When was the Livonian war? Livonian War consequences

Livonian War The years 1558-1583 became one of the most important campaigns of the times, and perhaps the entire 16th century.

Livonian War: brief background

After the great Moscow Tsar managed to conquer Kazan and

Astrakhan Khanate, Ivan IV turned his attention to the Baltic lands and access to the Baltic Sea. The capture of these territories for the Muscovite kingdom would mean promising opportunities for trade in the Baltic. At the same time, it was extremely unprofitable for the German merchants and the Livonian Order, who had already settled there, to allow new competitors into the region. The Livonian War was supposed to be the resolution of these contradictions. The formal reason for it should also be briefly mentioned. They were motivated by the non-payment of tribute which the Bishopric of Dorpat was obliged to pay in favor of Moscow according to the treaty of 1554. Formally, such tribute existed since the beginning of the 16th century. However, in practice, no one remembered it for a long time. Only with the aggravation of relations between the parties did he use this fact as a justification for the Russian invasion of the Baltic.

Livonian War: briefly about the vicissitudes of the conflict

Russian troops launched an invasion of Livonia in 1558. The first stage of the conflict, which lasted until 1561, ended

crushing defeat Livonian Order. The armies of the Moscow Tsar carried out pogroms across eastern and central Livonia. Dorpat and Riga were taken. In 1559, the parties concluded a truce for six months, which was supposed to develop into a peace treaty on the terms of the Livonian Order from Russia. But the kings of Poland and Sweden hastened to the aid of the German knights. King Sigismund II, through a diplomatic maneuver, managed to take the order under his own protectorate. And in November 1561, under the terms of the Vilna Treaty, the Livonian Order ceased to exist. Its territories are divided between Lithuania and Poland. Now Ivan the Terrible had to confront three powerful rivals at once: the Principality of Lithuania, the Kingdoms of Poland and Sweden. With the latter, however, the Moscow Tsar managed to quickly make peace for some time. In 1562-63, the second large-scale campaign to the Baltic began. The events of the Livonian War at this stage continued to develop well. However, already in the mid-1560s, relations between Ivan the Terrible and the boyars of the Chosen Rada deteriorated to the limit. The situation worsens further due to the flight of one of the closest princely associates, Andrei Kurbsky, to Lithuania and his defection to the enemy’s side (the reason that prompted the boyar was the growing despotism in the Moscow principality and the infringement of the ancient liberties of the boyars). After this event, Ivan the Terrible becomes completely embittered, seeing all the traitors around him. In parallel with this, defeats occurred at the front, which the prince explained by internal enemies. In 1569, Lithuania and Poland united in single state, What

strengthens their power. In the late 1560s - early 70s, Russian troops suffered a number of defeats and even lost several fortresses. Since 1579, the war has become more defensive in nature. However, in 1579 the enemy captured Polotsk, in 1580 Velikiy Luk, and in 1582 the long siege of Pskov continued. The need for peace and respite for the state after decades of military campaigns becomes obvious.

Livonian War: briefly about the consequences

The war ended with the signing of the Plyussky and Yam-Zapolsky truces, which were extremely unfavorable for Moscow. The exit was never obtained. Instead, the prince received an exhausted and devastated country that found itself in an extremely difficult situation. The consequences of the Livonian War accelerated the internal crisis that led to the Great Troubles of the early 16th century.

Trying to reach the Baltic coast, Ivan IV fought the grueling Livonian War for 25 years.

The state interests of Russia required the establishment of close ties with Western Europe, which was then easiest to carry out across the seas, as well as ensuring the defense of Russia’s western borders, where its enemy was the Livonian Order. If successful, the opportunity to acquire new economically developed lands opened up.

The reason for the war was the delay by the Livonian Order of 123 Western specialists invited to Russian service, as well as the failure of Livonia to pay tribute for the city of Dorpat (Yuryev) and the adjacent territory over the past 50 years.

The beginning of the Livonian War was accompanied by victories of Russian troops, who took Narva and Yuriev (Dorpat). A total of 20 cities were taken. Russian troops advanced towards Riga and Revel (Tallinn). In 1560, the Livonian Order was defeated, and its master W. Furstenberg was captured. This entailed the collapse of the Livonian Order (1561), whose lands came under the rule of Poland, Denmark and Sweden. The new Master of the Order, G. Ketler, received Courland and Semigallia as possession and recognized dependence on the Polish king. The last major success at the first stage of the war was the capture of Polotsk in 1563.

