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General characteristics of the flora. Features of the flora of mounds in the desert-steppe zone of Ukraine. Natural conditions of the study area

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Concept of flora

Flora is the collection of plant species that live in a certain area. We can talk about the flora of a particular region, region, country or any physical-geographical region (for example, the flora of Siberia, the flora of Europe, the flora of the Omsk region, etc.). Often flora also means a list of plants noted in a given area.

Floras of different territories differ significantly in the number of species composing them. This is primarily due to the size of the territory. The larger it is, the greater the number of species, as a rule. By comparing parts of land that are approximately equal in size by the number of plant species growing on them, poor floras and rich floras are identified.

The flora of tropical countries is richest in species; as you move away from the equatorial region, the number of species quickly decreases. The richest flora is in Southeast Asia with the Sunda Islands archipelago - more than 45 thousand plant species. In second place in terms of richness is the flora of tropical America (the Amazon basin with Brazil) - about 40 thousand species. The flora of the Arctic is one of the poorest, with just over 600 species; the flora of the Sahara Desert is even poorer - about 500 species

The richness of the flora is also determined by the diversity of natural conditions within the territory. The more diverse the environmental conditions, the more opportunities for the existence of different plants, the richer the flora. Therefore, the floras of mountain systems are, as a rule, richer than lowland floras. Thus, the flora of the Caucasus has more than 6,000 species, but on the vast plain of the central zone of the European part of Russia only about 2,300 species are found.

The richness of the flora may also be due to historical reasons. Older floras, many millions of years old, tend to be particularly rich in species. Plants that became extinct in other areas due to climate change, glaciations, etc. could survive here. Such ancient floras are found, for example, in the Far East and Western Transcaucasia. Young floras, formed relatively recently, are much poorer in species.

Significant differences in systematic composition are observed between floras of different territories. In countries temperate climate As a rule, the families of Compositae, legumes, Rosaceae, grasses, sedges and cruciferous plants predominate. In arid areas, various representatives of the goosefoot are very common. Tropical floras are rich in representatives of orchids, euphorbias, madder, legumes, and cereals. In savannas and steppes, cereals come first.

Flora elements

Arctic - a group of species whose habitats are in the Far North, in the continental tundra zone and on the Arctic islands. It breaks up into a number of smaller elements, for example, Western Arctic and Eastern Arctic. On the other hand, some arctic species have parts of their ranges (disjunctions) in the Caucasus, Altai, etc., so we can talk about the elemental arctic-caucasian, arctic-alpine, etc. Location of grains.

Northern (or boreal) - a group of species with habitats located mainly within the northern parts of the forest region, namely in the region coniferous forests. Here, too, there are further divisions: Euroboreal - only in the European part, Sibboreal in Siberia, etc.

Central European - a group of species with habitats in Central Europe, extending the eastern segments of their ranges into the western part of the Union, in some cases even extending beyond the Urals.

Basically, this group, more thermophilic compared to the previous one, is distributed in the region deciduous forests.

Examples: common oak (reaches the Urals), Norway maple (as well as field and Tatarian maples), ash, hornbeam, beech, winter oak (Quercus petraea), herbaceous species characteristic of broad-leaved forests, such as hoofweed, Peter's cross (Lathraea squamaria ), lungwort (Pulmonaria officinalis, etc. Range of lungwort.

Atlantic - found in the western regions of the European part of the USSR. This element is most strongly represented in the Atlantic coastal parts of Europe. Some species move more eastward. Among the plants growing on our territory, we can mention lobelia (Lobelia Dortmanna), waxweed (Myrica Gale).

Pontic - a group of species mainly of the southern Russian steppes, but also found in the Romanian and Hungarian steppes (if the species are found mainly in the Hungarian steppes, then this is a Pannonian element). This includes numerous species of our steppe spaces: adonis (Adonis vernalis), chickweed (Stachys recta), purple mullein (Verbascum phoeniceum), yellow scabiosa (Scabiosa ochroleuca), steppe cherry (Cerasus fruticosa), broom (Cytisus ruthenicus), etc. The Pannonian element is very poorly represented in our country. Habitat of the adonis.

Sarmatian - unites species that occupy the territory between the southern steppes and coniferous forests in the north, without going far to the west, beyond the western borders of the Union. These species are less heat-loving compared to the Pontic ones. A few examples: pea (Vicia pisiformis), hill violet (Viola collina), sandy astragalus (Astragalus arenarius) (Recently, some Russian authors have interpreted the Sarmatian element in a different sense: under the name of this element they combine species that cover mainly Northern Kazakhstan with their ranges (and partly Southern Siberia); these are generally steppe species. It is better, in order to avoid confusion, to talk here about the North Kazakhstan element).

Mediterranean - a group of species distributed in dry areas surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, and in the east growing on the coasts of the Black Sea - in the Crimea and the Caucasus (also in the Caspian regions). Trees and shrubs with evergreen leathery leaves and dry-loving herbs. Examples: strawberry tree (Arbutus andrachne), boxwood (Buxus sempervirens), sumac (Rhus coriaria), wild jasmine (Jasminum fruticans), etc. Some authors also include Western and Central Asian elements in the Mediterranean element. Boxwood habitat.

Near Asian. This includes species that have a habitat in the countries of Western Asia - from the borders of Iran in the east to the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. These are mainly plants of dry mountainous countries. It breaks down into a number of elements of a narrower meaning, of which we note the Iranian one, which generally coincides with the Iranian Plateau and extends into our borders in Transcaucasia. 9. Central Asian - confined to Central Asia, to its large mountain ranges(Tian Shan, Pamir-Alai, Tarbagatai, Altai). It is very complex and breaks down into a number of smaller elements.

Turanian - unites a group of species whose habitats are mainly associated with the deserts of the Turanian lowland of Central Asia. Element of desert character. In basic terms, this is the Aralocaspian element of some authors, which, however, is usually understood somewhat more broadly. A typically Turanian element is the group of Central Asian desert wormwoods (Artemisia). Range of white wormwood.

Manchurian is a group of species that has its main area of distribution in Manchuria and extends into the southern parts of the Far Eastern region. A number of trees and shrubs of the broad-leaved type: Manchurian walnut (Juglans manshurica, Fig. 108), Manchurian aralia (Aralia manshurica), velvet tree (Phellodendron amurense, variegated hazel (Corylus heterophylla), etc.

