Copernicus what he did. Who is Nicolaus Copernicus: discoveries and scientific activity. Brothers are elected to the seats of canons
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Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation
Federal State Autonomous Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education
"Kazan (Volga Region) Federal University
Elabuga Institute of Kazan Federal University
abstract
Topic: " Philosophical views of Copernicus"
Completed by: Shaygardanova I.I.
Checked by: Gromov E.V.
Yelabuga, 2015
Introduction
The "greatest progressive upheaval" was the Renaissance. This era is marked by great discoveries, the development of art and science. During this turning period, a person opens up new horizons, tries to know the whole world and himself in it. In the Renaissance, nature is not left without attention. The leading direction of philosophical thought of the XVI century. becomes natural philosophy. The desire for an in-depth and reliable knowledge of nature was reflected in the works of Leonardo da Vinci, Nicolaus Copernicus, Johannes Kepler, Giordano Bruno, Galileo Galilei. Their theoretical developments and experimental research contributed not only to changing the world, but also ideas about science, about the relationship between theory and practice. My work deals with the philosophical views of the Renaissance - Nicolaus Copernicus. He was one of the outstanding figures of philosophy in the Renaissance, who was the first to open the doors to the vast expanses of the Universe and establish the place of man in it. The relevance of this work lies in the analysis of the relationship between the philosopher and society, the penetration of new ideas, which is a problem at the present time.
The purpose of this essay was to analyze the philosophical ideas of Nicolaus Copernicus, to identify their features.
Tasks of this work:
* study the philosophical views of N. Copernicus as a representative of natural philosophy of the Renaissance.
* characterize his cosmological views, reveal their innovation.
Life of Nicolaus Copernicus
Nicholas Nikolaevich Copernicus (1473-1543) - Polish astronomer, creator of the heliocentric system of the world. He made a revolution in natural science, abandoning the doctrine of the central position of the Earth, accepted for many centuries. He explained the visible movements of the heavenly bodies by the rotation of the Earth around its axis and the revolution of the planets (including the Earth) around the Sun. Copernicus expounded his teachings in On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (1543), which was banned by the Catholic Church from 1616 to 1828.
Nicolaus Copernicus was born on February 19, 1473 in the Polish city of Torun in the family of a merchant who came from Germany. He was the fourth child in the family. He received his primary education, most likely, in a school located near the house at the Church of St. John.
Copernicus entered the University of Cracow in 1491, where he studied mathematics, medicine and theology with equal zeal, but he was especially attracted to astronomy. To continue his education, Copernicus went to Italy (1497) and entered the University of Bologna. In addition to theology, law and ancient languages, he had the opportunity to study astronomy there. However, in 1500 he left school, went to Rome, to his homeland, to Padua. It was only in 1503 that he managed to obtain the degree of Doctor of Canon Law in the biography of Nicolaus Copernicus. In 1506, Copernicus received news, perhaps far-fetched, of his uncle's illness. He left Italy and returned to his homeland. He settled first in the city of Lidzbark, and then took up the post of canon in Frombork, a fishing town at the mouth of the Vistula. He spent the next 6 years in the bishop's castle of Heilsberg, doing astronomical observations and teaching in Krakow. At the same time, he is a doctor, secretary and confidant of Uncle Lukash.
Astronomical observations begun by Copernicus in Italy were continued, albeit on a limited scale, in Lidzbark. But he deployed them with particular intensity in Frombork, despite the inconvenience of the great latitude of this place, which made it difficult to observe the planets, and because of the frequent fogs from the Vistula Lagoon, considerable cloudiness and overcast skies over this northern area.
The invention of the telescope was still far away, and the best instruments for pre-telescopic astronomy did not yet exist. With the help of instruments of that time, the accuracy of astronomical observations was brought up to one or two minutes. The most famous device used by Copernicus was the triquetrum, a parallax instrument. The second device used by Copernicus to determine the angle of the ecliptic, "horoscopies", a sundial, a kind of quadrant.
In 1512, the bishop's uncle died. Copernicus moved to Frombork, a small town on the banks of the Vistula Lagoon, where he was a canon all this time, and began his spiritual duties. However, he did not give up scientific research. The northwestern tower of the fortress became an observatory.