In 1565-1566, Lithuania was ready to give Russia all the lands it had conquered and conclude an honorable peace for Russia. This did not suit Ivan the Terrible: he wanted more.

The second stage (1561 – 1578) coincided with the oprichnina. Russia, opposed by Lithuania, Poland and Sweden, had to go on the defensive. In 1569, Lithuania and Poland united to form the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The new ruler of Lithuania and Poland, Stefan Batory, went on the offensive and recaptured Polotsk (in 1579), captured Velikiye Luki (in 1580), and besieged Pskov (in 1581). A truce was concluded as the war with Sweden began.

In the third stage, from 1578, Russia had to fight with the king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Stefan Batory, who besieged Pskov, and continue the war with Sweden. Pskov defended itself desperately, which allowed Ivan the Terrible to begin peace negotiations and in 1582 conclude a ten-year truce with Stefan Batory. Under the terms of the truce, Russia gave up everything it had conquered in Livonia and Lithuania. In 1583, peace was concluded with Sweden, which received the Russian cities of Narva, Yama, Koporye, Ivan-Gorod and others.

Russia was unable to break through to the Baltic Sea. This problem was solved by Peter I in the Northern War (1700–1721).

The failure of the Livonian War was ultimately a consequence of Russia's economic backwardness, which was unable to successfully withstand a long struggle against strong opponents. The ruin of the country during the oprichnina years only made matters worse.

Domestic policy of Ivan IV

Authorities and management bodies in Russia in the middleXVIV.

The war became protracted, and several European powers were drawn into it. The contradictions within the Russian boyars, who were interested in strengthening the southern Russian borders, intensified, and dissatisfaction with the continuation of the Livonian War grew. Figures from the tsar’s inner circle, A. Adashev and Sylvester, also showed hesitation, considering the war futile. Even earlier, in 1553, when Ivan IV became dangerously ill, many boyars refused to swear allegiance to him little son Dmitry. The death of his first and beloved wife Anastasia Romanova in 1560 was a shock for the tsar.

All this led to the cessation of the activities of the Elected Rada in 1560. Ivan IV took a course towards strengthening his personal power. In 1564, Prince Andrei Kurbsky, who had previously commanded the Russian troops, went over to the side of the Poles. Ivan IV, fighting the rebellions and betrayals of the boyar nobility, saw in them main reason failures of their policies. He firmly stood on the position of the need for strong autocratic power, the main obstacle to the establishment of which, in his opinion, was the boyar-princely opposition and boyar privileges. The question was what methods would be used to fight.

In these difficult circumstances for the country, Ivan IV introduced the oprichnina (1565–1572).

I decided to intensify my foreign policy on westward, namely in the Baltic states. The weakening Livonian Order could not provide adequate resistance, and the prospects for acquiring these territories promised a significant expansion of trade with Europe.

BEGINNING OF THE LIVONIAN WAR

In those same years, there was a truce with the Livonian land, and ambassadors came from them with a request to make peace. Our king began to remember that they had not paid tribute for fifty years, which they owed to his grandfather. The Lifoyandians did not want to pay that tribute. Because of this, the war started. Our king then sent us, three great commanders, and with us other stratilates and an army of forty thousand, not to acquire lands and cities, but to conquer all their land. We fought for a whole month and did not encounter resistance anywhere, only one city held its defense, but we took that too. We crossed their land with battles for four dozen miles and left the great city of Pskov into the land of Livonia almost unharmed, and then quite quickly reached Ivangorod, which stands on the border of their lands. We carried with us a lot of wealth, because the land there was rich and the inhabitants were very proud, they abandoned the Christian faith and the good customs of their forefathers and rushed all along the wide and spacious path leading to drunkenness and other intemperance, they became devoted to laziness and long sleep, to lawlessness and internecine bloodshed, following evil teachings and deeds. And I think that because of this God did not allow them to be at peace and for a long time own their homelands. Then they asked for a truce for six months in order to think about that tribute, but, having asked for a truce, they did not stay in it for even two months. And they violated it like this: everyone knows the German city called Narva, and the Russian one - Ivangorod; they stand on the same river, and both cities are large, Russian is especially densely populated, and on that very day when our Lord Jesus Christ suffered for human race with their own flesh and every Christian must, according to his ability, show passion-suffering, remaining in fasting and abstinence, but the noble and proud Germans invented a new name for themselves and called themselves Evangelists; at the beginning of that day they got drunk and overeat, and began to shoot with all the big guns at the Russian city, and beat a lot of Christian people with their wives and children, shedding Christian blood on such great and holy days, and they beat incessantly for three days, and did not even stop on the Resurrection of Christ, while they were in a truce approved by oaths. And the governor of Ivangorod, not daring to violate the truce without the Tsar’s knowledge, quickly sent word to Moscow. The king, having received it, gathered a council and at that council decided that since they were the first to start, we need to defend ourselves and fire our guns at their city and its surroundings. By this time, a lot of guns had been brought there from Moscow, in addition, stratilates were sent and the Novgorod army from two spots was ordered to gather to them.

