When was the Livonian war? Livonian War (1558–1583)

After the conquest of Kazan, Russia turned its gaze to the Baltic and put forward plans to capture Livonia. For Russia main goal The Livonian War was the conquest of access to the Baltic Sea. The struggle for supremacy at sea was between Lithuania and Poland, Sweden, Denmark and Russia.

The reason for the start of the war was the failure of the Livonian Order to pay tribute, which they were obliged to pay under the peace treaty of 1554. In 1558, Russian troops invaded Livonia.

At the first stage of the war (1558-1561), several cities and castles were taken, including such significant ones as Narva, Dorpat, Yuryev.

Instead of continuing the successfully launched offensive, the Moscow government granted the Order a truce and at the same time equipped an expedition against the Crimea. Taking advantage of the respite, the Livonian knights gathered military forces and, a month before the end of the truce, defeated the Russian troops.

Russia did not achieve results in the war against the Crimean Khanate and missed favorable opportunities for victory in Livonia. Moscow made peace with Crimea and concentrated all its forces in Livonia.

The second stage of the war (1562-1578) for Russia passed with varying degrees of success.

Russia's highest achievement in the Livonian War was the capture of Polotsk in February 1563, after which military failures followed

In 1566, Lithuanian ambassadors came to Moscow with a proposal for a truce and so that Polotsk and part of Livonia would remain with Moscow. Ivan the Terrible demanded all of Livonia. Such demands were rejected, and the Lithuanian king Sigismund Augustus resumed the war with Russia. In 1568, Sweden dissolved its previously concluded alliance with Russia. In 1569, Poland and Lithuania united into a single state - the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. After the death of Sigismund Augustus in 1572, Stefan Batory took the throne.

The third stage of the Livonian War (1679-1583) began with the invasion of Russia by the Polish king Stefan Batory. At the same time, Russia had to fight with Sweden. On September 9, 1581, Sweden captured Narva, and after that the continuation of the struggle for Livonia lost its meaning for Grozny. Realizing the impossibility of waging war against two opponents at once, the tsar began negotiations with Batory on a truce in order to concentrate all forces on the reconquest of Narva. But plans to attack Narva remained unfulfilled.

The result of the Livonian War was the conclusion of two treaties that were unfavorable for Russia.

On January 15, 1582, the Yam Zapolsky Treaty on a 10-year truce was signed. Russia ceded all its possessions in Livonia to Poland, and Batory returned to Russia the fortresses and cities he had conquered, but retained Polotsk.

In August 1583, Russia and Sweden signed the Treaty of Plus on a three-year truce. The Swedes retained all the captured Russian cities. Russia has retained a section of the coast of the Gulf of Finland with the mouth of the Neva.

The end of the Livonian War did not give Russia access to the Baltic Sea.

In January 1582, a ten-year truce with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was concluded in Yama-Zapolsky (near Pskov). Under this agreement, Russia renounced Livonia and Belarusian lands, but some border Russian lands seized by the Polish king during hostilities were returned to her.

The defeat of the Russian troops in the simultaneous war with Poland, where the tsar was faced with the need to decide even to cede Pskov if the city was taken by storm, forced Ivan IV and his diplomats to negotiate with Sweden on the conclusion of the Treaty of Plus, humiliating for the Russian state. . Negotiations at Plus took place from May to August 1583. Under this agreement:

ü The Russian state lost all its acquisitions in Livonia. Behind it remained only a narrow section of access to the Baltic Sea in the Gulf of Finland from the Strelka River to the Sestra River (31.5 km).

ü The cities of Ivan-gorod, Yam, Koporye passed to the Swedes along with Narva (Rugodiv).

ü In Karelia, the Kexholm (Korela) fortress went to the Swedes, along with a vast county and the coast of Lake Ladoga.

The Russian state again found itself cut off from the sea. The country was devastated, central and northwestern regions depopulated. Russia lost a significant part of its territory.

Chapter 3. Domestic historians about the Livonian War

Domestic historiography reflects the problems of society during critical periods in the development of our country, which is accompanied by the formation of a new, modern society, then the views of historians on certain historical events change according to the times. The views of modern historians on the Livonian War are practically unanimous and do not cause much disagreement. The views of Tatishchev, Karamzin, and Pogodin about the Livonian War, which were dominant in the 19th century, are now perceived as archaic. In the works of N.I. Kostomarova, S.M. Solovyova, V.O. Klyuchevsky reveals a new vision of the problem.

Livonian War (1558-1583). Causes. Move. Results

At the beginning of the twentieth century, another change took place social order. During this transitional period, outstanding historians came to Russian historical science - representatives of different historical schools: statesman S.F. Platonov, creator of the “proletarian-internationalist” school M.N. Pokrovsky, a very original philosopher R.Yu. Whipper, who explained the events of the Livonian War from their points of view. During the Soviet period, historical schools successively replaced each other: the “Pokrovsky school” in the mid-1930s. The 20th century was replaced by the “patriotic school”, which was replaced by the “new Soviet historical school” (from the late 1950s of the 20th century), among whose adherents we can mention A.A. Zimina, V.B. Kobrina, R.G. Skrynnikova.

N.M. Karamzin (1766-1826) assessed the Livonian War as a whole as “unfortunate, but not inglorious for Russia.” The historian places responsibility for the defeat in the war on the tsar, whom he accuses of “cowardice” and “confusion of spirit.”

According to N.I. Kostomarov (1817-1885) in 1558, before the start of the Livonian War, Ivan IV was faced with an alternative - either “deal with the Crimea” or “take possession of Livonia”. A historian explains the contradictory common sense Ivan IV’s decision to fight on two fronts due to “discord” between his advisors. In his works Kostomarov writes that Livonian War drained the strength and labor of the Russian people. The historian explains the failure of the Russian troops in the confrontation with the Swedes and Poles by the complete demoralization of the Russian armed forces as a result of oprichnina actions. According to Kostomarov, as a result of peace with Poland and a truce with Sweden, “ western reaches states shrank, the fruits of long-term efforts were lost.”

The Livonian War, which began in 1559, S.M. Soloviev (1820-1879) explains by Russia’s need to “assimilate the fruits of European civilization,” the bearers of which were allegedly not allowed into Rus' by the Livonians, who owned the main Baltic ports. The loss of Ivan IV's seemingly conquered Livonia was the result of simultaneous actions against the Russian troops of the Poles and Swedes, as well as the result of the superiority of the regular (mercenary) army and European military art over the Russian noble militia.