Elements of the flora of the Caucasus. Especially for the Caucasus, it is possible to indicate some more geographical elements that are more spatially limited. Caucasian - consists of species connected by their habitats with the Greater Caucasus; this includes Caucasian endemics (forest and alpine). Colchis is a group of species that have their range in the Colchis province of the Caucasus, i.e. in Western Transcaucasia (Adjara, Abkhazia and the more northern coast). Forest, limestone, mountain-meadow species. The majority are elements ancient in their genesis (tertiary): pontic oak (Quercus pontica), rhododendron (Rhododendron Smirnowii), birch (Betula Medwedewii), etc. Hyrcanian - species occupying the extreme southeast of the Caucasus, but the bulk of species are concentrated abroad - in Northern Iran. Ancient tertiary elements (mainly forest species): Parrotia persica, honey locust (Gleditschia caspia), silk acacia (Albizzia julibrissin), genus Danae, etc.

floristic saturation phytogenic swamp

The concept of floristic richness and floristic saturation

Floristic composition is the complete set of plant species found within a particular plant community.

Floristic composition is the most important constitutional feature, largely determining the structure and functions of the community. This is a very informative sign that speaks about the environmental conditions in which the community is located, its history, the degree and nature of its disturbance, etc.

The floristic composition is characterized by a number of indicators.

The first is species richness, that is total species characteristic of the phytocenosis. This indicator can vary from 1 (monodominant single-species communities) to 1000 or more species (some tropical forests). According to the witty remark of R. Margalef (Margalef, 1994), species richness can in any case be placed between two extreme situations: the “Noah’s Ark” model - there are a lot of species, but each is represented by only one pair of individuals, and the “Petri dish” - a microbiological culture , in which a huge number of individuals of one species are represented. Species richness is the simplest measure of alpha diversity, that is, biotic diversity at the phytocenosis level.

With all the interest in the indicator of the degree of species richness, it is obvious that its use in comparative analytical constructions is in many cases incorrect. So, for example, a small swamp and a section of tropical forest are incomparable in terms of species richness. Therefore, in geobotany, the indicator of species saturation is much more often used - the number of species per unit area. But here it should be noted that in order to determine the species richness of a phytocenosis, it is necessary in any case to know its species richness.

If species richness is identified using square or round areas of increasing size inscribed within each other, then, as a rule, as the area of the recording unit increases, the number of species identified in the phytocenosis will increase. If you construct a curve from the obtained values, it will fairly well reflect the dependence of the increase in the number of species on the size of the counting area. As a rule, such a curve will initially rise sharply, and then gradually reach a plateau. The beginning of the transition to the plateau will show that on an area of this size the overwhelming number of species in the phytocenosis have already been identified. As a rule, the richer the phytocenosis in species, the smaller size area at which the curve reaches a plateau.

In order to characterize the floristic composition of the phytocenosis as fully as possible, all plants are first recorded, standing at one point on the border of the described area. After all the plants have been marked, including the most inconspicuous ones visible from the observation point, they slowly move along the border, recording new plants that have not yet been included in the list. Walking around the entire area. make its intersection diagonally, continuing to fit in the plants. This method of recording ensures the completeness of the list and saves the described area from trampling by the researcher.

When taking into account the species composition once, it is usually impossible to obtain a complete list of species characterizing the phytocenosis. Some species have a short growing season, dormant for the rest of the year as seeds or underground organs; other species begin their development late and are not included in the lists compiled during the spring description of the phytocenosis. Therefore, to obtain more complete information about the floristic composition of the community, it is necessary to compile lists of plants two or three times during the growing season.

Characteristics of the flora of the world

A section of the earth's surface with its inherent relief, ground layer of the atmosphere, surface and underground waters, soils, communities of flora and fauna, naturally interconnected, is called a natural-territorial complex (NTC). This same concept is also called “geosystem”. An ecosystem, which is the basic concept of environmental science, is a collection of living organisms and their environment in interaction based on metabolism and directed energy flows: These concepts are very similar in content: in all three concepts we're talking about about a certain area of the earth's surface. Geosystems, or PTC, mean areas of the earth's surface at various levels that are in regular relationships, from the smallest - facies - to the global - geographical shell. Ecosystems mean spatial units of various sizes inhabited by organisms characterized by species composition, abundance and biomass, distribution patterns and seasonal dynamics. Ecosystem itself high rank- biosphere. The biosphere and the geographical envelope are almost identical concepts. In ecology and geography, not only global units, such as the biosphere and the geographical envelope, coincide, but also others of a lower rank: as concepts that are close in meaning, but different in form. For example, “facies” in landscape science and “zone” in physical geography are very close in meaning to both biological and ecological terms - “biocenosis” and “biome”.

In ecology, biological organisms, their relationships with the environment, species composition, biomass and energy exchange are placed in the foreground, since living organisms are distinguished by bio-geochemical activity. Especially green plants, which, as a result of the process of photosynthesis, continuously exchanging substances and energy with non-living components of nature, create primary organic products. In nature, only green plants convert solar energy into biochemical energy and accumulate it. Due to such accumulated energy of green plants, life exists and is preserved on Earth. Animals feed on organic substances synthesized by plants, thanks to which they continue their species. Living organisms that provide continuous metabolism and energy flows form the basis of the ecosystem. The most important component in it is the plant environment, which influences the soil, fauna and microorganisms. The state of vegetation determines the nature of biogeocenoses, their morphological and functional structure.
In solving environmental problems, an important role is played by the preservation of the natural state of green plants, land areas and species diversity in the process of human economic activity. A reduction in the annual production of green plants negatively affects the biochemical cycle of substances and energy flows, and the preservation of ecological balance in the ecosystem. And negative results cannot but affect a person’s life. The ecological situation among animal organisms is directly related to the ecological state of vegetation.

For humanity, the plant world is essential component habitats, the main source of food, medicinal and technical raw materials, and building materials. Vegetation is the main basis for livestock production. Cultivated plants are also grown to improve the human environment, as well as to increase soil fertility, protect them from water and wind erosion, to consolidate loose sand, etc.