Already in the 1500s, the idea of a new astronomical system was quite clear to him. He began to write a book describing a new model of the world. During these years (approximately 1503-1512) Copernicus distributed among his friends a handwritten summary of his theory ("A Small Commentary on Hypotheses Relating to Celestial Motions"), and his student Rheticus published a clear exposition of the heliocentric system in 1539. Apparently, rumors about the new theory had already spread widely in the 1520s. Work on the main work - "On the rotation of the celestial spheres" - lasted almost 40 years, Copernicus constantly made adjustments to it, prepared new astronomical calculation tables.
Rumors about a new outstanding astronomer were spreading in Europe. There is a version, not documented, that Pope Leo X invited Copernicus to take part in the preparation of the calendar reform (1514, implemented only in 1582), but he politely refused.
When necessary, Copernicus devoted his energies to practical work: according to his project, a new monetary system was introduced in Poland, and in the city of Frombork, he built a hydraulic machine that supplied water to all houses. Personally, as a doctor, he was engaged in the fight against the plague of 1519. During the Polish-Teutonic War (1519-1521) he organized a successful defense of the bishopric from the Teutons.
In 1531, the 58-year-old Copernicus retired and focused on completing his book. At the same time, he was engaged in medical practice (free of charge). Faithful Retik constantly fussed about the speedy publication of the work of Copernicus, but it progressed slowly. Fearing that the obstacles would be insurmountable, Copernicus circulated among his friends a brief synopsis of his work entitled "Small Commentary" (Commentariolus). In 1542, the scientist's condition deteriorated significantly, paralysis of the right half of the body set in. Copernicus died on May 24, 1543 at the age of 70 from a stroke.
Philosophical views of Nicolaus Copernicus as a representative ofrenaissance philosophies
Astronomy has been the most important applied and at the same time ideological discipline in the natural sciences almost from the very beginning of its inception. In the Renaissance, the powerful impulses of astronomy, which contributed to the development of science and practice, came from the field of navigation, which acquired a worldwide scale and required more and more precise orientation. The contradiction between the fundamental ideological, Aristotelian basis of the fundamental astronomical system and its applied significance, given to it by Ptolemy, developed more and more tangibly. The complex of astronomical knowledge received its most general expression in the geocentric system of Aristotle - Ptolemy, which prevailed from ancient times. The idea of geocentrism, which came from Aristotle, was an organic expression of his teleological philosophical system, which required a finite cosmos, outside of which there was a divine prime mover. Aristotelian cosmology, being a necessary part of his physics, included ideas about the fundamental difference between the sublunar, earthly substance, which was composed of four traditional elements - water, earth, air and fire, subject to continuous changes, and an unchanging celestial substance - ether; about ideally circular and uniform motions of the Sun and planets around the Earth in special ethereal spheres; about the so-called intelligentsia - especially subtle intelligent spirits, in which they saw the main source of planetary motion, in the absence of a real understanding of the physical causes of their movement in space.
Through the entire bright life of Nicolaus Copernicus, from his student years in Krakow to the last days, the main thread runs - the great work of establishing a new system of the world. Designed to replace the radically wrong geocentric system of Ptolemy. The twenties account for a significant part of the astronomical results of N. Copernicus. Many observations have been made. So, around 1523, observing the planets at the time of opposition, i.e. when the planet is in the opposite point of the celestial sphere to the Sun, Nicolaus Copernicus made an important discovery; he disproved the opinion that the position of the planetary orbits in space remains motionless. The line of apsides - a straight line connecting the points of the orbit at which the planet is closest to the Sun and most distant from it, changes its position compared to that observed 1300 years before and recorded in Ptolemy's Almagest. Reflecting on the Ptolemaic system of the world, Copernicus was amazed at its complexity and artificiality, and, studying the writings of ancient philosophers, especially Nikita of Syracuse and Philolaus, he came to the conclusion that not the Earth, but the Sun should be the motionless center of the Universe. Based on this assumption, Copernicus very simply explained all the apparent intricacy of the movements of the planets, but, not yet knowing the true paths of the planets and considering them to be circles, he was forced to preserve the epicycles and deferents of the ancients to explain the uneven movements.
Creating his heliocentric system, Copernicus relied on the mathematical and kinematic apparatus of Ptolemy's theory, on the concrete geometric and numerical patterns obtained by the latter. The heliocentric system in the Copernican version can be formulated in seven statements:
There is no single center for all celestial orbits or spheres.