IMPACT OF THE LIVONIAN WAR ON TRADE

However, more distant Western countries were ready to ignore the fears of neighbors - enemies of Russia and showed interest in Russian-European trade. The main " trade gate“Russia for them was Narva, conquered by the Russians in the Livonian War. ( Northern route, found by the British, was their monopoly for almost two decades.) In the last third of the 16th century. Following the British, the Flemings, Dutch, Germans, French, and Spaniards flocked to Russia. For example, from the 1570s. French merchants from Rouen, Paris, and La Rochelle traded with Russia through Narva. Narva merchants who swore allegiance to Russia received various benefits from the tsar. In Narva, the most original detachment of German servicemen appeared in the service of Russia.” Ivan the Terrible hired the pirate leader Karsten Rohde and other privateers to protect the Narva estuary. All mercenary corsairs in Russian service also received licenses from Russia's ally in the Livonian War - the owner of the island of Ezel, Prince Magnus. Unfortunately for Moscow, the Livonian War went badly from the late 1570s. In 1581 the Swedes occupied Narva. The project of the Russian vassal Livonian kingdom, led by Prince Magnus, successively betrothed to two daughters of the unfortunate appanage prince Vladimir Staritsky (nieces of Ivan the Terrible), also collapsed. In this situation, the Danish king Frederick II decided to stop the passage of foreign ships carrying goods to Russia through the Danish Sound, a strait connecting the North and Baltic seas. English ships that found themselves in the Sound were arrested there, and their goods were confiscated by Danish customs.

Chernikova T.V. Europeanization of Russia in the XV-XVII centuries

WAR THROUGH THE EYES OF A CONTEMPORARY

In 1572, on December 16, the soldiers of the King of Sweden, reiters and bollards, numbering about 5,000 people, set out on a campaign, intending to besiege Overpallen. They made a long detour to Mariam, and from there to Fellin for the sake of robbery, and sent two cartauns (cannons), along with gunpowder and lead, straight along the Wittenstein road; several more should have arrived to these two guns heavy guns from Wittenstein. But during Christmas time both guns did not reach further than Nienhof, 5 miles from Revel. In the same time Grand Duke the Muscovite for the first time personally with his two sons and with an 80,000-strong army and many guns entered Livonia, while the Swedes in Reval and Wittenstein did not have the slightest news about this, being quite confident that there was no danger for them . All of them, both high and low origin, imagined that when the Swedish royal army marched, the Muscovite would not even dare to make a word, so the Muscovite was now powerless and not afraid. So they threw aside all caution and all reconnaissance. But when they were least careful, the Muscovite himself personally approached Wesenberg with a huge army, and the Revelians, as well as Klaus Akezen (Klas Akbzon Tott), the military commander, and all the soldiers in Overpalen still knew nothing about this. However, the Wittensteiners learned something about the movement of the Russians, but did not want to believe that they were in danger, and everyone thought that this was only a raid by some Russian detachment sent to capture the cannons at Nienhof. In this assumption, Hans Boy (Boje), the governor (commandant), sent almost all the bollards from the castle 6 miles to meet the cannons sent from Revel and so weakened the garrison of the Wittenstein castle that there were only 50 warriors left in it capable of wielding weapons, except 500 ordinary men fled to the castle. Hans Boy did not believe that the Muscovite meant not the cannons in Nienhof, but the castle of Wittenschhain. Before he had time to come to his senses, the Muscovite and his army were already at Wittenstein. Hans Boy would be happy to dispose of his bollards differently now.