However, vegetation as one of the components of the natural-territorial complex is quite vulnerable and has low resistance to external influences. In the hierarchical system of a natural-territorial complex, vegetation is dependent on a number of components. Of the PTC components, the most stable is the lithological link, i.e. geological structure and relief. Air mass is also one of the stable components of the PTC. After them comes the water component, then the soil, and then just the vegetation. Changing any of the above components will result in disruption of the herbal component. If the relief is disturbed, the soil is washed away, and the water regime is changed, then there can be no question of preserving natural vegetation. But, if other components of nature have not undergone changes, then it is possible to preserve and restore the plant environment.

The fauna is also an important part of the biosphere. Animals are the most vulnerable component of the PTC - the main consumer of primary organic products created by plants, which ensure the circulation of chemical elements in the biosphere.

Animals play a significant role in soil fertility and rock weathering. Animal organisms in the soil, such as earthworms, various beetles, spiders, microorganisms, and digging rodents, constantly mix the soil, loosening it, increasing the pores and voids in it, promoting the penetration of air into the soil and, together with the remains of dead plants and animals, increasing its fertility . Small insects provide plant pollination, thereby creating the possibility of quantitative reproduction. By carrying the seeds of some plants from place to place, they help them spread. Animals improve rangeland to a certain extent, and only an excessive number of them within a limited area can lead to deterioration of the soil cover.

Animals play an important role in people's lives. They provide us with food and serve as a raw material base for industry. Wild animals are a source of genetic fund for livestock breeding. At the present stage, people are trying to domesticate different types of wild animals, in order, for example, to use their valuable fur.
Some species of animals cause serious damage to the farm, and people try to reduce such losses.

The fauna, together with the plant world, is the most important component of the ecosystem, a factor that determines its current state. Ecological situations on the ground are determined by the state in which people, animals and plants are.).
The fauna, as one of the components of the natural-territorial complex, is the most vulnerable, especially susceptible to external influences, including those resulting from human economic activity, and has the least stability. This component is dependent on all other PTC components. In the hierarchical series of the geosystem, it occupies the last step, therefore the influence of human economic activity is primarily reflected on it, leading to a sharp increase in the number of some species, a decrease in others, or the complete disappearance of others. The fauna is the most affected of all the components of the PTC from human economic activities.

Floristic division of the Earth

An attempt at floristic zoning of the globe's landmass was made back in the first half of the 19th century. Floristic zoning can be based on various principles. In particular, it is possible to identify individual areas depending on the richness of species, features of systematic composition, and the presence or absence of certain elements of the flora.

However, most often the land area of the globe is divided into a series of mutually subordinate regions, or phytochorions (from the Greek phyton - plant and khoros - space), identified on the basis of similarities and differences in the systematic composition of their floras. As new data is accumulated, it is repeatedly updated. A significant contribution to the zoning of the Earth according to the composition of floras was made by the Russian botanist A.L. Takhtadzhyan in his book “Floristic Regions of the Earth” (1978). Of essential importance in determining the boundaries of phytochorions is the analysis of habitats and the identification of geographical and genetic elements of a given flora.

Where the composition of the main elements of the flora changes, one flora is replaced by another. In works on floristic zoning, the distribution of endemics in floras is especially important.

Endemics are species (of plants) that are not found anywhere except in a given territory. Endemism is a broader concept, since endemic species can form endemic genera and even endemic families over larger areas. The degree of endemism varies greatly among different areas. The floras of isolated oceanic islands are highly endemic. Thus, for the flora of the Hawaiian Islands, 82% of endemics are indicated, for the flora of the Galapagos Islands - more than 50, in the native part of the flora of New Zealand - 82%. Of the continental floras, the most isolated is the flora of Australia - a continent that has long been isolated from other significant land areas.

Here, out of 12 thousand species, more than 9 thousand are endemic. But the number of endemic families here is still less than in East and Southeast Asia. Among endemics, botanists try to distinguish between paleoendemics and neoendemics. Paleoendemics have ancient origins. These are, as a rule, systematically isolated taxa. The number of paleoendemics largely determines the originality and antiquity of the flora. Neoendemics most often include species, less often genera, that arose relatively recently and have not yet had time to spread widely. There are especially many neoendemics in mountain ranges. A large number of neoendemics indicates active speciation processes and the relative youth of the main core of the flora. The centers of modern diversity of certain taxa are primarily associated with the abundance of neoendemics.

Floristic kingdoms

Floristic kingdoms (regions) of the globe, the largest associations of floras related by origin, historically formed on certain areas of the Earth’s surface. Isolation of F. c. is substantiated primarily by paleogeographical factors (starting mostly from the Cretaceous period), as well as modern soil and climatic factors. In every F. c. It has its own complexes of endemic families and genera of plants, the origin and distribution of which over a long geological history took place within its borders. F. c. are subdivided into subordinate floristic units of lower rank (floristic regions, provinces, districts, districts, etc.). Although in the division of the earth's surface into F. c. (or regions) by different authors there are discrepancies, in its fundamental basis it is uniform (see Floristic zoning).

The vast Holarctic floristic kingdom (or Holarctic region) occupies the entire extratropical space of the North. hemisphere, in the south to the Cape Verde Islands, north. parts of the Sahara and Arabia, the coast of the Persian Gulf, southern. slopes of the Hindu Kush and Himalayas, extreme southern China, in the North. America - to the north. parts of the Mexican Highlands and the shores of the Gulf of Mexico.

Historically, the floras of the Holarctic are associated with the ancient Paleogene-Neogene Arcto-Tertiary floristic complex, its derivatives, and the Amer. Madro-Tertiary floras. Connections with tropical floras proper have long been limited to the vast Tethys basin, the isolating role of which countered the similarity of the climatic conditions of the southern Holarctic with the tropical ones proper. Flora of Holarctic F. c. is highly differentiated, which forces it to be divided into a number of floristic regions: Arctic - has poor floras with a predominance of families such as grasses, sedges, cruciferous plants, carnation plants, asteraceae, etc.; Boreal - characterized by the dominance of coniferous trees; according to the number of species, cereals, sedges, and asteraceae are distinguished; Central European is characterized by the predominance of deciduous tree species (temperate forests), an abundance of grasses, Asteraceae, Rosaceae and other groups common to the Holarctic; Mediterranean - richly represented by Asteraceae, Papilaceae, Poaceae, Cruciferae, Lamiaceae, Dianthus, Apiaceae (the flora is highly differentiated in space, progressive endemism is clearly expressed); Central Asian - relatively poor flora, similar to the Mediterranean, Boreal and East Asian; East Asian has retained many features of Arctic-Paleogene-Neogene species in combination with the development of progressive endemism; Californian (Sonorian) and Appalachian - the basis of the flora is made up of relicts of the Paleogene-Neogene and Madro-Paleogene-Neogene complexes with elements of progressive endemism.