The center of the Earth is not the center of the world, but only the center of gravity and the lunar orbit.
All spheres move around the Sun, as around their center, as a result of which the Sun is the center of the whole world.
The ratio of the distance from the Earth to the Sun to the height of the firmament (that is, to the distance to the sphere of fixed stars) is less than the ratio of the radius of the Earth to the distance from it to the Sun, moreover, the distance from the Earth to the Sun is negligible compared to the height of the firmament.
Every movement that is noticed in the firmament of heaven is connected not with any movement of the firmament itself, but with the movement of the earth. The earth, together with the elements surrounding it (air and water), makes a complete revolution around its unchanging poles during the day, while the firmament of heaven and the sky located on it remain motionless.
What seems to us to be the movement of the Sun is in fact connected with the movements of the Earth and our sphere, together with which we revolve around the Sun, like any other planet. Thus, the Earth has more than one motion.
The apparent direct and backward movements of the planets are not due to their movements, but to the movement of the Earth. Therefore, the motion of the Earth itself is sufficient to explain many apparent irregularities in the sky.
These seven theses clearly outline the contours of the future heliocentric system, the essence of which lies in the fact that the Earth simultaneously moves around its axis and around the Sun. So, in Ptolemy's model, all the planets obeyed a general (albeit incomprehensible within the framework of geocentrism) law: the radius vector of any planet in the epicycle always coincided with the radius vector of the Earth - the Sun, and the movement along the epicycle for the upper planets (Mars, Jupiter, Saturn) and according to the deferent for the lower (Mercury, Venus) occurred with a single year period for all planets. In the Copernican model, this law received a simple and logical explanation. These statements completely contradicted the geocentric system that prevailed at that time. Although, from a modern point of view, the Copernican model is not radical enough. All orbits in it are circular, the movement along them is uniform, so that the epicycles were preserved (although there were fewer of them than with Ptolemy). The mechanism that ensured the movement of the planets is also left the same - the rotation of the spheres to which the planets are attached. On the border of the world, Copernicus placed the sphere of fixed stars. Strictly speaking, Copernicus' model was not even heliocentric, since he did not place the Sun at the center of the planetary spheres.
The immortal work of Nicolaus Copernicus" On the rotations of the celestial spheres"
... I often wondered if it was possible to find some more dieta good combination of circles, whichcould be explain all the visible unevenness, and in such a way that every movement in itself was uniform, like this requires the principle of perfect motion. copernicus philosophical heliocentric
Nicholas Copernicus" Small comment"
By the beginning of the thirties, work on the creation of a new theory and its design in his work "On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres" (lat. De revolutionibus orbium coelestium) was basically completed. The work was published in Nuremberg in 1543; it was printed under the supervision of the best student of Copernicus, Rheticus. In the preface to the book, Copernicus writes: "By that time, the system of the world structure proposed by the ancient Greek scientist Claudius Ptolemy had existed for almost one and a half millennia. It consisted in the fact that the Earth rests motionlessly in the center of the Universe, and the Sun and other planets revolve around it."
The first book (part) speaks of the sphericity of the world and the Earth, and instead of the position of the immobility of the Earth, another axiom is placed: the Earth and other planets rotate around an axis and revolve around the Sun. This concept is argued in detail, and the "opinion of the ancients" is convincingly refuted. From heliocentric positions, he easily explains the return motion of the planets.
Copernicus gave the Earth three rotations: the first - the rotation of the Earth around its axis with an angular velocity u; the second (with speed u?) - around the axis of the world, which is perpendicular to the plane of the earth's orbit and passes through its center; the third (with an oppositely directed speed u??) - around an axis parallel to the axis of the world and passing through the center of the Earth. The last two rotations form (with the exact coincidence of u? and u?? in magnitude) a pair of rotations, equivalent to the translational motion of the Earth around the Sun in a circular orbit.
Memorial plaque at the printing house of Johannes Petraeus in Nuremberg, where the first edition of Copernicus' book "De revolutionibus orbium coelestium" was published
In the second part of the work of Copernicus, information is given on spherical trigonometry and the rules for calculating the apparent positions of stars, planets and the Sun in the firmament.