Russov Balthazar. Chronicles of the province of Livonia

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND THE LIVONIAN WAR

After the Peace of Pozvol, all the real benefits of which were on the side of Poland, the Livonian Order began to disarm. The Livonians failed to take advantage of the long-lasting peace, lived in excess, spent their time in celebrations and did not seem to notice what was being prepared against them in the east, as if they wanted to see how threatening symptoms began to appear everywhere. The traditions of firmness and steadfastness of the former knights of the order were forgotten, everything was swallowed up by quarrels and the struggle of individual classes. In the event of new clashes with any of their neighbors, the order frivolously relied on German Empire. Meanwhile, neither Maximilian I nor Charles V were able to take advantage of their position and tighten the bonds that connected the ancient German colony in the east with its metropolis: they were carried away by their dynastic, Habsburg interests. They were hostile towards Poland and were more likely to allow political rapprochement with Moscow, in which they saw an ally against Turkey.

MILITARY SERVICE DURING THE LIVONIAN WAR

The bulk of service people in the “fatherland” were city nobles and boyar children.

According to the charter of 1556, the service of nobles and boyar children began at the age of 15; before that time they were considered “underage.” To enlist the grown-up nobles and children of the boyars, or, as they were called, “noviks,” into the service, boyars and other Duma officials with clerks were periodically sent from Moscow to the cities; sometimes this matter was entrusted to local governors. Arriving in the city, the boyar had to organize elections from local service nobles and children of boyar special salary workers, with the help of which recruitment was carried out. Based on inquiries from those enlisted into the service and instructions from salary workers, the financial status and service suitability of each new recruit were established. Salaries showed who could be in the same article with whom based on origin and property status. Then the newcomer was enlisted in the service and was assigned a local and monetary salary.

Salaries were set depending on the origin, property status and service of the newcomer. Local salaries of new workers ranged on average from 100 quarters (150 dessiatines in three fields) to 300 quarters (450 dessiatines) and cash salaries - from 4 to 7 rubles. During the service, the local and monetary salaries of new recruits increased.

Ivan the Terrible, no matter how terrible he was, was still an outstanding ruler. In particular, he waged successful wars - for example, with Kazan and Astrakhan. But he also had an unsuccessful campaign. It cannot be said that the Livonian War ended in a real defeat for the Muscovite kingdom, but many years of battles, expenses and losses ended in the actual restoration of the original position.

Window to Europe

Peter the Great was not the first to understand well the importance of the Baltic Sea for Russian, and not only Russian, trade. There is no clear indication in written sources that, when starting the war, his goal was precisely to provide his country with access to the Baltic. But the first king was an educated man, he was interested in foreign experience, ordered specialists from abroad and even wooed Queen of England. Consequently, his actions had so much in common with Peter’s policies (Peter, by the way, was very formidable), that one can reasonably assume that the war that began in 1558 had a “naval” purpose. The king did not need a layer between his state and foreign merchants and craftsmen.

In addition, the support of a number of states for the weak and unauthoritative Livonian Confederation proves the same point: they fought not for Livonia, but against the strengthening of Russia’s trade position.

We conclude: the reasons for the Livonian War boil down to the struggle for the possibilities of Baltic trade and dominance in this matter.

With varied success

It is quite difficult to name the sides of the war. Russia had no allies in it, and its opponents were the Livonian Confederation, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Poland (after the Union of Lublin in 15696), Sweden, and Denmark. At different stages, Russia fought with different opponents in different numbers.

The first stage of the war (1558-1561) against the weak Livonian Confederation was successful for the Moscow army. The Russians took Narva, Neuhausen, Dorpat and many other fortresses and marched through Courland. But the Livonians, taking advantage of the proposed truce, recognized themselves as vassals of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1561, and this large state entered the war.

The course of the war with Lithuania (until 1570) showed its “maritime” essence - Germany and Sweden declared a blockade of Narva, preventing the Russians from gaining a foothold in the Baltic trade. Lithuania fought not only for the Baltic, but also for the lands on its border with Russia, where Polotsk was captured by the Russians in 1564. But further success was on the side of Lithuania, and there were two reasons for this: greed and treason. Many boyars preferred to fight with the Crimea, hoping to profit from the southern black soil. There were many direct traitors, the most famous of whom was Andrei Kurbsky.