The paleotropical floristic kingdom (or Paleotropical region) occupies the space south of the Holarctic floristic kingdom (in the Eastern Hemisphere) to the subtropics of South Africa, along with the islands of the Indian and Pacific oceans. The flora is rich and highly differentiated. The leading position is occupied by pantropical families, which are characterized by division into the territories of the Old and New Worlds (for example, palm trees and orchids); Rubiaceae, Euphorbiaceae, palms, orchids, melastomaceae, aroids, mulberries, laurelaceae, and a number of groups of tubiferous plants are widespread. Cosmopolitan families and species are represented by cereals, legumes, Asteraceae, etc. There are few endemic families - dipterocarpaceae, pandanaceae, and some others. The species composition of floras is rich, especially in areas where forest vegetation predominates. The richness and differentiation of floras make it possible to distinguish the following regions in the paleotropical kingdom: Sahara-Sindian, Sudano-Zambezian, Guinea-Congo, Kalahari, Cape, Madagascar, Hindustan, Indochina, Malay, Papuan, Hawaiian, Polynesian.

The Neotropical floristic kingdom (or Neotropical region) occupies the space of the New World from the South. California and the Bahamas to 41° S. w. The flora is characterized by the massive presence of cosmopolitan (orchids, asteraceae, legumes, cereals, etc.) and pantropical (palm, myrtle, euphorbia, madder, etc.) families. The families of cacti, bromeliads, etc. are endemic. Changes in the richness of floras mainly depend on climatic conditions (humid and hot forest areas rich in species composition equatorial zone change when moving to subtropical latitudes and when climbing mountains). The following regions are distinguished: Caribbean, Orinoco, Amazonian, Brazilian, Laplata, Andean.

The southern floristic kingdom occupies the mainland of Australia and the island. Tasmania, New Zealand with adjacent islands, the extreme south of South. America, subantarctic islands and Antarctica. The most distinctive flora of Australia is the myrtaceae (in particular, eucalyptus), proteaceae, mimosa, epacridaceae, humeniaceae, restiaceae, casuarinaceae, etc. There are the Australian (a number of botanists consider it as a floristic kingdom), New Zealand, New Caledonian and Magellanic-Antarctic regions.

Phytogenic factors, their classification and characteristics

In the domestic literature, the most common classification of forms of relationships between plants according to V.N. Sukachev (Table .

Table The main forms of relationships between plants (according to V. N. Sukachev, N. V. Dylis et al., 1964).

Direct (contact) interactions between plants

An example of mechanical interaction is damage to spruce and pine in mixed forests from the whipping action of birch. Swaying from the wind, thin birch branches injure spruce needles and knock down light young needles. This is very noticeable in winter, when the branches of the birch are leafless.

Mutual pressure and cohesion of trunks often has a negative effect on plants. However, such contacts are more often found in the underground sphere, where large masses of roots are closely intertwined in small volumes of soil. The types of contacts can be different - from simple adhesion to strong fusion. Thus, the growth of vines is destructive in the life of many tropical forest trees, often leading to branches breaking off under their weight and trunks drying out as a result of the compressive action of climbing stems or roots. It is no coincidence that some vines are called “stranglers” (Fig. 1).

Rice. 1 Liana plants: 1 - strangler ficus; 2 - dodder; 3 - climbing honeysuckle (according to N.M. Chernova et al., 1995)

According to scientists, about 10% of all plant species lead an epiphytic lifestyle. Tropical forests are richest in epiphytes. These include many species of bromeliads and orchids (Fig. 2).

Rice. 2 Epiphytic orchid with aerial roots: A - general view; B - cross section of an aerial root with an outer layer of absorbent tissue (1) (according to V.L. Komarov, 1949)

The ecological meaning of epiphytism is a unique adaptation to the light regime in dense tropical forests: the ability to get to the light in the upper tiers of the forest without large expenditures of substances for growth. The very origin of the epiphytic lifestyle is associated with the struggle of plants for light. The evolution of many epiphytes has gone so far that they have already lost the ability to grow outside the plant substrate, i.e. they are obligate epiphytes. At the same time, there are species that can grow in soil in greenhouse conditions.

A typical example of close symbiosis, or mutualism, between plants is the cohabitation of an algae and a fungus, which form a special integral lichen organism (Fig. 3).

Rice. 3. Cladonia lichen (according to N.M. Chernova et al., 1995)

Another example of symbiosis is the cohabitation of higher plants with bacteria, the so-called bacteriotrophy. Symbiosis with nitrogen-fixing nodule bacteria is widespread among legumes (93% of the studied species) and mimosa (87%). Thus, bacteria from the genus Rhizobium, living in nodules on the roots of leguminous plants, are provided with food (sugars) and habitat, and the plants receive from them an accessible form of nitrogen in return (Fig. 5).

Rice. 5 Nodules on the roots of leguminous plants: A - red clover; B beans; B - soybeans; G - lupine (according to A.P. Shennikov, 1950).

There is a symbiosis of the mycelium of the fungus with the root of a higher plant, or mycorrhiza formation. Such plants are called mycotrophic, or mycotrophs. Having settled on the roots of plants, the hyphae of the fungus provide the higher plant with colossal suction capacity. The surface of contact between root cells and hyphae in ectotrophic mycorrhiza is 10-14 times larger than the surface of contact with the soil of bare root cells, while the suction surface of the root due to root hairs increases the root surface only 2-5 times. Of the 3425 species of vascular plants studied in our country, mycorrhiza was found in 79%.