The third talks about the annual movement of the Earth and the so-called precession of the equinoxes, which shortens the tropical year (from equinox to equinox) compared to the sidereal (return to the same position relative to the fixed stars) and leads to a shift in the line of intersection of the equator with the ecliptic, which changes ecliptic longitude of a star by one degree per century. Ptolemy's theory, in principle, could not explain this precession. Copernicus, on the other hand, gave this phenomenon an elegant kinematic explanation (having shown himself to be a very sophisticated mechanic): he suggested that the angular velocity u?? not exactly equal to u?, but slightly different from it; the difference between these angular velocities manifests itself in the precession of the equinoxes.
The fourth part talked about the Moon, the fifth - about the planets in general, and the sixth - about the reasons for changing the latitudes of the planets. The book also contained a star catalog, an estimate of the size of the Sun and Moon, the distances to them and to the planets (close to true), the theory of eclipses. It should be specially noted that the Copernican system (unlike the Ptolemy system) made it possible to determine the ratios of the radii of planetary orbits. This fact, and also the fact that the first and most important epicycle was omitted from the description of the motion of the planets, made the Copernican system simpler and more convenient than the Ptolemaic one.
Let us dwell on one of Mikhailov's remarks made in a report at the same anniversary where Fock also spoke. Mikhailov writes: “Since the loops in the motions of the planets turned out to be a reflection of the circular motion of the Earth along its orbit, the magnitude of these loops indicated the distance of the planets: the farther the planet, the smaller the loop described by it. Based on this, Copernicus, using impeccable geometric reasoning, was able to determine the distances of the planets for the first time from the Sun, expressed in units of its distance from the Earth<...>Copernicus gave a correct and accurate plan of the solar system, drawn up on a single scale (italics mine; the unit was orbis magnus - the radius of the earth's orbit. - S.T.), and it was the business of the next generations to express all distances in terrestrial units (stages, kilometers or other )".
Conclusion
In the philosophy of the Renaissance, the objective knowledge of the world becomes the main goal. The development of natural science achieved significant success in the 16th century. Knowledge and reason come out "from exile", where they were imprisoned by the medieval attitude to the primacy of faith over feelings, and feelings over reason. The world, the universe are endless. In natural philosophy, the problem of the infinite is given a central place among the problems under consideration. The infinity of the world is known by the mind. In the Renaissance, N. Copernicus, creating a heliocentric system of the world, actually shows the creative possibilities of the mind, which allows, through the selection and study of contradictions in the sphere of the phenomenon, to penetrate into the essence of things, which can be completely opposite to the phenomenon. So, Copernicus created the heliocentric system of the world. His main ideas are as follows: the Earth is not a fixed center of the world, but rotates around its axis and at the same time around the Sun, which is in the center of the world. This discovery produced a revolutionary upheaval. It refuted the picture of the world that existed for more than a thousand years, which was based on the geocentric system of Aristotle and Ptolemy. But it took at least a century before Copernicus' heliocentric system gained widespread acceptance. Only Kepler mastered the complete system of Copernicus. Copernicus, in the first book of his work "On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres", gave only the initial sketch of the picture of the solar system, in which each planetary sphere is depicted as a circle in the center of which was the Sun. This picture was wrong. It was created by Aristarchus of Samosok. However, Johannes Kepler corrected this picture, he replaced the circles with ellipses, and instead of moving along a circle with a constant speed, he introduced movement with a constant sectorial speed. These two laws of Kepler provided the foundation on which modern celestial mechanics is built.
List of used literature
1. Antipova O.L. "Development of natural science in the Renaissance" [Electronic resource] - Access mode. - http://bibliofond.ru/view.aspx?id=134522 (date of access: 01/02/2015).
2. K. Marx and F. Engels. Soch., ed. II, vol. 21. - 785s.
3. Copernicus, Nicholas (biography) [Electronic resource] - Access mode. --URL: https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copernicus,_Nicholas (date of access: 01/03/2015).
4. Levin A. The Man Who Moved the Earth // Popular Mechanics.-- 2009.-- No. 6.
5. Mikhailov A.A. Nicolaus Copernicus, his life and work // Nicolaus Copernicus. S. 18, 20.
6. N. Copernicus. On the rotations of the celestial spheres, 1964, p. 553.
7. Nicolaus Copernicus - biography. [Electronic resource] - Access mode. --URL: http://to-name.ru/biography/nikolaj-kopernik.htm (date of access: 01/02/2015).
