried chernozem soils, clearly visible in the strata of loams within the city of Novokuznetsk and in its environs.
Modern forms reliefs are varied. The most common fluvial relief is represented by valley-watershed forms. There are a number of karst areas within the Kuznetsk Highlands, Salair, Altai, and Western Sayan.
Climate. The Altai-Sayan country is located closer to the center of the Eurasian continent than the lowland countries of Siberia. Nevertheless, researchers (B.P. Alisov, S.P. Suslov, etc.) note decrease the degree of continentality of its climate in comparison with the plains. The reasons for this paradox lie in the decrease in the degree of continentality under the influence of mountainous terrain. Winter in the mountains is warmer under the influence of temperature inversions, summer with normal troposphere stratification is cooler, which causes a decrease in the annual temperature amplitude - the main indicator of continentality. Under the influence of mountainous terrain, the amount of precipitation increases (with the exception of special cases) (this is also an important indicator of continentality). The increase in precipitation under the influence of orography (on slopes of western exposure) and the influence of altitude (the higher, the more) is due to a sharp intensification of cyclones moving along western trajectories, mainly due to the aggravation of temperature contrasts (usually due to a decrease in the temperatures of cold sectors). Of course, this increase is facilitated by convective and orographic precipitation, but it occurs relatively rarely and only in the warm part of the year. Finally, the contrast between the summer maximum and the winter minimum is moderated, that is, the continental precipitation regime appears not as sharply as on the plains (also an indicator of the degree of continental climate).
Characteristic feature climate of the Altai-Sayan country, like any mountainous territory, is diversity of climates, due to differences in altitude, slope exposure, local circulation conditions, etc. It follows from the diversity of distribution of individual climate indicators: temperatures, precipitation, humidity, degree of continentality, etc. Finally, there are strictly individual, unique features of the climate of the mountains of Southern Siberia. For example, in accordance with the geographical latitude, Altai, Sayan and Tuva lie in zones of insufficient moisture (steppe, semi-desert), therefore, steppe or semi-desert appear on vast plateaus and intermountain basins (noting this feature, the Altai basins were given the name “steppes”).
Winter flows under the control of the central part of the Siberian High, anticyclonic weather prevails, during which a particularly variegated temperature distribution is observed. Lowest averages for January and minimum temperatures are established in intermountain basins, but they also vary greatly: January lows from -16...-18 degrees in the foothills of Altai, Kuznetsk Alatau and Minuses down to -34 degrees in the Tuva Basin, minimums from -40 to -62 degrees (in the Kemerovo region and within -55...-56 degrees). In the low mountains, January temperatures are noticeably higher (in low mountain Temirtau –14, and in the Ust-Kabyrza basin –22 degrees). An increase in temperatures is caused by the occurrence of cyclones, less often by the passage of hair dryers; in such cases, temperatures are relatively equalized over large areas. Only cyclonic precipitation is present, and it is caused by both Atlantic cyclones of the Arctic front and Mediterranean cyclones of the polar front. In most areas, the snow cover is thick (minimum 40 cm), especially on the slopes of western exposure in the mid- and highlands (100-200 cm). On the eastern macroslopes and in basins it decreases to 10-15 cm. In such cases, the soil freezes to a depth of 150-200 cm. The annual minimum precipitation occurs in February-March. Stable snow cover is established in the mountains in October, on the plains in November. Its destruction occurs on the plains in April, in the mountains a month later.
In summer Low atmospheric pressure sets in, especially over the Tuva and other basins. Therefore, Atlantic cyclones (there are no Mediterranean cyclones in summer) freely penetrate the region, bringing increased amounts of moisture. Summer precipitation in Altai accounts for 35–50% of the annual amount. To the east and south their share increases to 55-65% (Tuva), which is one of the indicators of increasing continentality in these directions. In the presence of a summer maximum, the absolute amount of summer precipitation in the basins is insufficient (75 mm in the Chui steppe, in the Salair region - 185-200 mm). Along with cyclonic precipitation, convective precipitation plays a certain role, spreading over limited areas and having a showery, but short-term nature. Rain prevails, but snowfalls are common in June and August; temporary snow cover may be established in the highlands at the end of August.