According to S.F. Platonov (1860-1933), Russia was drawn into the Livonian War. The historian believes that Russia could not avoid what “was happening on its western borders”, which “exploited it and oppressed it (with unfavorable terms of trade).” The defeat of the troops of Ivan IV at the last stage of the Livonian War is explained by the fact that then there were “signs of a clear depletion of means for the fight.” The historian also notes, mentioning the economic crisis that befell the Russian state, that Stefan Batory “beat an already lying enemy, not defeated by him, but who had lost his strength before fighting him.”

M.N. Pokrovsky (1868-1932) claims that the Livonian War was allegedly started by Ivan IV on the recommendation of some advisers - without any doubt, from the ranks of the “military”. The historian notes both the “very opportune moment” for the invasion and the absence of “almost any formal reason” for it. Pokrovsky explains the intervention of the Swedes and Poles in the war by the fact that they could not allow “the entire south-eastern coast of the Baltic” with trading ports to come under Russian rule. Pokrovsky considers the main defeats of the Livonian War to be the unsuccessful sieges of Revel and the loss of Narva and Ivangorod. He also notes big influence on the outcome of the Crimean invasion of 1571.

According to R.Yu. Vipper (1859-1954), the Livonian War was prepared long before 1558 by the leaders of the Elected Rada and could have been won if Russia had acted earlier. The historian considers the battles for the Eastern Baltic to be the largest of all wars fought by Russia, as well as “ the most important event pan-European history". Whipper explains the defeat of Russia by the fact that by the end of the war “ military device Russia" was in disintegration, and "the ingenuity, flexibility and adaptability of Grozny ended."

A.A. Zimin (1920-1980) connects the decision of the Moscow government “to raise the issue of annexing the Baltic states” with “the strengthening of the Russian state in the 16th century.” Among the motives that prompted this decision, he highlights the need to acquire Russia's access to the Baltic Sea to expand cultural and economic ties with Europe. Thus, the Russian merchants were interested in the war; the nobility hoped to acquire new lands. Zimin considers the involvement of “a number of major Western powers” ​​in the Livonian War as the result of “the short-sighted policy of the Chosen Rada.” The historian connects Russia’s defeat in the war with this, as well as with the ruin of the country, with the demoralization of service people, and with the death of skilled military leaders during the oprichnina years.

The beginning of the “War for Livonia” R.G. Skrynnikov associates it with Russia’s “first success” - the victory in the war with the Swedes (1554-1557), under the influence of which “plans for the conquest of Livonia and establishment in the Baltic states” were put forward. The historian points to Russia’s “special goals” in the war, the main one of which was to create conditions for Russian trade. After all, the Livonian Order and German merchants interfered with the commercial activities of the Muscovites, and Ivan IV’s attempts to organize his own “shelter” at the mouth of the Narova failed. The defeat of the Russian troops at the last stage of the Livonian War, according to Skrynnikov, was the result of the entry into the war of the Polish armed forces led by Stefan Batory. The historian notes that in the army of Ivan IV at that time there were not 300 thousand people, as previously stated, but only 35 thousand. In addition, the twenty-year war and the ruin of the country contributed to the weakening of the noble militia. Skrynnikov explains the conclusion of peace by Ivan IV with the renunciation of Livonian possessions in favor of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth by the fact that Ivan IV wanted to focus on the war with the Swedes.

According to V.B. Kobrin (1930-1990) The Livonian War became unpromising for Russia when, some time after the start of the conflict, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland became opponents of Moscow. Historian notes key role Adashev, who was one of the leaders of Russian foreign policy, in unleashing the Livonian War. Kobrin considers the conditions of the Russian-Polish truce concluded in 1582 not humiliating, but rather difficult for Russia. He notes in this regard that the goal of the war was not achieved - “the reunification of the Ukrainian and Belarusian lands that were part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the annexation of the Baltic states.” The historian considers the conditions of the truce with Sweden even more difficult, since a significant part of the coast of the Gulf of Finland, which was part of the Novgorod land, was “lost.”

Conclusion

Thus:

1. The purpose of the Livonian War was to give Russia access to the Baltic Sea in order to break the blockade from Livonia, the Polish-Lithuanian state and Sweden and establish direct communication with European countries.

2. The immediate reason for the start of the Livonian War was the issue of the “Yuriev tribute.”

3. The beginning of the war (1558) brought victories to Ivan the Terrible: Narva and Yuryev were taken. The military operations that began in 1560 brought new defeats to the Order: the large fortresses of Marienburg and Fellin were taken, the order army blocking the path to Viljandi was defeated near Ermes, and the Master of the Order Fürstenberg himself was captured. The successes of the Russian army were facilitated by the peasant uprisings that broke out in the country against the German feudal lords. The result of the company of 1560 was the virtual defeat Livonian Order as states.

4. From 1561, the Livonian War entered its second period, when Russia was forced to wage war with the Polish-Lithuanian state and Sweden.

5. Since Lithuania and Poland in 1570 could not quickly concentrate forces against the Moscow state, because were exhausted by the war, Ivan IV began in May 1570 to negotiate a truce with Poland and Lithuania and at the same time create, having neutralized Poland, an anti-Swedish coalition, realizing his long-standing idea of ​​​​forming a vassal state from Russia in the Baltic States. The Danish Duke Magnus in May 1570 was proclaimed “King of Livonia” upon his arrival in Moscow.

6. The Russian government pledged to provide the new state, settled on the island of Ezel, with its military assistance and material resources so that it could expand its territory at the expense of the Swedish and Lithuanian-Polish possessions in Livonia.

7. The proclamation of the Livonian Kingdom was supposed, according to the calculations of Ivan IV, to provide Russia with the support of the Livonian feudal lords, i.e. all German knighthood and nobility in Estland, Livonia and Courland, and therefore not only an alliance with Denmark (through Magnus), but also, most importantly, alliance and support for the Habsburg Empire. With this new combination in Russian foreign policy, the Tsar intended to create a vice on two fronts for an overly aggressive and restless Poland, which had grown due to the inclusion of Lithuania. While Sweden and Denmark were at war with each other, Ivan IV led successful actions against Sigismund II Augustus. In 1563, the Russian army took Plock, a fortress that opened the way to the capital of Lithuania, Vilna, and Riga. But already at the beginning of 1564, the Russians suffered a series of defeats on the Ulla River and near Orsha.