8. Development of natural sciences. N. Copernicus, J. Bruno, G. Galileo. [Electronic resource] - Access mode. --URL:http://lib.kstu.kz:8300/tb/books/Filosofiya/t5gl2.htm (date of access: 01/02/2015).
9. Engelgardt M.A. Nicholas Copernicus. Chapter 4
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He is considered one of the most famous Polish scientists, although he is definitely the property of world science. The scientist, who in the 15th century managed to go against the teachings of the church and prove that the Earth is far from the center of the world, who was both a canon and a researcher, died without seeing the reaction of the world to his discovery.
Family and childhood
Nicolaus Copernicus was born into a merchant family. His father was a native of Krakow, although his nationality is unknown. Mother was an ethnic German. Nikolai was the fourth child in the family, besides him, his parents had another son and two daughters.
Nikolai received his primary education at a school, which was located near his home in Torun.
When he was nine, his father died of the plague, and therefore the mother and her brother took up the upbringing of all the children. He moved his sister's family to Krakow. There, Nikolai and his older brother entered the university, Nikolai began to study art, although he was equally interested in mathematics, astronomy, and medicine.
Education and wandering around the world
In 1494, Nicholas graduated from the university without any scientific title. The family decided that it would be best for him to devote himself to religion, especially since his uncle had just received the rank of bishop.
But Copernicus doubted this choice. Therefore, together with his brother, he decided to travel Italy. As a result, in 1497 he entered the University of Bologna. The faculty of law was considered the most popular at that time, where they also studied canon and ecclesiastical law. Therefore, Nikolai chose this faculty for himself. Moreover, it was also possible to study astronomy there.
Copernicus conducted the first scientific experiment in this area together with the astronomer Domenico Navarra - they realized that the distance from the Earth to the Moon, when it is squared, is more or less the same: both during the full moon and during the new moon. Thus, their discovery completely crossed out the theory of Ptolemy.
And while Copernicus was making his first scientific discoveries, his uncle still could not get rid of the idea of promoting him up the career ladder in the clergy. So, in 1498, he was elected canon in Warmia in absentia. A year later, his elder brother Andrzej also became a canon. But this dignity did not help either brother or another. Bologna was a very expensive city, and both guys turned out to be almost beggars. Fortunately, another canon, Bernard Sculteti, came to their aid and repeatedly helped them financially.
In 1500, Nicholas leaves Bologna and the university, again without a diploma or title. Historians argue about the next few years of his life. Some say that Copernicus went to Rome and taught there at one of the universities, others say that Nicholas briefly returned to Poland, and then went to Padua, where he studied medicine.
Be that as it may, but in 1503 Copernicus received a doctorate in theology, this happened at the University of Ferrara. For the next three years he lived in the town of Padua, where he practiced medicine. But in 1506 he nevertheless returned to Poland. They say that the uncle decided to act with cunning: he lied about his illness, thereby summoning Copernicus to Krakow. There, Copernicus works as his uncle's secretary, teaches astronomy and is engaged in science.
War and defense of Olsztyn
In 1512, Copernicus' uncle died, and he moved to the town of Frombork, where he was appointed canon many years ago. There, in one of the towers of the fortress, he built an observatory for himself and continued his scientific research.
For several years he had carried his theory about the astronomical system in his head, he often discussed it with his scientist friends. For ten years already, a draft of his manuscript on the rotation of celestial bodies had been ready, but he was in no hurry to publish it. I just distributed it among astronomers I knew.
But not only research lived Copernicus. In 1516, he took over the duties of the manager of the Olsztyn and Penenzhnensky districts. But even when his term of office expired after three years, he still could not fully return to science - there was a war with the crusaders, and he needed to take care of the territory that was entrusted to him - Warmia. Therefore, Copernicus took over the command and organization of the defense of the fortress. Thus, the scientist managed to save Olsztyn from the enemy bulk. For his courage, in 1521 he was appointed commissioner of Warmia, and two years later - the general administrator of the area - this is the highest position that anyone could apply for. In the same year, after the election of a new bishop, he was entrusted with the position of Chancellor of Warmia, and after that Copernicus was given a little rest and again to do scientific work.