At the third stage, Russia fought on two sides: with Sweden (1570-1583) and Denmark (1575-1578) and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1577-1582). Important for this period was the fact that fighting most often they were carried out on previously devastated lands, where the population, due to the duration of the war, had a negative attitude towards the Russians. Russia itself was also weakened, both by prolonged hostilities and by the oprichnina. Polish-Lithuanian detachments successfully reached quite far into the Russian rear (as far as Yaroslavl). As a result, Lithuania received Polotsk back, and the Swedes captured not only Narva, but also Ivangorod and Koporye.

During this period, funny episodes also occurred. So, the king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Stefan Batory did not find anything better than to send Ivan... a challenge to a personal duel! The Tsar ignored this stupidity, worthy of a petty quarrelsome nobleman, and did the right thing.

Modest results

The war ended with the signing of the Yam-Zapolsky truce with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1582, and in 1583 - the Plyussky truce with Sweden. Russia's territorial losses were insignificant: Ivangorod, Yam, Koporye, a small part of the western lands. Basically, Sweden and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth divided the former Livonia (the current Baltic states and Finland).

For Rus', the main result of the Livonian War was something else. It turned out that for 20 years, with interruptions, Russia fought in vain. Its northwestern regions are depopulated and resources are depleted. Crimean raids on its territory became more devastating. Failures in the Livonian War actually turned Ivan 4 into the Terrible - numerous real betrayals became one of the reasons that, however, the right punished more than the guilty. Military ruin was the first step towards the future Time of Troubles.

For him, war truly became part of his reign and, one might even say, a matter of life.

It cannot be said that Livonia was a strong state. The formation of the Livonian state is attributed to XIII century, To XIV century it was considered weak and fragmented. The state was headed by the Order of the Knights of the Sword, although it did not have absolute power.

Throughout its existence, the Order prevented Russia from establishing diplomatic relations with other European countries.

Reasons for the start of the Livonian War

The reason for the start of the Livonian War was the non-payment of the Yuryev tribute, which, by the way, happened throughout the entire period after the conclusion of the treaty in 1503.

In 1557, the Livonian Order entered into a military agreement with the Polish king. In January of the following year, Ivan the Terrible moved his troops to Livonian territory. During 1558 and by the beginning of 1559, the Russian army had already passed through all of Livonia and was at the borders East Prussia. Yuryev and Narva were also captured.

The Livonian Order needed to make peace to avoid complete defeat. A truce was concluded in 1559, but it lasted only six months. Military operations continued again, and the end of this company was the complete destruction of the Livonian Order. The main fortresses of the Order were captured: Fellin and Marienburg, and the master himself was captured.

However, after the defeat of the order, its lands began to belong to Poland, Sweden and Denmark, which, accordingly, sharply complicated the situation on the war map for Russia.

Sweden and Denmark were at war with each other, and therefore for Russia this meant a war in one direction - with the king of Poland, Sigismund II. At first, success in military operations accompanied the Russian army: in 1563, Ivan IV took Polotsk. But the victories stopped there, and the Russian troops began to suffer defeats.

Ivan IV saw the solution to this problem in the restoration of the Livonian Order under the auspices of Russia. It was also decided to conclude peace with Poland. However, this decision was not supported Zemsky Sobor, and the king had to continue the war.

The war dragged on, and in 1569 a new state was created called the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which included Lithuania and Poland. They still managed to make peace with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth for 3 years. At the same time, Ivan IV created a state on the territory of the Livonian Order and put Magnus, the brother of the Danish king, at the head.

In the speech of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth at this time, a new king was elected - Stefan Batory. After this, the war continued. Sweden entered the war, and Batory besieged Russian fortresses. He took Velikiye Luki and Polotsk, and in August 1581 approached Pskov. Residents of Pskov took an oath that they would fight for Pskov until their death. After the 31st unsuccessful assault, the siege was lifted. And although Batory failed to capture Pskov, the Swedes occupied Narva at that time.

Results of the Livonian War

In 1582, peace was concluded with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth for 10 years. According to the agreement, Russia lost Livonia along with the Belarusian lands, although it received some border territories. A peace agreement was concluded with Sweden for a period of three years (the Truce of Plus). According to him, Russia lost Koporye, Ivangorod, Yam and adjacent territories. The main and saddest fact was that Russia remained cut off from the sea.