8. By 1577, in fact, all of Livonia north of the Western Dvina (Vidzeme) was in the hands of the Russians, except for Riga, which, as a Hanseatic city, Ivan IV decided to spare. However, military successes did not lead to a victorious end to the Livonian War. The fact is that Russia by this time had lost the diplomatic support that it had at the beginning of the Swedish stage of the Livonian War. Firstly, Emperor Maximilian II died in October 1576, and hopes for the capture of Poland and its division did not materialize. Secondly, a new king came to power in Poland - Stefan Batory, former prince Semigradsky, one of the best commanders of his time, who was a supporter of an active Polish-Swedish alliance against Russia. Thirdly, Denmark disappeared completely as an ally and, finally, in 1578-1579. Stefan Batory managed to persuade Duke Magnus to betray the king.

9. In 1579, Batory captured Polotsk and Velikie Luki, in 1581 he besieged Pskov, and by the end of 1581 the Swedes captured the entire coast of Northern Estonia, Narva, Wesenberg (Rakovor, Rakvere), Haapsalu, Pärnu and the entire Southern (Russian) ) Estonia - Fellin (Viljandi), Dorpat (Tartu). In Ingria, Ivan-gorod, Yam, Koporye were taken, and in the Ladoga region - Korela.

10. In January 1582, a ten-year truce with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was concluded in Yama-Zapolsky (near Pskov). Under this agreement, Russia renounced Livonia and Belarusian lands, but some border Russian lands seized by the Polish king during hostilities were returned to her.

11. The Treaty of Plus was concluded with Sweden. Under this agreement, the Russian state was deprived of all its acquisitions in Livonia. The cities of Ivan-gorod, Yam, Koporye passed to the Swedes along with Narva (Rugodiv). In Karelia, the Kexholm (Korela) fortress went to the Swedes, along with a vast district and the coast of Lake Ladoga.

12. In the end, Russian state found itself cut off from the sea. The country was devastated, the central and northwestern regions were depopulated. Russia lost a significant part of its territory.

List of used literature

1. Zimin A.A. History of the USSR from ancient times to the present day. – M., 1966.

2. Karamzin N.M. History of Russian Goverment. - Kaluga, 1993.

3. Klyuchevsky V.O. Russian history course. - M. 1987.

4. Kobrin V.B. Ivan groznyj. - M., 1989.

5. Platonov S.F. Ivan the Terrible (1530-1584). Whipper R.Yu. Ivan the Terrible / Comp. D.M. Kholodikhin. - M., 1998.

6. Skrynnikov R.G. Ivan groznyj. – M., 1980.

7. Soloviev S.M. Essays. History of Russia from ancient times. - M., 1989.

Read in the same book: Introduction | Chapter 1. Creation of Livonia | Military actions of 1561 - 1577 |mybiblioteka.su - 2015-2018. (0.095 sec.)

The best thing history gives us is the enthusiasm it arouses.

The Livonian War lasted from 1558 to 1583. During the war, Ivan the Terrible sought to gain access to and capture the port cities of the Baltic Sea, which was supposed to significantly improve economic situation Rus', due to improved trade. In this article we will talk briefly about the Levon War, as well as all its aspects.

Beginning of the Livonian War

The sixteenth century was a period of continuous wars. The Russian state sought to protect itself from its neighbors and return lands that had previously been part of Ancient Rus'.

Wars were fought on several fronts:

• The eastern direction was marked by the conquest of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, as well as the beginning of the development of Siberia.
• The southern direction of foreign policy represented the eternal struggle with the Crimean Khanate.
• The western direction is the events of the long, difficult and very bloody Livonian War (1558–1583), which will be discussed.

Livonia is a region in the eastern Baltic. On the territory of modern Estonia and Latvia. In those days, there was a state created as a result of the crusader conquests. How public education, it was weak due to national contradictions (the Baltic people were placed in feudal dependence), religious split (the Reformation penetrated there), and the struggle for power among the elite.

Map of the Livonian War

Reasons for the start of the Livonian War

Ivan IV the Terrible began the Livonian War against the backdrop of the success of his foreign policy in other areas. The Russian prince-tsar sought to push the borders of the state back in order to gain access to shipping areas and ports of the Baltic Sea. And the Livonian Order gave the Russian Tsar ideal reasons for starting the Livonian War:

1. Refusal to pay tribute. In 1503, the Livn Order and Rus' signed a document according to which the former agreed to pay an annual tribute to the city of Yuryev. In 1557, the Order unilaterally withdrew from this obligation.
2. The weakening of the foreign political influence of the Order against the backdrop of national disagreements.

Speaking about the reason, we should focus on the fact that Livonia separated Rus' from the sea and blocked trade. Large merchants and nobles who wanted to appropriate new lands were interested in capturing Livonia. But main reason One can highlight the ambitions of Ivan IV the Terrible. Victory was supposed to strengthen his influence, so he waged the war, regardless of the circumstances and the meager capabilities of the country for the sake of his own greatness.

Progress of the war and main events

The Livonian War was fought with long interruptions and is historically divided into four stages.

First stage of the war

In the first stage (1558–1561) fighting were relatively successful for Russia. In the first months, the Russian army captured Dorpat, Narva and was close to capturing Riga and Revel. The Livonian Order was on the verge of destruction and asked for a truce. Ivan the Terrible agreed to stop the war for 6 months, but this was a huge mistake. During this time, the Order came under the protectorate of Lithuania and Poland, as a result of which Russia received not one weak, but two strong opponents.

The most dangerous enemy for Russia was Lithuania, which at that time could in some aspects surpass the Russian kingdom in its potential. Moreover, the Baltic peasants were dissatisfied with the newly arrived Russian landowners, the cruelties of war, extortions and other disasters.

Second stage of the war

The second stage of the war (1562–1570) began with the fact that the new owners of the Livonian lands demanded that Ivan the Terrible withdraw his troops and abandon Livonia. In fact, it was proposed that the Livonian War should end, and Russia would be left with nothing as a result. After the tsar’s refusal to do this, the war for Russia finally turned into an adventure. The war with Lithuania lasted 2 years and was unsuccessful for the Russian Kingdom. The conflict could only be continued in conditions of the oprichnina, especially since the boyars were against the continuation of hostilities. Earlier, for dissatisfaction with the Livonian War, in 1560 the tsar dispersed the “Elected Rada”.

It was at this stage of the war that Poland and Lithuania united into a single state - the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. It was a strong power that everyone, without exception, had to reckon with.

Third stage of the war

The third stage (1570–1577) involved local battles between Russia and Sweden for the territory of modern Estonia. They ended without any significant results for both sides. All battles were local in nature and did not have any significant impact on the course of the war.

The fourth stage of the war

At the fourth stage of the Livonian War (1577–1583), Ivan IV again captured the entire Baltic region, but soon the tsar’s luck ran out and the Russian troops were defeated. The new king of the united Poland and Lithuania (Rzeczpospolita), Stefan Batory, expelled Ivan the Terrible from the Baltic region, and even managed to capture a number of cities already on the territory of the Russian kingdom (Polotsk, Velikiye Luki, etc.).