Criticism of Ptolemy
Already in the 1520s, Copernicus clearly understood that Ptolemy was wrong: the Earth is not the only planet that moves around the Sun. The only thing where Nikolai himself was mistaken was that he believed that the stars themselves were motionless. But here the explanation is quite simple: at that time there were no such powerful telescopes to catch the movement of stars across the sky.
Rumors spread throughout Europe about a new scientist who is rediscovering the world. Almost all famous scientists of the world spoke about his heliocentric system. Although the work on "On the rotation of the celestial spheres" lasted quite a long time - almost 40 years, after all, Copernicus was constantly clarifying something, making new calculations.
Last years of life and death
In 1531, the already middle-aged Copernicus retired from all affairs in order to devote himself only to science. His health deteriorated every year. Nevertheless, he still found the strength to practice medicine for free.
In 1542, Copernicus was stricken with paralysis - the right side of the body was taken away. He died at the age of 70 from a stroke. Some of his contemporaries claimed that he managed to see his greatest work published - on the heliocentric system, although biographers say that this is impossible, since the scientist spent many weeks before his death in a coma.
In 2005, unknown remains were found, which, after DNA analysis with two hairs of Copernicus, turned out to be his skull and bones. In 2010 they were reburied in the Frombork Cathedral.
Scientific achievements
Copernicus proved that the planets move around the sun, and not vice versa, as was previously believed. In addition, he read that it is the Sun that is the center of the world. The movements of the planets, as Copernicus believed, are not uniform and not the same.
Only a few years after the death of the scientist, the church realized that his work denies some of the tenets of the sacred letter, and only then they began to seize and burn it.
Nicolaus Copernicus was one of the first to voice the theory of universal gravitation.
The scientist also noticed such a phenomenon, which eventually became known as the Copernican-Gresham law, when people accumulate savings in a more valuable currency, and use a cheaper one in everyday life. At that time it was about gold and copper.
- Only in the 19th century were monuments erected to Copernicus in Warsaw, Krakow, Torun and Regensburg, later also in Olsztyn, Gdansk and Wroclaw. On the central square of the Polish Torun there is a monument to Copernicus, on which there is an inscription: "He who stopped the Sun - moved the Earth."
- In honor of Copernicus, the Chemical element No. 112 - “Copernicus”, the minor planet (1322) Copernicus (Coppernicus), craters on the Moon and on Mars are named.
- In 1973, the 500th anniversary of Copernicus was celebrated worldwide, 47 countries issued about 200 stamps and postage blocks (even the Vatican issued four stamps). Another anniversary came in 1993 (the 450th anniversary of his death), 15 countries celebrated it with the release of about 50 stamps and postage blocks.
- There is a version, not documented, that Pope Leo X invited Copernicus to take part in the preparation of the calendar reform (1514, implemented only in 1582), but he politely refused.
In general, according to the production calendar for 2019, as a whole in the Russian Federation, Tuesday 12/31/2019 is a working day, shortened by 1 hour due to the fact that this is the eve of a non-working holiday. According to the "classic" scheme, it is preceded by two days off (Saturday 28 December and Sunday 29 December 2019) and a working Monday 30 December 2019.
However, some Heads of regions decided to make December 31, 2019 a day off, by transferring the day of rest to it from Saturday December 28, 2019. Relevant Decrees were issued, binding on regional state employees and recommendatory for all other organizations in the region.
It turned out that in some regions of the Russian Federation, some organizations work on December 28, 2019 (on Saturday) and rest on the 31st, while the other part work on December 31, 2019 (on New Year's Eve) and rest on the 28th. And there are even organizations where half of the employees enter the service on December 28, and the other half on December 31.
As a result of the confusion that has arisen, many have a question regarding Sunday, December 29, 2019 - does it end up being a working day or a day off in Russia?
We answer:
Sunday 29 December 2019 is a public holiday in Russia.
There are no transfers of weekends and working days associated with the last Sunday of 2019, the federal legislation of the Russian Federation does not provide.
But let's get back to school holidays and tell you when it starts and how many days it lasts.
Regardless of the training system (modules, trimesters or quarters), winter holidays 2019-2020 start the same way - on Saturday, December 28, 2019. In some educational institutions, a New Year's event outside the school walls may be scheduled on the first day of the holidays.