In the foothills and basins, average July temperatures are 18...20 degrees, and at an altitude of more than 1800 m they drop to 8 degrees. With the dominance of the western transport, a northern component often arises, leading to a decrease in temperature, frosts and even noticeable frosts (in the Tuva Basin, even in July up to -6...-7 degrees). The absolute maximums are 35-39 (in the Kemerovo region 38 everywhere) degrees and even in the highlands about 30 degrees. Most often they are associated with heat advection from Kazakhstan, the Turanian Plain, China and Mongolia.
In the western parts of the region the climate is continental. For example, in the Kuznetsk Basin, continentality indices are everywhere less than 70%. The increase in continentality in the eastern and southern regions leads to the emergence of a sharply continental climate. In the Kemerovo region, the degree of continentality increases noticeably in small orographic basins (Mrassko-Kabyrzinskaya, Ortonskaya, Tomsko-Mrasskaya) of Mountain Shoria (due to the increased severity of winters), and the climate can also be called sharply continental. But in low and middle mountains, due to relatively mild winters with an average January temperature of about -14...-15 degrees, the degree of continentality is noticeably reduced.
Inland waters. Rivers belong to the basins of the Ob and Yenisei, flowing into the Kara Sea. Only the sources of small rivers of the Ubsunur basin carry water into the internal drainage basin of this basin. Its watershed with the Yenisei basin runs along the ridges of southern Tuva, and with the Ob basin, along the Chikhachev and Kurai ridges, the spurs of the Chulyshman Highlands and the Tsagan-Shibetu ridge. The watershed of the two great rivers consists of the Shapshalsky, Abakansky ridges and the watershed zone of the Kuznetsk Alatau.
Most rivers have mixed feeding, that is, none of the sources provides half of the annual flow. At the same time, rain nutrition predominates in the eastern regions (which is due to the significant summer maximum precipitation due to the high degree of continental climate), in the northern and western regions it is snow, and in the regions of Central Altai with modern glaciation it is glacial. In the east of the region (east of the Eastern Sayan and Tuva) a regime similar to the Far Eastern one appears, in the predominant part - the Altai type. The standard of this type is Tom in the Novokuznetsk region.
Lakes. A unique “twin” lake of Baikal is Lake Teletskoye with a tectonic basin processed by a glacier. Large lake with a basin of tectonic genesis is located on the western border of Altai - Markakol. There are numerous lakes in the Todzha Basin - Noyon-Khol, Kadysh-Khol, Darlig-Khol and others (“khol” means lake). Among them, narrow, deep (100-195 m) lake basins prevail, which arose when trough valleys were dammed by moraines. Shallow lakes of the outwash plain are less common. On peneplain surfaces there are many sewage lakes dammed by moraine dams. A large number of small karn lakes are located in the highlands.
The groundwater. The region alternates between hydrogeological mountain fold regions (Altai, Kuznetsk Highlands, Sayan Mountains, mountains of Southern Tuva, etc.) and hydrogeological basins of large basins. The hydrogeological basin of the Kuznetsk Basin has been well studied. Its feeding areas are located in Salair and the Kuznetsk Highlands. From them, water migrates into the deep layers of the axial part of the basin. An asymmetry is observed: in the Salair part of the basin The groundwater noticeably saline, have a variegated composition, and in the Alatau part their composition is homogeneous and there is no salinity. With increasing depth, the degree of water mineralization increases noticeably. In the Yerunakov area, a well was drilled to a depth of 200 m. Interstratal waters with a salinity of 3.2 to 55 g/l came from it. After 6 years of continuous flowing, water with double the chloride content came from the well due to the influx of water from deep horizons. Near Novokuznetsk, salty (35 g/l) groundwater was discovered at depths of about 2.5 km.
Modern glaciation concentrated in Altai (according to M.V. Tronov, 629 sq. km), the Sayan-Tuva Highlands (according to M.G. Grossvald, 13 sq. km) and Kuznetsk Alatau (embryonic forms of glaciers) . Most of the glaciers are located in Central and Southern Altai and on the Chikhachev Ridge. A smaller number of them are found on the Kholzun, Kuraisky, Sailyugem, Sarymsakty, Shapshalsky ridges. The largest glacial center of Mount Belukha is located in the Katunsky Range, and on its northern slope the area of glaciers is 170 sq. km, while on the southern slope they occupy 62 sq. km.