Livonian War 1558-1583

The fighting was accompanied by terrible bloodshed. Since 1579, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth has been assisted by Sweden, which acted very successfully, capturing Ivangorod, Yam, and Koporye.

Russia was saved from complete defeat by the defense of Pskov (from August 1581). During the 5 months of the siege, the garrison and residents of the city repulsed 31 assault attempts, weakening Batory’s army.

The end of the war and its results

The Yam-Zapolsky truce between the Russian kingdom and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1582 put an end to a long and unnecessary war. Russia abandoned Livonia. The coast of the Gulf of Finland was lost. It was captured by Sweden, with which the Treaty of Plus was signed in 1583.

Thus, we can highlight the following reasons for the defeat of the Russian state, which sums up the results of the Liovno War:

• adventurism and ambitions of the tsar - Russia could not wage a war simultaneously with three strong states;
• the harmful influence of the oprichnina, economic ruin, Tatar attacks.
• A deep economic crisis within the country, which erupted during the 3rd and 4th stages of hostilities.

Despite the negative outcome, it was the Livonian War that determined the direction of Russian foreign policy in long years forward - to get access to the Baltic Sea.

Siege of Pskov by King Stefan Batory in 1581, Karl Pavlovich Bryullov

• Date: January 15, 1582.
• Place: village of Kiverova Gora, 15 versts from Zapolsky Yam.
• Type: peace treaty.
• Military conflict: Livonian War.
• Participants, countries: Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - Russian kingdom.
• Participants, country representatives: J. Zbarazhsky, A. Radziwill, M. Garaburda and H. Varshevitsky - D. P. Eletsky, R.

  Livonian War

  V. Olferev, N. N. Vereshchagin and Z. Sviyazev.

• Negotiating mediator: Antonio Possevino.

The Yam-Zapolsky Peace Treaty was concluded on January 15, 1582 between the Russian Empire and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. This agreement was concluded for 10 years and became one of the main acts that ended the Livonian War.

Yam-Zapolsky Peace Treaty: conditions, results and significance

Under the terms of the Yam-Zapolsky Peace Treaty, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth returned all conquered Russian cities and territories, namely the Pskov and Novgorod lands. The exception was the region of Velizh, where the border that existed until 1514 (until the annexation of Smolensk to the Russian kingdom) was restored.

The Russian kingdom gave up all its territories in the Baltic states (territory belonging to the Livonian Order). Stefan Batory also demanded large monetary compensation, but Ivan IV refused him. The agreement, at the insistence of the ambassadors of the Russian Empire, did not mention the Livonian cities that were captured by Sweden. And although the ambassadors of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth made a special statement stipulating territorial claims against Sweden, this issue remained open.

In 1582, the treaty was ratified in Moscow. Ivan IV the Terrible intended to use this treaty to build up forces and resume active hostilities with Sweden, which was not implemented in practice. Despite the fact that the Russian Empire did not acquire new territories and did not resolve contradictions with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the threat in the form of the Livonian Order no longer existed.

Introduction 3

1.Causes of the Livonian War 4

2.Stages of war 6

3. Results and consequences of the war 14

Conclusion 15

References 16

Introduction.

The relevance of research. The Livonian War is a significant stage in Russian history. Long and grueling, it brought Russia many losses. It is very important and relevant to consider this event, because any military action changed geopolitical map our country, had a significant impact on its further socio-economic development. This directly applies to the Livonian War. It will also be interesting to reveal the variety of points of view on the causes of this collision, the opinions of historians on this matter.

Article: Livonian War, its political meaning and consequences

After all, pluralism of opinions indicates that there are many contradictions in views. Consequently, the topic has not been sufficiently studied and is relevant for further consideration.

Purpose This work is to reveal the essence of the Livonian War. To achieve the goal, it is necessary to consistently solve a number of tasks :

- identify the causes of the Livonian War

- analyze its stages

- consider the results and consequences of the war

1.Causes of the Livonian War

After the annexation of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates to the Russian state, the threat of invasion from the east and southeast was eliminated. Ivan the Terrible is faced with new tasks - to return the Russian lands once captured by the Livonian Order, Lithuania and Sweden.

In general, it is possible to clearly identify the causes of the Livonian War. However, Russian historians interpret them differently.

For example, N.M. Karamzin connects the beginning of the war with the ill will of the Livonian Order. Karamzin fully approves of Ivan the Terrible’s aspirations to reach the Baltic Sea, calling them “beneficent intentions for Russia.”

N.I. Kostomarov believes that on the eve of the war, Ivan the Terrible was faced with an alternative - either to deal with Crimea or to take possession of Livonia. The historian explains Ivan IV’s counterintuitive decision to fight on two fronts by “discord” between his advisers.

S.M. Soloviev explains the Livonian War by Russia’s need to “assimilate the fruits of European civilization,” the bearers of which were not allowed into Rus' by the Livonians, who owned the main Baltic ports.

IN. Klyuchevsky practically does not consider the Livonian War at all, since he analyzes the external position of the state only from the point of view of its influence on the development of socio-economic relations within the country.

S.F. Platonov believes that Russia was simply drawn into the Livonian War. The historian believes that Russia could not evade what was happening on its western borders, could not come to terms with unfavorable terms of trade.

M.N. Pokrovsky believes that Ivan the Terrible started the war on the recommendations of certain “advisers” from among the army.

According to R.Yu. Vipper, “The Livonian War was prepared and planned for quite a long time by the leaders of the Elected Rada.”

R.G. Skrynnikov connects the start of the war with Russia’s first success - the victory in the war with the Swedes (1554-1557), under the influence of which plans were put forward to conquer Livonia and establish itself in the Baltic states. The historian also notes that “the Livonian War turned the Eastern Baltic into an arena of struggle between states seeking dominance in the Baltic Sea.”

V.B. Kobrin pays attention to the personality of Adashev and notes his key role in the outbreak of the Livonian War.

In general, formal reasons were found for the start of the war. The real reasons were Russia’s geopolitical need to gain access to the Baltic Sea, as the most convenient for direct connections with the centers of European civilizations, as well as the desire to take an active part in the division of the territory of the Livonian Order, the progressive collapse of which was becoming obvious, but which, unwilling strengthening Russia, hindered its external contacts. For example, the Livonian authorities did not allow more than a hundred specialists from Europe invited by Ivan IV to pass through their lands. Some of them were imprisoned and executed.