Most schools winter holidays last 12 days, until Wednesday 8 January 2020. There are schools where the vacation period is 16 days, until Sunday, January 12, 2020. From 17 to 24 February 2020 there will be a second winter vacation during trimesters, as well as during quarters for first graders. In any case, check the vacation schedule with the administration of your school.
That is, the winter holidays 2019-2020 for schoolchildren:
* when they start - from Saturday 28 December 2019
* how many days last - 12 days.
* when they end - on Wednesday, January 8, 2020
* first day of school - Thursday 9 January 2020
Here's what should be on the New Year's table in the year of the Rat:
* So, pie on the table is a must! With cabbage, meat, fish or sweet - any pie is attractive to a rodent.
* Salads can be divided into portions into tartlets.
* We recommend stuffing a baked bird (goose, duck or chicken) with rice in addition to apples and prunes, and when serving, decorate it beautifully fresh herbs and nuts.
* Considering mouse preference, don't forget salad with grated cheese or cheese slices. Lean varieties of well-cooked and thinly sliced meats can also grace the table.
* Don't forget about fruit. A vase with beautifully arranged apples, pears and grapes will please the mouse very much.
* Dishes from potatoes and carrots. The owners of cellars, who store winter stocks there, know firsthand about the love of rodents for these vegetables.
How to decorate the New Year's table for 2020:
In the design of the table opt for white, in serving - crystal and silver cutlery. The tablecloth on the table is also desirable white, because the color of the coming year is white!site is an information-entertainment-educational site for all ages and categories of Internet users. Here, both children and adults will have a good time, will be able to improve their level of education, read interesting biographies of great and famous people in different eras, watch photographs and videos from the private sphere and public life of popular and eminent personalities. Biographies of talented actors, politicians, scientists, pioneers. We will present you with creativity, artists and poets, music of brilliant composers and songs of famous performers. Screenwriters, directors, astronauts, nuclear physicists, biologists, athletes - a lot of worthy people who have left an imprint on time, history and the development of mankind are brought together on our pages.
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Nicolaus Copernicus (Polish Mikołaj Kopernik, German Niklas Koppernigk, Latin Nicolaus Copernicus). Born February 19, 1473 in Torun - died May 24, 1543 in Frombork. Polish astronomer, mathematician, mechanic, economist, canon of the Renaissance. He is best known as the author of the heliocentric system of the world, which marked the beginning of the first scientific revolution.
Born in Torun in a merchant family, he lost his parents early. Torun became part of Poland just a few years before the birth of Copernicus, before that the city bore the name Thorn and was part of Prussia, which belonged to the Teutonic Order.
The question of the ethnicity of Copernicus is still the subject of a (rather unpromising) discussion. His mother was German (Barbara Watzenrode), the nationality of his father is unclear, but it is known that he was a native of Krakow. Thus, ethnically, Copernicus was German or half German, although he himself may have considered himself a Pole (by territorial and political affiliation). He wrote in Latin and German, not a single document in Polish written by his hand has been found; after the early death of his father, he was brought up in a German family by his mother and uncle. Niccolò Komneno Popadopoli spread the unproven - and, according to modern historians, invented by himself - story that Copernicus allegedly enrolled at the University of Padua as a Pole. It should be noted that the concept of nationality in those years was much more vague than today, and some historians suggest that Copernicus be considered a Pole and a German at the same time.
In the Copernicus family, besides Nicholas, there were three more children: Andrei, later a canon in Warmia, and two sisters: Barbara and Katerina. Barbara went to a monastery, and Katerina got married and gave birth to five children, to whom Nicolaus Copernicus was very attached and took care of them until the end of his life.
Having lost his father as a 9-year-old child and remained in the care of his maternal uncle, Canon Lukasz Watzenrode, Copernicus entered the University of Krakow in 1491, where he studied mathematics, medicine and theology with equal zeal, but he was especially attracted to astronomy.
At the end of the university (1494), Copernicus did not receive any academic title, and the family council decided that he would have a spiritual career. A strong argument in favor of such a choice was that the patron uncle had just been elevated to the rank of bishop.
To continue his education, Copernicus went to Italy (1497) and entered the University of Bologna. In addition to theology, law and ancient languages, he had the opportunity to study astronomy there. It is interesting to note that one of the professors in Bologna was then Scipio del Ferro, with whose discoveries the revival of European mathematics began. In the meantime, thanks to the efforts of his uncle, Copernicus was elected in absentia a canon in the diocese of Warmia in Poland.