Z onality can be traced fragmentarily, within the basins, due to which the latitudinal zonality gives way to island zoning. In the flat version there are “islands” of meadow steppes (forest-steppes), steppes and semi-deserts. Island forest-steppe take place in the Kuznetsk, Chulym-Yenisei, Minusinsk basins and in Tuva. The Kuznetsk forest-steppe is located along the relatively well-moistened outskirts of the basin, enclosing the arid steppe core in a semicircle. The main background consists of meadow steppes and steppe meadows on leached and podzolized chernozems, now almost completely plowed. Among them are scattered birch stakes on podzolized gray forest soils. The steppe core of the Kuznetsk basin is located in the Salair region, it is also completely replaced by agricultural land. In the past, under the most favorable moisture conditions, they grew here forb-grass steppes, in less moisturized areas – feather grass-grass steppes on chernozem soils. On the slopes of Salair they are replaced by rocky steppe, and in Pre-Salair they are replaced by halophytic vegetation on saline soils. Semi-desert areas occur in Tuva.
Altitudinal zone. In many areas of the northern and western parts of the Altai-Sayan country, a steppe-forest-steppe type of altitudinal zone is observed. In the eastern and southern regions with an increased degree of continentality and aridity of climate, it is replaced by the southern taiga type of altitudinal zone. In both cases, the mountain-taiga belt predominates in the structure of altitudinal zonation. In the steppe-forest-steppe type, this belt is dominated by aspen-fir (black taiga), and in the taiga type, light coniferous (Siberian larch) forests dominate. In the lower part of the mountain taiga belt, only along the slopes of eastern exposure in the foothills (from 250-300 m a.l.), the belt spreads in the form of separate forests birch-light coniferous forests. They are typical for the northeastern foothills of Salair, where Scots pine clearly predominates, but in the northern direction the role of Siberian larch increases; northeastern foothills of the Kuznetsk Highlands (dominated by larch) and Eastern Altai. Along with conifers, there are significant admixtures of birch, and birch forests are not uncommon. In the absence (“loss”) of this belt in the foothills and low mountains, a belt is allocated fir-aspen forests (black taiga) with the dominance of Siberian fir, which is replaced in clearings, forest clearings, edges and fires by aspen, and less often by birch. There is also an admixture of Siberian cedar, Scots pine and larch. Under conditions of significant steepness of slopes, a special variety of pseudopodzolic mountain taiga soils develops. The black taiga occupies the largest areas in the Kuznetsk Highlands, Salair, in the foothills of the Kuznetsk Basin, in the northeastern part of the Altai Mountains, in the Sayan Mountains and in the east of Tuva.
The admixture of cedar increases with altitude, and at altitudes of 800-2000 m (lower boundary of the belt) - 1100-2500 m the dark coniferous taiga belt spreads with a significant role of cedar(from minor admixture to fir to the appearance of pure cedar forests). The nature of soil formation changes with altitude, leading to the dominance of brown pseudopodzolic mountain taiga soils. The heights of the belt increase from the foothills of the Kuznetsk Basin to the Western Sayan and Eastern Altai.
Within the Rudny Altai, the southern part of the Altai Mountains, Tuva, the inner parts of the Sayan Mountains, the northeastern slope of the Kuznetsk Alatau, the lower part of the mountain taiga belt is dominated by Siberian larch. On the slopes of northern exposure the soil is covered with lichen, and on the southern slopes there is grass cover. With altitude, the role of cedar admixture increases, and then cedar forests. The altitudinal zonation is perfectly visible when crossing the Seminsky Pass
Near the upper border of the forest, the cedar forests take on a depressed appearance: the trees become stunted, twisted, in open areas under the influence of frequent and strong winds their crown takes on a flag-like shape. Dwarf thickets of coniferous species, most often dwarf cedar, appear. Dominance passes to Podgoltsy(or subalpine) belt. Its development occurs on steep slopes dotted with angular granite blocks (kurums), often well camouflaged by vegetation. Along with dwarf trees, tall subalpine shrubs (birch, willow) and tall grass subalpine meadows on subalpine soils are common here. Moss-lichen tundras with an admixture of shrubs and big amount mushrooms The fauna is specific: partridges, bats, hay pikas, mustelids, and occasionally musk deer and reindeer.