An example of the symbiosis of fungi and insects is the symbiosis of the fungus Septobasidium with the insect worm from Coccidae, which gives a new symbiotic formation - varnishes, which, as a single organism, was introduced into culture by humans.

A separate group of plants with heterotrophic nutrition consists of saprophytes - species that use organic substances of dead organisms as a source of carbon. In the biological cycle, this important link that carries out the decomposition of organic residues and the transformation of complex compounds into simpler ones is represented mostly by fungi, actinomycetes, and bacteria. They are found among flowering plants in representatives of the families of wintergreens, orchids, etc. Examples of flowering plants that have completely lost chlorophyll and switched to feeding on ready-made organic substances are saprophytes of coniferous forests - the common moth (Monotropahypopitis), the leafless mullet (Epipogonaphylluon). Saprophytes are rare among mosses and ferns.

The fusion of roots of closely growing trees (of the same species or related species) also refers to direct physiological contacts between plants. The phenomenon is not so rare in nature. In dense stands of Piceaflies spruce, the roots of about 30% of all trees grow together. It has been established that between fused trees there is an exchange through the roots in the form of transfer of nutrients and water. Depending on the degree of difference or similarity in the needs of the fused partners, relationships of a competitive nature in the form of the interception of substances by a more developed and stronger tree, as well as symbiotic ones, cannot be excluded between them.

The form of connections in the form of predation has a certain significance. Predation is widespread not only between animals, but also between plants and animals. Thus, a number of insectivorous plants (sundew, nepenthes) are classified as predators (Fig. 6).

Rice. 6 Predatory plant sundew (according to E. A. Kriksunov et al., 1995)

Indirect transbiotic relationships between plants (through animals and microorganisms). The important ecological role of animals in plant life is their participation in the processes of pollination, distribution of seeds and fruits. Pollination of plants by insects, called entomophily, contributed to the development of a number of adaptations in both plants and insects. Let us name here such interesting adaptations of entomophilous flowers as patterns that form “path threads” to nectaries and stamens, often visible only in ultraviolet rays accessible to insects; difference in flower color before and after pollination; synchronization of the daily rhythms of opening of the corolla and stamens, ensuring the unmistakable hit of the finger on the body of the insect, and from it on the stigma of another flower, etc. (Fig. 7).

Rice. 7 Insect on a flower (according to N. M. Chernova et al., 1995)

The diverse and complex structure of flowers (various shapes of petals, their symmetrical or asymmetrical arrangement, the presence of certain inflorescences), called heterostyly, are all adaptations to the body structure and behavior of strictly specific insects. For example, flowers of wild carrot (Daucuscarota), caraway (Carumcarvi), pollinated by ants, flowers of the Asarumeuropaeum, pollinated by ants and, accordingly, do not rise from under the forest floor.

Birds also take part in pollinating plants. Pollination of plants by birds, or ornithophily, is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions of the southern hemisphere. There are about 2,000 species of birds known here that pollinate flowers while searching for nectar or catching insects hiding in their corollas. Among them, the most famous pollinators are sunbirds (Africa, Australia, South Asia) and hummingbirds (South America). The flowers of ornithophilous plants are large and brightly colored. The predominant color is bright red, most attractive to hummingbirds and other birds. Some ornithophilous flowers have special protective devices that prevent nectar from spilling out when the flower moves.

Less common is plant pollination by mammals, or zoogamy. For the most part, zoogamy is observed in Australia, in the forests of Africa and South America. For example, Australian shrubs of the genus Driandra are pollinated by kangaroos, who readily drink their abundant nectar, moving from flower to flower.

The distribution of seeds, fruits, and spores of plants with the help of animals is called zoochory. Among plants whose seeds and fruits are dispersed by animals, in turn, a distinction is made between epizoochorous, endozoochorous and synzoochorous. Epizoochorous plants, mostly in open habitats, have seeds and fruits with all sorts of devices for fastening and holding on the surface of the animal’s body (outgrowths, hooks, hitches, etc.), for example, large and cobwebby burdock, common Velcro, etc.

In the shrub layer of forests, where many birds live, endozoochorous plant species predominate. Their fruits are edible or attractive to birds due to their bright colors or juicy pericarp. It should be noted that the seeds of many endozoochorous plants increase germination, and sometimes the ability to germinate, only after passing through the food tract of an animal - many Araliaceae, Malussieversu apple tree, etc.

Animals do not eat edible fruits and seeds of oak and Siberian pine immediately, but take them away and put them in stock. A significant part of them is lost and, under favorable conditions, gives rise to new plants. This distribution of seeds and fruits is called synzoochory.

In indirect transbiotic relationships, microorganisms often act among plants. The rhizosphere of the roots of many trees, for example, oak, greatly changes the soil environment, especially its composition and acidity, and thereby creates favorable conditions for the settlement of various microorganisms, primarily bacteria, such as Azotobacter chroocoteum, Tricholomelegnorum, Pseudomonassp. These bacteria, having settled here, feed on secretions of oak roots and organic debris created by the hyphae of mycorrhizal fungi. Bacteria, living next to the roots of the oak tree, serve as a kind of “defense line” against the penetration of pathogenic fungi into the roots. This biological barrier is created by antibiotics secreted by bacteria. The settlement of bacteria in the oak rhizosphere immediately has a positive effect on the condition of plants, especially young ones.

Indirect transabiotic relationships between plants (environment-forming influences, competition, allelopathy). Changing the environment by plants is the most universal and widespread type of relationship between plants when they coexist. When one or another species or group of plant species in the C, as a result of its life activity, greatly changes the basic ecological factors in quantitative and qualitative terms in such a way that other species of the community have to live in conditions that differ significantly from the zonal complex of factors of the physical environment, then this indicates environment-forming role, environment-forming influence of the first type in relation to the others. One of them is mutual influence through changes in microclimate factors (for example, weakening of solar radiation within the vegetation cover, depletion of it in photosynthetically active rays, changes in the seasonal rhythm of illumination, etc.). Some plants influence others through changes in air temperature, humidity, wind speed, carbon dioxide content, etc.