The formal reason for the start of the Livonian War was the question of the “Yuriev tribute” (Yuriev, later called Dorpat (Tartu), was founded by Yaroslav the Wise). According to the treaty of 1503, an annual tribute had to be paid for it and the surrounding territory, which, however, was not done. In addition, the Order concluded a military alliance with the Lithuanian-Polish king in 1557.

2. Stages of the war.

The Livonian War can be roughly divided into 4 stages. The first (1558-1561) is directly related to the Russian-Livonian war. The second (1562-1569) involved primarily the Russian-Lithuanian war. The third (1570-1576) was distinguished by the resumption of the Russian struggle for Livonia, where they, together with the Danish prince Magnus, fought against the Swedes. The fourth (1577-1583) is associated primarily with the Russian-Polish war. During this period, the Russian-Swedish war continued.

Let's look at each of the stages in more detail.

First stage. In January 1558, Ivan the Terrible moved his troops to Livonia. The beginning of the war brought him victories: Narva and Yuriev were taken. In the summer and autumn of 1558 and at the beginning of 1559, Russian troops marched throughout Livonia (to Revel and Riga) and advanced in Courland to the borders East Prussia and Lithuania. However, in 1559, under the influence politicians, grouped around A.F. Adashev, who prevented the expansion of the scope of the military conflict, Ivan the Terrible was forced to conclude a truce. In March 1559 it was concluded for a period of six months.

The feudal lords took advantage of the truce to conclude an agreement with the Polish king Sigismund II Augustus in 1559, according to which the order, lands and possessions of the Archbishop of Riga came under the protectorate of the Polish crown. In an atmosphere of acute political disagreements in the leadership of the Livonian Order, its master W. Fürstenberg was removed and G. Ketler, who adhered to a pro-Polish orientation, became the new master. In the same year, Denmark took possession of the island of Ösel (Saaremaa).

The military operations that began in 1560 brought new defeats to the Order: the large fortresses of Marienburg and Fellin were taken, the order army blocking the path to Viljandi was defeated near Ermes, and the Master of the Order Fürstenberg himself was captured. The successes of the Russian army were facilitated by the peasant uprisings that broke out in the country against the German feudal lords. The result of the campaign of 1560 was the virtual defeat of the Livonian Order as a state. The German feudal lords of Northern Estonia became Swedish citizens. According to the Treaty of Vilna of 1561, the possessions of the Livonian Order came under the authority of Poland, Denmark and Sweden, and its last master, Ketler, received only Courland, and even then it was dependent on Poland. Thus, instead of weak Livonia, Russia now had three strong opponents.

Second phase. While Sweden and Denmark were at war with each other, Ivan IV led successful actions against Sigismund II Augustus. In 1563, the Russian army took Plock, a fortress that opened the way to the capital of Lithuania, Vilna, and Riga. But already at the beginning of 1564, the Russians suffered a series of defeats on the Ulla River and near Orsha; in the same year, a boyar and a major military leader, Prince A.M., fled to Lithuania. Kurbsky.

Tsar Ivan the Terrible responded to military failures and escapes to Lithuania with repressions against the boyars. In 1565, the oprichnina was introduced. Ivan IV tried to restore the Livonian Order, but under the protectorate of Russia, and negotiated with Poland. In 1566, a Lithuanian embassy arrived in Moscow, proposing to divide Livonia on the basis of the situation existing at that time. Convened at this time Zemsky Sobor supported the intention of the government of Ivan the Terrible to fight in the Baltic states until the capture of Riga: “It is not good for our sovereign to give up those Livonian cities that the king took for protection, but it is good for our sovereign to stand for those cities.” The council's decision also emphasized that abandoning Livonia would harm trade interests.

Third stage. Since 1569 the war becomes protracted. This year, at the Sejm in Lublin, the unification of Lithuania and Poland into a single state took place - the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, with which in 1570 Russia managed to conclude a truce for three years.

Since Lithuania and Poland in 1570 could not quickly concentrate forces against the Moscow state, because were exhausted by the war, Ivan IV began in May 1570 to negotiate a truce with Poland and Lithuania. At the same time, he creates, having neutralized Poland, an anti-Swedish coalition, realizing his long-standing idea of ​​​​forming a vassal state from Russia in the Baltics.

The Danish Duke Magnus accepted Ivan the Terrible’s offer to become his vassal (“gold-holder”) and in the same May 1570, upon his arrival in Moscow, was proclaimed “King of Livonia.” The Russian government pledged to provide the new state, settled on the island of Ezel, with its military assistance and material resources so that it could expand its territory at the expense of the Swedish and Lithuanian-Polish possessions in Livonia. The parties intended to seal the allied relations between Russia and the “kingdom” of Magnus with the marriage of Magnus to the niece of the king, the daughter of Prince Vladimir Andreevich Staritsky - Maria.

The proclamation of the Livonian Kingdom was supposed, according to the calculations of Ivan IV, to provide Russia with the support of the Livonian feudal lords, i.e. all German knighthood and nobility in Estland, Livonia and Courland, and therefore not only an alliance with Denmark (through Magnus), but also, most importantly, alliance and support for the Habsburg Empire. With this new combination in Russian foreign policy, the Tsar intended to create a vice on two fronts for an overly aggressive and restless Poland, which had grown due to the inclusion of Lithuania. Like Vasily IV, Ivan the Terrible also expressed the idea of ​​the possibility and necessity of dividing Poland between the German and Russian states. On a more immediate level, the tsar was concerned about the possibility of creating a Polish-Swedish coalition on his western borders, which he tried with all his might to prevent. All this speaks of the tsar’s correct, strategically deep understanding of the balance of power in Europe and his accurate vision of the problems of Russian foreign policy in the near and long term. That is why his military tactics were correct: he sought to defeat Sweden alone as quickly as possible, until it came to a united Polish-Swedish aggression against Russia.

Ivan the Terrible, no matter how terrible he was, was still an outstanding ruler. In particular, he waged successful wars - for example, with Kazan and Astrakhan. But he also had an unsuccessful campaign. It cannot be said that the Livonian War ended in a real defeat for the Muscovite kingdom, but many years of battles, expenses and losses ended in the actual restoration of the original position.

Window to Europe

Peter the Great was not the first to understand well the importance of the Baltic Sea for Russian, and not only Russian, trade. There is no clear indication in written sources that, when starting the war, his goal was precisely to provide his country with access to the Baltic. But the first king was an educated man, he was interested in foreign experience, ordered specialists from abroad and even wooed Queen of England. Consequently, his actions had so much in common with Peter’s policies (Peter, by the way, was very formidable), that one can reasonably assume that the war that began in 1558 had a “naval” purpose. The king did not need a layer between his state and foreign merchants and craftsmen.