Loach (alpine) The belt is occupied by mountain tundras and alpine meadows. Their distribution is controlled by the thickness of the snow cover: with high thickness, the soils are free of permafrost, which contributes to the appearance of short-grass alpine meadows on alpine soils. The absence or low thickness of snow cover ensures the development of permafrost and the emergence of mountain tundras of various types: moss-lichen, shrub, sedge, herbaceous on mountain tundra soils. Above the alpine belt, rocky wastelands, rocky cliffs, snowfields and glaciers are developed.
A peculiar manifestation of altitudinal zonation is observed in the intermountain basins of the Altai-Sayan country located at different altitude levels. Their bottoms, in conditions of a sharp deficit of moisture and a significant increase in the degree of continentality of their climate, are usually treeless - mountain-steppe landscapes dominate there. There are two types of mountain steppes.
1. Steppes of low- and mid-mountain basins and plateaus with a very short period of flowering and development associated with spring moisture reserves and unfavorable temperature conditions. The typical steppe vegetation (feather grass, tonkonogo, alfalfa, sainfoin, buttercup, lumbago, adonis, anemone) growing on southern chernozems is mixed with subalpine representatives (edelweiss, astragalus).
2. Steppes of mid- and high-mountain basins lying above 1500 m (Chuya steppe, Ukok plateau and others). Low-growing and creeping forms of pebble feather grass, caragana, halophytes and alpine representatives predominate. In more arid conditions (Tuva), on chestnut soils, often rocky and gravelly, dry steppes and semi-deserts appear with the predominance of cold wormwood, dwarf caragana, and xerophytic grasses. Within the Kemerovo region, in the southern part of Mountain Shoria, in small basins in the basins of the Kondoma, Mrassu and upper Tom rivers (Kabyrzinsko-Mrasskaya, Verkhnekondomskaya, Ortonsko-Mrasskaya) there are areas of mountain-steppe landscapes. In conditions of an increased degree of continental climate (Ivanov continentality index 71-75% instead of 55-65% in most of the highlands), low precipitation (850-870 mm versus 900-1175 mm on the highlands), low snow cover (75 cm, highlands - over 100 cm), soil freezing (their surface temperature is up to –24 degrees (usually –17 degrees)) and the development of chievo-volosnetsy, anthracite and small sedge steppe meadows and steppes on mountain meadow soils with signs of salinity.
Physico-geographical zoning. Unit allocation highest rank – physical-geographical country is carried out taking into account the following criteria. A. Geomorphological criterion: in terms of the dominance of mountainous terrain, it is clearly contrasted with the large plains of neighboring countries. B. Geotectonic criterion: a mountain-folded region of different ages against the background of platform (plate) structures of plain Siberia. B. Macroclimatic criterion - the “variegated” climate of a mountainous country with a reduced degree of continentality in comparison with the comparative uniformity of the climate of lowland countries. D. The presence of altitudinal zonality of soil and vegetation cover instead of the dominance of latitudinal zonality of neighboring plains.
Two stand out physical and geographical areas. The selection criterion is the type of altitudinal zonation. Within the regions, physico-geographical provinces and districts(units of the third and fourth ranks). The internal zoning scheme of the Altai-Sayan country takes on the following form.
A. Kuznetsk-Altai region. It is dominated by the steppe-forest-steppe type of altitudinal zone. There are two provinces: a. Altaiskaya, b. Salairo-Kuznetskaya. The latter is divided into regions (Tom-Kolyvan Plain; Kuznetsk Basin; Salair; Kuznetsk Alatau; Mountain Shoria). Genetic differences in physical and geographical areas are predetermined by the specifics (total amplitude and speed) of the latest tectonic uplifts. This led to differences in relief, climate, hydrology, soil and vegetation cover, fauna, and ultimately to the emergence of natural complexes that differ from each other (physical-geographical regions or landscapes).
B. Sayano-Tuva region with the dominance of the (southern) taiga type of altitudinal zone and the identification of provinces: a. Sayanskaya, b. Tuva.