Another way of interaction of plants in communities is through the ground layer of dead plant debris, called in meadows and steppes rags, herbaceous decay or “steppe felt,” and in forests - litter. This layer (sometimes several centimeters thick) makes it difficult for seeds and spores to penetrate the soil. Seeds germinating in (or on) a layer of rags often die from drying out before the roots of the seedlings reach the soil. For seeds that fall into the soil and germinate, soil residues can be a serious mechanical obstacle to the seedlings’ path to light. Relationships between plants are also possible through the decay products of plant residues contained in the litter, which inhibit or, on the contrary, stimulate plant growth. Thus, fresh litter of spruce or beech contains substances that inhibit the germination of spruce and pine, and in places with scanty precipitation and poor washing of the litter they can inhibit the natural regeneration of tree species. Water extracts from forest litter also have a negative effect on the growth of many steppe grasses.

A significant way of mutual influence of plants is interaction through chemical secretions. Plants release various chemicals into the environment (air, water, soil) during the process of guttation, secretion of nectar, essential oils, resins, etc.; when mineral salts are washed away by rainwater, leaves, for example, of trees, lose potassium, sodium, magnesium and other ions; during metabolism (root secretions) gaseous substances released by above-ground organs - unsaturated hydrocarbons, ethylene, hydrogen, etc.; when the integrity of tissues and organs is violated, plants release volatile substances, so-called phytoncides, and substances from dead parts of plants (Fig. 8).

The released compounds are necessary for plants, but with the development of a large plant body surface, their loss is as inevitable as transpiration.

Chemical secretions from plants can serve as one of the ways of interaction between plants in a community, having either a toxic or stimulating effect on organisms.

Rice. 8 The influence of one plant on another (according to A. M. Grodzinsky, 1965): 1 - miasmins; 2 - phytoncidal substances; 3 - phytogenic substances; 4 - active intravital secretions; 5 - passive intravital discharge; 6 - post-mortem discharge; 7 - processing by heterotrophic organisms

Such chemical interactions are called allelopathy. An example is the secretion of beet fruits, which inhibits the germination of cockle seeds (Agrostemmagithago). Chickpeas (Cicerarietinum) have a suppressive effect on potatoes, corn, sunflowers, tomatoes and other crops, beans - on the growth of spring wheat; root secretions of wheatgrass (Agropyronrepens) and brome (Bromusinermis) - on other herbaceous plants and even trees growing near them. As an extreme form of allelopathy or the impossibility of the existence of one or another species in the presence of another as a result of environmental intoxication, it is called amensalism. Amensalism corresponds to direct competition, antibiosis and antagonism. Thus, due to the release of toxic substances by its roots, hawkweed (Hieraciumpilosella) from the Asteraceae family displaces other annual plants and often forms pure thickets over fairly large areas. Many fungi and bacteria synthesize antibiotics that inhibit the growth of other bacteria. Amensalism is widespread in the aquatic environment.

In different plant species, the degree of impact on the environment and thus on the life of the inhabitants is not the same in accordance with the characteristics of their morphology, biology, seasonal development, etc. Plants that most actively and deeply transform the environment and determine the conditions of existence for other co-inhabitants are called edificators. There are strong and weak edificators. Strong edificators include spruce (strong shading, soil depletion of nutrients, etc.), sphagnum mosses (moisture retention and creation of excess moisture, increased acidity, special temperature conditions, etc.). Weak edificators are deciduous trees with an open crown (birch, ash), and herbaceous forest plants.

Competition is identified as a special form of transbiotic relationships between plants. These are those mutual or unilateral negative influences that arise based on the use of energy and food resources of the habitat. Competition for soil moisture (especially pronounced in areas with insufficient moisture) and competition for nutrients soils, more noticeable on poor soils. An example of competition is the relationship between meadow foxtail (Alopecurus pratensis) and fescue (Festucasulcata). Fescue can grow in moist soil, but does not grow in the foxtail meadow community due to suppression by the shade-tolerant and fast-growing foxtail. In the formation of a fescue or foxtail phytocenosis, the decisive factor is not soil moisture, but the competitive relationship between fescue and foxtail. In drier habitats, fescue drowns out foxtail, but in moist meadows, foxtail emerges victorious.

Interspecific competition manifests itself in plants in the same way as intraspecific competition (morphological changes, decreased fertility, abundance, etc.). The dominant species gradually displaces or greatly reduces its viability.

The most severe competition, often with unforeseen consequences, occurs when new plant species are introduced into communities without taking into account already established relationships.

Swamp concept

A swamp is an area of the earth's surface characterized by abundant stagnant or weakly flowing moisture in the upper horizons of soils, on which specific swamp vegetation grows, adapted to conditions of abundant moisture and lack of oxygen in the soil.

If the thickness of the deposited peat is such that the roots of the bulk of plants reach the underlying mineral soil, then in this case the excessively moist land areas are classified as wetlands or swamps in the initial stage of their development.

The task of hydrology includes the study of the hydrological (and especially water) regime of swamps both in the initial stages of their formation (wetlands and waterlogged reservoirs) and in subsequent phases of development (marsh massifs).

The division of wetlands into wetlands and swamps is largely a reflection of differences in vegetation composition. Purely swamp forms of plant groups do not appear simultaneously with the beginning of the swamping process. As long as the thickness of the peat is small and the root systems of the main plant species are not detached from the mineral soil underlying the peat, the vegetation cover includes plants characteristic of both swamp and non-marsh habitats.

Due to the fact that the condition that determines the existence of certain plant associations in excessively wet areas is primarily the water regime, the indicated difference between wetlands and swamps in the subsequent stage of their development also has hydrological significance. In addition to defining a bog as a hydrological object, there are definitions in which a bog is considered as an object for peat extraction, that is, from the point of view of the presence or absence of fuel reserves in it.

Ways of formation of swamps

There are three main stages in the development of swamps.

First stage.

Lakes are natural bodies of water in depressions of land (basins), filled within the lake bowl (lake bed) with heterogeneous water masses and not having a one-way slope. Based on their origin, lake basins are divided into tectonic, glacial, river (oxbow lakes), coastal (lagoons, estuaries), sinkholes (karst, thermokarst), volcanic (in the craters of extinct volcanoes), dammed lakes, artificial (reservoirs, ponds). According to their water balance, lakes are divided into drainage and drainageless; according to the chemical composition of water - fresh and mineral.