In addition, the support of a number of states for the weak and unauthoritative Livonian Confederation proves the same point: they fought not for Livonia, but against the strengthening of Russia’s trade position.

We conclude: the reasons for the Livonian War boil down to the struggle for the possibilities of Baltic trade and dominance in this matter.

With varied success

It is quite difficult to name the sides of the war. Russia had no allies in it, and its opponents were the Livonian Confederation, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Poland (after the Union of Lublin in 15696), Sweden, and Denmark. At different stages, Russia fought with different opponents in different numbers.

The first stage of the war (1558-1561) against the weak Livonian Confederation was successful for the Moscow army. The Russians took Narva, Neuhausen, Dorpat and many other fortresses and marched through Courland. But the Livonians, taking advantage of the proposed truce, recognized themselves as vassals of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1561, and this large state entered the war.

The course of the war with Lithuania (until 1570) showed its “maritime” essence - Germany and Sweden declared a blockade of Narva, preventing the Russians from gaining a foothold in the Baltic trade. Lithuania fought not only for the Baltic, but also for the lands on its border with Russia, where Polotsk was captured by the Russians in 1564. But further success was on the side of Lithuania, and there were two reasons for this: greed and treason. Many boyars preferred to fight with the Crimea, hoping to profit from the southern black soil. There were many direct traitors, the most famous of whom was Andrei Kurbsky.

At the third stage, Russia fought on two sides: with Sweden (1570-1583) and Denmark (1575-1578) and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1577-1582). For this period, the fact that military operations were most often carried out on previously devastated lands, where the population had a negative attitude towards the Russians due to the duration of the war, was important. Russia itself was also weakened, both by prolonged hostilities and by the oprichnina. Polish-Lithuanian detachments successfully reached quite far into the Russian rear (as far as Yaroslavl). As a result, Lithuania received Polotsk back, and the Swedes captured not only Narva, but also Ivangorod and Koporye.

During this period, funny episodes also occurred. So, the king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Stefan Batory did not find anything better than to send Ivan... a challenge to a personal duel! The Tsar ignored this stupidity, worthy of a petty quarrelsome nobleman, and did the right thing.

Modest results

The war ended with the signing of the Yam-Zapolsky truce with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1582, and in 1583 - the Plyussky truce with Sweden. Russia's territorial losses were insignificant: Ivangorod, Yam, Koporye, a small part of the western lands. Basically, Sweden and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth divided the former Livonia (the current Baltic states and Finland).

For Rus', the main result of the Livonian War was something else. It turned out that for 20 years, with interruptions, Russia fought in vain. Its northwestern regions are depopulated and resources are depleted. Crimean raids on its territory became more devastating. Failures in the Livonian War actually turned Ivan 4 into the Terrible - numerous real betrayals became one of the reasons that, however, the right punished more than the guilty. Military ruin was the first step towards the future Time of Troubles.

Livonian War (briefly)

Livonian War - brief description

After the conquest of the rebellious Kazan, Russia sent forces to take Livonia. Researchers identify two main reasons for the Livonian War: the need for trade by the Russian state in the Baltic, as well as the expansion of its possessions. The struggle for dominance over the Baltic waters was between Russia and Denmark, Sweden, as well as Poland and Lithuania.

The reason for the outbreak of hostilities (Livonian War)

The main reason for the outbreak of hostilities was the fact that the Livonian Order did not pay the tribute that it was supposed to pay under the peace treaty of fifty-four. The Russian army invaded Livonia in 1558. At first (1558-1561), several castles and cities were taken (Yuryev, Narva, Dorpat).

However, instead of continuing the successful offensive, the Moscow government grants a truce to the order, while at the same time equipping a military expedition against Crimea. The Livonian knights, taking advantage of the support, gathered forces and defeated the Moscow troops a month before the end of the truce.

Russia did not achieve a positive result from military actions against Crimea. The favorable moment for victory in Livonia was also missed. Master Ketler in 1561 signed an agreement according to which the order came under the protectorate of Poland and Lithuania.

After making peace with the Crimean Khanate, Moscow concentrated its forces on Livonia, but now, instead of a weak order, it had to face several powerful contenders at once. And if at first it was possible to avoid a war with Denmark and Sweden, then a war with the Polish-Lithuanian king was inevitable.

Biggest achievement Russian troops in the second stage of the Livonian War there was the capture of Polotsk in 1563, after which there were many fruitless negotiations and unsuccessful battles, as a result of which even the Crimean Khan decided to abandon the alliance with the Moscow government.

The final stage of the Livonian War

The final stage of the Livonian War (1679-1683)- the military invasion of the Polish king Batory into Russia, which was simultaneously at war with Sweden. In August, Stefan Batory took Polotsk, and a year later Velikiye Luki and small towns were taken. On September 9, 1581, Sweden took Narva, Koporye, Yam, Ivangorod, after which the struggle for Livonia ceased to be relevant for Grozny. Since it was impossible to wage war with two enemies, the king concluded a truce with Batory.

The result of this war it was a complete conclusion two treaties that were not beneficial for Russia, as well as the loss of many cities.

Main events and chronology of the Livonian War

Description of the Livonian War

The Livonian War (1558–1583) was a war of the Russian kingdom against the Livonian Order, the Polish-Lithuanian state, Sweden and Denmark for hegemony in the Baltic states.

Main events (Livonian War - briefly)

Causes: Access to the Baltic Sea. Hostile policy of the Livonian Order.

Occasion: Refusal of the order to pay tribute for Yuriev (Dorpat).

First stage (1558-1561): The capture of Narva, Yuryev, Fellin, the capture of Master Furstenberg, the Livonian Order as military force practically ceased to exist.

Second stage (1562-1577): Entry into the war of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (since 1569) and Sweden. Capture of Polotsk (1563). Defeat on the river Ule and near Orsha (1564). Capture of Weissenstein (1575) and Wenden (1577).

Third stage (1577-1583): Campaign of Stefan Batory, Fall of Polotsk, Velikiye Luki. Defense of Pskov (August 18, 1581 - February 4, 1582) Capture of Narva, Ivangorod, Koporye by the Swedes.

1582– Yam-Zapolsky truce with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Ivan the Terrible’s refusal from Livonia for the return of lost Russian fortresses).

1583– Plyusskoe truce with Sweden (renunciation of Estland, concession to the Swedes of Narva, Koporye, Ivangorod, Korela).

Causes of defeat: incorrect assessment of the balance of power in the Baltics, weakening of the state as a result domestic policy Ivan IV.