In 1500, Copernicus left the university, again without receiving any diploma or title, and went to Rome. Rheticus' memoirs say that Copernicus taught a number of disciplines at the University of Rome, including astronomy, but other biographers question this fact. Then, after a short stay in his homeland, he left for the University of Padua and continued to study medicine.
In 1503, Copernicus finally completed his education, passed the exams in Ferrara, received a diploma and a doctorate in canon law. He was in no hurry to return and, with the permission of his uncle, the bishop, practiced medicine in Padua for the next three years.
In 1506, Copernicus received news, perhaps far-fetched, of his uncle's illness. He left Italy and returned to his homeland. He spent the next 6 years in the bishop's castle of Heilsberg, doing astronomical observations and teaching in Krakow. At the same time, he is a doctor, secretary and confidant of Uncle Lukash.
In 1512, the bishop's uncle died. Copernicus moved to Frombork, a small town on the banks of the Vistula Lagoon, where he was a canon all this time, and began his spiritual duties. However, he did not give up scientific research. The northwestern tower of the fortress became an observatory.
Already in the 1500s, the idea of a new astronomical system was quite clear to him. He began to write a book describing a new model of the world, discussing his ideas with friends, including many of his like-minded people (for example, Tiedemann Giese, Bishop of Kulm). During these years (approximately 1503-1512) Copernicus circulated among friends a handwritten synopsis of his theory ("Small Commentary on Hypotheses Relating to Celestial Motions"), and his student Rheticus published a clear exposition of the heliocentric system in 1539. Apparently, rumors about the new theory had already spread widely in the 1520s. Work on the main work - "On the rotation of the heavenly spheres"- lasted almost 40 years, Copernicus constantly made adjustments to it, prepared new astronomical calculation tables.
Rumors about a new outstanding astronomer were spreading in Europe. There is a version, not documented, that Pope Leo X invited Copernicus to take part in the preparation of the calendar reform (1514, implemented only in 1582), but he politely refused.
When necessary, Copernicus devoted his energies to practical work: according to his project, a new monetary system was introduced in Poland, and in the city of Frombork, he built a hydraulic machine that supplied water to all houses. Personally, as a doctor, he was engaged in the fight against the plague of 1519. During the Polish-Teutonic War (1519-1521) he organized a successful defense of the bishopric from the Teutons. At the end of the conflict, Copernicus took part in peace negotiations (1525), which ended with the creation of the first Protestant state on the order lands - the Duchy of Prussia, a vassal of the Polish crown.
In 1531, the 58-year-old Copernicus retired and focused on completing his book. At the same time, he was engaged in medical practice (free of charge). Faithful Retik constantly fussed about the speedy publication of the work of Copernicus, but it progressed slowly. Fearing that the obstacles would be insurmountable, Copernicus circulated among his friends a brief synopsis of his work entitled "Small Commentary" (Commentariolus). In 1542, the scientist's condition deteriorated significantly, paralysis of the right half of the body set in.
Copernicus died on May 24, 1543 at the age of 70 from a stroke. Some biographers (for example, Tiedemann Giese) claim that the author managed to see his work published shortly before his death. But others argue that this was impossible, since Copernicus was in a severe coma for the last months of his life.
The book of Copernicus has remained as an outstanding monument of human thought.
The location of Copernicus' tomb remained unknown for a very long time, but during excavations at the Frombork Cathedral in 2005, a skull and leg bones were discovered. Comparative DNA analysis of these remains and two hairs of Copernicus, found in one of the books that belonged to him, confirmed that the remains of Copernicus were found.
On May 20, 2010, the ceremony of reburial of the remains of Nicolaus Copernicus began. On May 21, the coffin was taken to the Frombork Cathedral, where Copernicus made his most important discoveries. On the way to Frombork, the coffin passed through several cities in the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship - Dobre Miasto, Lidzbark Warmiński, Orneta, Pienieżno and Braniewo, with which Copernicus was connected in the course of his activities. On May 22, 2010, the remains of the great scientist were buried in the Frombork Cathedral. The solemn ceremony was held by the Primate of Poland, Archbishop of Gniezno Józef Kowalczyk. The burial of the remains was also timed to coincide with the celebration of the city's 750th anniversary.