This is not unimportant, since a huge amount of mineral substances are delivered to the lakes by ground or above-ground waters, and organic matter (plus mineral substances) is brought with the waters of coastal washout and springs (ground type of nutrition).

Water mineralization, saturation of water with inorganic (mineral) substances found in the form of both ions and colloids.

During the life of plants and animals, a substance called sapropel, organic silt, consisting mainly of organic substances and the remains of aquatic organisms, is formed at the bottom of lakes. Sapropel is used as fertilizer. Plants along the shore of the reservoir (trees, shrubs) correspond to the types found in the area. But aquatic and wetland plants (reeds, reeds, water lilies, pondweed) are already beginning to do their job.

At this stage, representatives of fish, fish-like organisms, mollusks, etc. are still visible. You can also see plankton, which reproduce especially abundantly during the period of spring mixing of water, when its temperature promotes the reproduction process and the amount of oxygen reaches its highest level (oxygen dissolved in water).

Dokturovsky V.S. wrote: “From the edges of the shores of the lake, wetland vegetation gradually moves towards the middle of the reservoirs... leaving in their center only a small lake, which, instead of shores with mineral soil, is surrounded by peat...”

Second stage of development.

A layer of lowland peat is formed here (it unites 24 species), and marsh plants predominate. The boundaries of peat and sapropel coincide. Atmospheric recharge maintains weak washout from the banks and promotes swamping by replenishing the upper layer with water. Evaporation processes are negligible compared to the process of water entering from the soil and atmosphere.

The supply of water from the ground may be partially disrupted, but more often a constant supply prevails. This process contributes to the growth of the swamp, which gradually increases its volume. But the volume is due to the growth of peat, which in turn is the main reason for the increase in the volume of the swamp.

Peat formation occurs within the peat layer. This layer is located at the top (0.2 -0.7 m) of the peat deposit.

When water stands high, anaerobic conditions arise and decomposition processes slow down.

Third stage.

At this stage of development, the type of swamp is fully formed, that is, we can already determine what kind of swamp it is: lowland, transitional or upland. Consider, for example, a low-lying swamp. So, before us is a formed lowland swamp. The layer of lowland peat accumulated during the growth of the bog landscape is quite high. The vegetation cover is widely represented by the marsh plants described above. Representative trees - spruce and birch - spread across the surface of the swamp. The sapropel layer is significantly increased. The boundary between peat and sapropel with interpenetration can be traced. Atmospheric nutrition brings oxygen and contributes to swamping of areas. The supply of water from the ground in some cases supports, and in others contributes to an increase in the volume of the swamp. Evaporation processes are slowed down. Continuous vegetation cover retains moisture. Growth processes prevail over decomposition processes. And in this sense, swamps are one of the first places in terms of productivity (its relation to decomposition processes).

Geography

The nature of Germany is extremely diverse.

The state is located in Central Europe. It borders with France, Switzerland, Denmark, the Czech Republic, Poland, Austria, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Belgium. Its north is framed by the Baltic and North Seas.

Between Lake Constance and Berchtesgaden there are the Alps, although their territory is not very large. Germany is bordered by the Bavarian, Allgäu and Berchtesgaden Alps. Between them you can see the wonderful blue lake surfaces - Königssee, Garmisch-Partenkirchen and Mittenwald, which are popular areas among tourists.

Nature of Germany

More than 1/3 of the land in Germany is cultivated, and therefore the state does not have much to boast of its wildlife, but almost all existing forests and other green areas are quite well maintained.

The peculiarity of the nature of Germany is that throughout the entire country, mountain ranges intersect with plateaus, plains, lake landscapes, and hills.

In the northern part of Germany there are lowlands:

Westphalian.
Saxon-Thuringian.
Lower Rhine.

These areas are characterized by hilly landscapes with an abundance of lakes, peat bogs, heathland and fertile lands.

Germany owns the following islands off the North Sea coast:

Borkum.
Sylt.
Helgoland.
Norderney.

German islands on the Baltic Sea:

Fehmarn.
Rügen.
Hiddensee.

The coast here is represented by rocks and sand. Between the North and Baltic seas the relief is represented by hills called Holstein Switzerland.

The Harz (mountain range) is located in the very center of Germany. In the east are the Fichtelgebirge and the Ore Mountains. The territory of the state is divided into two parts (southern and northern) by a medium-altitude mountain threshold.

Nature reserves in Germany

The "Bavarian Forest" is located in the southeast of the country. This is the largest nature reserve in Central Europe. Most of it extends above sea level at an altitude of more than 1 kilometer. Among its inhabitants there are rare and even endangered animals: beaver, lynx, forest cat, black stork and peregrine falcon.
"Saxon Switzerland". This unique place is located in eastern Germany. The rocky terrain rises 200 meters above sea level. The observation deck allows you to admire the beauty of the entire territory of the reserve. The most popular place among tourists is the unique bridge stretched across the Bastei rocks and built in 1824.
"Chalk cliffs" of the island of "Rügen". This amazing little part of Germany's protected area is located in the northeast of the country. This is the Jasmund National Park, which includes the shore of the Baltic Sea and the adjacent forests. There is a unique natural formation here - the “Royal Chair”, which is a chalk rock rising 118 meters in height. Hundreds of thousands of tourists climb to its observation deck every year.
"Stork on the Roof" The protected area includes villages that are home to hundreds of white storks. The national park is a place where you can meet dozens of rare animals and birds: black storks, whooper swans, corncrakes, otters and kingfishers.

Flora and fauna

The flora and fauna of Germany is surprisingly diverse.

The most typical inhabitants of German forests are the fox, squirrel and wild boar. You can also often see red deer, roe deer and fallow deer. Hares, mouse-like rodents and rabbits take root well in cleared areas. The existence of the otter has recently been threatened by river pollution. IN alpine meadows marmots live. Among the birds, instead of forest species, birds typical of open spaces are common.

Wet areas off the coast of the North and Baltic Seas are important for European migratory birds. Ducks, geese and wading birds especially loved these places.

The plants of Germany in their natural form have practically not been preserved due to the dense population of the territories. Indigenous forests were either practically destroyed or replaced by forest plantations. The original forests of birch and oak in the north of the country were replaced by cultivated land over several centuries. Today, lands with poor soils are allocated for forest plantations. Mainly hardy subspecies of pine trees are grown here.