Progress of the Livonian War (1558–1583) (full description)

Causes

In order to start a war, formal reasons were found, but the real reasons were Russia’s geopolitical need to gain access to the Baltic Sea, as it would be more convenient for direct connections with the centers of European civilizations, and the desire to participate in the division of the territory of the Livonian Order, the progressive collapse of which became obvious, but which, not wanting to strengthen Muscovite Rus', prevented its external contacts.

Russia had a small section of the Baltic coast, from the Neva basin to Ivangorod. However, it was strategically vulnerable and there were no ports or developed infrastructure. Ivan the Terrible hoped to take advantage of the Livonia transport system. He considered it an ancient Russian fiefdom, which was illegally seized by the crusaders.

The forceful solution to the problem predetermined the defiant behavior of the Livonians themselves, who, even according to their historians, acted unreasonably. Mass pogroms served as a reason for aggravation of relations Orthodox churches in Livonia. Even at that time, the truce between Moscow and Livonia (concluded in 1504 as a result of the Russian-Lithuanian war of 1500-1503) had expired. To extend it, the Russians demanded payment of the Yuryev tribute, which the Livonians were obliged to give to Ivan III, but for 50 years they never collected it. Having recognized the need to pay it, they again did not fulfill their obligations.

1558 - the Russian army entered Livonia. Thus began the Livonian War. It lasted 25 years, becoming the longest and one of the most difficult in Russian history.

First stage (1558-1561)

In addition to Livonia, the Russian Tsar wanted to conquer the East Slavic lands, which were part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. 1557, November - he concentrated a 40,000-strong army in Novgorod for a campaign in the Livonian lands.

Capture of Narva and Syrensk (1558)

In December, this army under the command of the Tatar prince Shig-Aley, Prince Glinsky and other governors advanced to Pskov. The auxiliary army of Prince Shestunov, meanwhile, began military operations from the Ivangorod region at the mouth of the Narva (Narova) River. 1558, January - tsarist army approached Yuriev (Derpt), but could not capture it. Then part of the Russian army turned to Riga, and the main forces headed to Narva (Rugodiv), where they united with Shestunov’s army. There was a lull in the fighting. Only the garrisons of Ivangorod and Narva fired at each other. On May 11, Russians from Ivangorod attacked the Narva fortress and were able to take it the next day.

Soon after the capture of Narva, Russian troops under the command of governors Adashev, Zabolotsky and Zamytsky and Duma clerk Voronin were ordered to capture the Syrensk fortress. On June 2, the shelves were under its walls. Adashev set up barriers on the Riga and Kolyvan roads to prevent the main forces of the Livonians under the command of the Master of the Order from reaching Syrensk. On June 5, large reinforcements from Novgorod approached Adashev, which the besieged saw. On the same day, artillery shelling of the fortress began. The next day the garrison surrendered.

Capture of Neuhausen and Dorpat (1558)

From Syrensk, Adashev returned to Pskov, where the entire Russian army was concentrated. In mid-June it took the fortresses of Neuhausen and Dorpat. The entire north of Livonia came under Russian control. The Order's army was numerically several times inferior to the Russians and, moreover, was scattered among separate garrisons. It could do nothing against the king's army. Until October 1558, the Russians in Livonia were able to capture 20 castles.

Battle of Thiersen

1559, January - Russian troops marched on Riga. Near Tiersen they defeated the Livonian army, and near Riga they burned the Livonian fleet. Although it was not possible to capture the Riga fortress, 11 more Livonian castles were taken.

Truce (1559)

The Master of the Order was forced to conclude a truce before the end of 1559. By November of this year, the Livonians were able to recruit Landsknechts in Germany and resume the war. But failures never ceased to haunt them.

1560, January - the army of governor Borboshin captured the fortresses of Marienburg and Fellin. The Livonian Order practically ceased to exist as a military force.

1561 - the last master of the Livonian Order, Kettler, recognized himself as a vassal of the King of Poland and divided Livonia between Poland and Sweden (the island of Ezel went to Denmark). The Poles got Livonia and Courland (Kettler became Duke of the latter), the Swedes got Estland.

Second stage (1562-1577)

Poland and Sweden began to demand the withdrawal of Russian troops from Livonia. Ivan the Terrible not only did not comply with this demand, but also invaded the territory of Lithuania, allied with Poland, at the end of 1562. His army numbered 33,407 men. The goal of the campaign was well-fortified Polotsk. 1563, February 15 - Polotsk, unable to withstand the fire of 200 Russian guns, capitulated. Ivan's army moved to Vilna. The Lithuanians were forced to conclude a truce until 1564. After the resumption of the war, Russian troops occupied almost the entire territory of Belarus.

But the repressions that began against the leaders of the “elected Rada” - the de facto government until the end of the 50s, had negative impact on the combat effectiveness of the Russian army. Many of the governors and nobles, fearing reprisals, preferred to flee to Lithuania. In the same 1564, one of the most prominent governors, Prince Andrei Kurbsky, moved there, close to the Adashev brothers who were part of the elected council and fearing for his life. The subsequent oprichnina terror further weakened the Russian army.

1) Ivan the Terrible; 2) Stefan Batory

Formation of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

1569 - as a result of the Union of Lublin, Poland and Lithuania formed a single state, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Republic), under the leadership of the King of Poland. Now the Polish army came to the aid of the Lithuanian army.

1570 - fighting intensified in both Lithuania and Livonia. To secure the Baltic lands, Ivan IV decided to create his own fleet. At the beginning of 1570, he issued a “charter” to the Dane Karsten Rode to organize a privateer fleet, which acted on behalf of the Russian Tsar. Rohde was able to arm several ships, and he caused significant damage to Polish maritime trade. In order to have a reliable naval base, the Russian army in the same 1570 tried to capture Revel, thereby starting a war with Sweden. But the city unhinderedly received supplies from the sea, and Grozny was forced to lift the siege after 7 months. The Russian privateer fleet was never able to become a formidable force.

Third stage (1577-1583)

After a 7-year lull, in 1577, the 32,000-strong army of Ivan the Terrible launched a new campaign to Revel. But this time the siege of the city brought nothing. Then Russian troops went to Riga, capturing Dinaburg, Volmar and several other castles. But these successes were not decisive.

Meanwhile, the situation on the Polish front began to deteriorate. 1575 - an experienced military leader, the Transylvanian prince, was elected king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. He was able to form a strong army, which also included German and Hungarian mercenaries. Batory concluded an alliance with Sweden, and the united Polish- swedish army in the fall of 1578 she was able to defeat the 18,000-strong Russian army, which lost 6,000 people killed and captured and 17 guns.

By the start of the 1579 campaign, Stefan Batory and Ivan IV had approximately equal main armies of 40,000 men each. After the defeat at Wenden, Grozny was not confident in his abilities and proposed to begin peace negotiations. But Batory rejected this proposal and went on the offensive against Polotsk. In the autumn, Polish troops besieged the city and, after a month-long siege, captured it. The army of governors Shein and Sheremetev, sent to the rescue of Polotsk, only reached the Sokol fortress. They did not dare to engage in battle with superior enemy forces. Soon the Poles captured Sokol, defeating the troops of Sheremetev and Shein. The Russian Tsar clearly did not have enough strength to successfully fight on two fronts at once - in Livonia and Lithuania. After the capture of Polotsk, the Poles took several cities in the Smolensk and Seversk lands, and then returned to Lithuania.

1580 - Batory launched a large campaign against Rus', he captured and ravaged the cities of Ostrov, Velizh and Velikiye Luki. At the same time, the Swedish army under the command of Pontus Delagardie took the city of Korela and eastern part Karelian Isthmus.

1581 - the Swedish army captured Narva, and the following year they occupied Ivangorod, Yam and Koporye. Russian troops were expelled from Livonia. The fighting moved to Russian territory.

Siege of Pskov (August 18, 1581 – February 4, 1582)

1581 - a 50,000-strong Polish army led by the king besieged Pskov. It was a very strong fortress. The city, which stood on the right, high bank of the Velikaya River at the confluence of the Pskov River, was surrounded by a stone wall. It stretched for 10 km and had 37 towers and 48 gates. However, from the side of the Velikaya River, from where it was difficult to expect an enemy attack, the wall was wooden. Under the towers there were underground passages that provided secret communication between different sections of the defense. The city had significant supplies of food, weapons and ammunition.

Russian troops were dispersed over many points from where an enemy invasion was expected. The Tsar himself, with a significant detachment in number, stopped in Staritsa, not risking going towards the Polish army marching towards Pskov.

When the sovereign learned about the invasion of Stefan Batory, the army of Prince Ivan Shuisky, appointed “great governor,” was sent to Pskov. 7 other governors were subordinate to him. All residents of Pskov and the garrison were sworn that they would not surrender the city, but would fight to the end. The total number of Russian troops defending Pskov reached 25,000 people and was approximately half the size of Batory’s army. By order of Shuisky, the outskirts of Pskov were devastated so that the enemy could not find fodder and food there.

Livonian War 1558-1583. Stefan Batory near Pskov

On August 18, Polish troops approached the city within 2–3 cannon shots. For a week, Batory conducted reconnaissance of Russian fortifications and only on August 26 gave the order to his troops to approach the city. But the soldiers soon came under fire from Russian cannons and retreated to the Cherekha River. There Batory set up a fortified camp.

The Poles began to dig trenches and set up tours to get closer to the walls of the fortress. On the night of September 4-5, they drove up to the Pokrovskaya and Svinaya towers on the southern face of the walls and, having placed 20 guns, on the morning of September 6 began to fire at both towers and the 150 m wall between them. By the evening of September 7, the towers were severely damaged, and a 50 m wide gap appeared in the wall. However, the besieged managed to build a new wooden wall against the gap.

On September 8, the Polish army launched an assault. The attackers were able to capture both damaged towers. But with shots from big guns"Leopard", capable of sending cannonballs over a distance of more than 1 km, the Pig Tower occupied by the Poles was destroyed. Then the Russians blew up its ruins by rolling up barrels of gunpowder. The explosion served as a signal for a counterattack, which was led by Shuisky himself. The Poles were unable to hold the Pokrovskaya Tower and retreated.

After the unsuccessful assault, Batory ordered digging to blow up the walls. The Russians were able to destroy two tunnels with the help of mine galleries, but the enemy was never able to complete the rest. On October 24, Polish batteries began shelling Pskov from across the Velikaya River with hot cannonballs to start fires, but the city’s defenders quickly dealt with the fire. After 4 days, a Polish detachment with crowbars and picks approached the wall from the Velikaya side between the corner tower and the Pokrovsky Gate and destroyed the base of the wall. It collapsed, but it turned out that behind this wall there was another wall and a ditch, which the Poles could not overcome. The besieged threw stones and pots of gunpowder on their heads, poured boiling water and tar.

On November 2, the Poles launched their final assault on Pskov. This time Batory's army attacked the western wall. Before this, it had been subjected to heavy shelling for 5 days and was destroyed in several places. However, the Russians met the enemy with heavy fire, and the Poles turned back without reaching the breaches.

By that time, the morale of the besiegers had dropped noticeably. However, the besieged also experienced considerable difficulties. The main forces of the Russian army in Staritsa, Novgorod and Rzhev were inactive. Only two detachments of archers of 600 people each tried to break through to Pskov, but more than half of them died or were captured.

On November 6, Batory removed the guns from the batteries, stopped siege work and began preparing for the winter. At the same time, he sent detachments of Germans and Hungarians to capture the Pskov-Pechersky Monastery 60 km from Pskov, but a garrison of 300 archers, with the support of monks, successfully repelled two attacks, and the enemy was forced to retreat.

Stefan Batory, convinced that he could not take Pskov, in November handed over command to Hetman Zamoyski, and he himself went to Vilna, taking with him almost all the mercenaries. As a result, the number Polish troops decreased by almost half - to 26,000 people. The besiegers suffered from cold and disease, and the death toll and desertion increased.

Results and consequences

Under these conditions, Batory agreed to a ten-year truce. It was concluded in Yama-Zapolsky on January 15, 1582. Rus' renounced all its conquests in Livonia, and the Poles liberated the Russian cities they had occupied.

1583 - the Truce of Plus was signed with Sweden. Yam, Koporye and Ivangorod passed to the Swedes. Only a small section of the Baltic coast at the mouth of the Neva remained behind Russia. But in 1590, after the expiration of the truce, hostilities between the Russians and Swedes resumed and this time were successful for the Russians. As a result, under the Tyavzin Treaty of “Eternal Peace,” Rus' regained Yam, Koporye, Ivangorod and Korelsky district. But this was only small consolation. In general, Ivan IV's attempt to gain a foothold in the Baltic failed.

At the same time, acute contradictions between Poland and Sweden on the issue of control over Livonia eased the position of the Russian Tsar, excluding a joint Polish-Swedish invasion of Rus'. The resources of Poland alone, as the experience of Batory’s campaign against Pskov showed, were clearly insufficient to capture and retain a significant territory of the Muscovite kingdom. At the same time, the Livonian War showed that Sweden and Poland had a formidable enemy in the east that they had to reckon with.