In the lowlands of Germany, luxurious beech forests grow, alternating with spruce forests. Pine appears on sandy soils.

In the Alps and mountains of Central Germany, beech forests are replaced by fir forests with increasing altitude, and then by spruce forests. Above 2200-2800 meters mosses, grasses and lichens and flowering plants grow.

In conclusion about climatic conditions

The nature of Germany is diverse due to fairly favorable climatic conditions. Temperate, maritime and transitional climates prevail here.

The average summer temperature is plus 20-30 degrees, winter - close to 0. The maximum temperature in summer is up to +35 degrees, in winter - up to -20 degrees. Precipitation falls throughout Germany in large quantities.

Due to Germany's location in the zone of moderately cool westerly winds, significant temperature fluctuations are rare.

The concept of flora…………………………………………………………….3-8

Contribution of flora to overall biodiversity………………………..9-10

Characteristics of the flora of Bashkortostan……………………….11-39

Protection of biological diversity and flora

as its component…………………………………………. 39-47

Conclusion…………………………………………………………….….48

Conclusions…………………………………………………………………….49

List of references……………………………….…..50

Introduction.
Preserving biodiversity is one of the key problems in building a society with sustainable development.The most important component of biodiversity is flora as a set of plant species growing in a certain area. Flora serves as the basis for the formation of not only vegetation, but also ecosystems. In accordance with the well-known ecological principle “diversity begets diversity,” flora predetermines the composition of heterotrophic components of ecosystems. For this reason, the study of flora, its rational use and protection are the most important components of a broad program for the conservation of biodiversity as an exhaustible resource.
There is undeniable progress in protecting biodiversity around the world. A number of important international documents have been adopted and are being implemented, such as the “Concept on the Protection of Biological Diversity” (Rio de Janeiro, 1992), the “Pan-European Strategy for the Protection of Biological Diversity” (1996), etc. International cooperation in environmental issues is expanding and intensifying activities of international organizations - UNESCO, World Conservation Union (IUCN), World Wildlife Fund (WWF). The WWF office operates in the Republic of Bashkortostan and makes a significant contribution to the protection of flora.
In recent years, increasing attention has been paid to the protection of biodiversity in Russia and Bashkortostan. The need to preserve biodiversity is reflected in such documents as the “Concept of the Russian Federation’s transition to sustainable development” (1996), the federal law “On environmental protection (2002), the “Ecological Doctrine of Russia” (2002), the law “On specially protected natural territories of the Republic of Bashkortostan" (1995), republican comprehensive program "Ecology and natural resources of the Republic of Bashkortostan for 2004-2010", "Concept for the development of a system of protected natural areas in the Republic of Bashkortostan" (2003).
Purpose of the work: to talk about the uniqueness of the flora as a hotbed of biodiversity of global significance, economic value, state of use and protection; characterize the flora of Bashkortostan.

I. The concept of flora.
Flora (in botany, lat. flora) - a historically established set of plant species distributed in a certain territory at the present time or in past geological eras. Houseplants, plants in greenhouses, etc. are not included in the flora.
The name of the term comes from the name of the Roman goddess of flowers and spring blossoms, Flora (lat. Flora).
In practice, the expression “Flora of a certain territory” often means not all plants of a given territory, but only vascular plants (Tracheophyta).
Flora should be distinguished from vegetation– a collection of different plant communities. For example, in the flora of the temperate zone of the Northern Hemisphere, species of the families of willows, sedges, grasses, ranunculaceae, and Asteraceae are richly represented; from conifers - pine and cypress; and in vegetation - plant communities of tundra, taiga, steppe, etc.
Historically, the development of flora is directly determined by the processes of speciation, the displacement of some plant species by others, plant migrations, their extinction, etc.
Each flora has specific properties - the diversity of its constituent species (richness of flora), age, degree of autochthony, endemism. Differences between the floras of certain territories are explained primarily by the geological history of each region, as well as differences in orographic, soil, and especially climatic conditions.

Flora analysis methods:

geographical analysis - division of flora by geographic distribution; identification of the proportion of endemics;

genetic analysis (from the Greek genesis “origin, emergence”) - division of flora according to the criteria of geographical origin and history of settlement;

botanical-geographical analysis - establishing connections between a given flora and other floras;

ecological and phytocenological analysis - division of flora by growing conditions, by types of vegetation;

age analysis - division of the flora into progressive (young in time of appearance), conservative and relict elements;

systematic structure analysis - comparative analysis of the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of various systematic groups that make up the given flora.

All methods of flora analysis are based on its preliminary inventory, that is, the identification of its species and generic composition.

Flora typification

Flora of specialized groups
Collections of plant taxa, covering specialized groups of plants, have corresponding specialized names:
Algoflora- algae flora.
Bryoflora- moss flora.
Dendroflora, or arboriflora- flora of woody plants.
Three more terms appeared before these groups of organisms were no longer classified as plants:
Lichen flora- lichen flora.
Mycoflora- mushroom flora.
Mixoflora- flora of myxomycetes (slime molds)

Flora of the territories
From the point of view of the nature of the territories under consideration, they are distinguished:
Flora of the Earth as a whole
Flora of continents and their parts
Flora of individual natural formations(islands, peninsulas, mountain systems)
Flora of countries, regions, states and other administrative entities

Flora according to external conditions
According to the criterion of external conditions, the territories under consideration are distinguished:
Flora of chernozem and other soil types
Flora of swamps and other special areas of the earth's surface
Flora of rivers, lakes and other fresh water bodies
Flora of the seas and oceans

Basic approaches to the study of floras.

Flora as a set of species of a certain territory is formed under the influence of natural and anthropogenic factors. For this reason, studying its composition is one of the tasks of environmental monitoring.

Regional floras.
Most often, regional floras are studied within the boundaries of administrative units (republic, administrative district, city or rural settlement). This is the most traditional type of floristic research, the most important task that allows for one of the options for biomonitoring - monitoring the state of biological diversity of plants in the region.
The result of the study of regional flora is a complete list of plant species with an assessment of their distribution. This makes it possible to identify rare species and compile the “Red Book”. With periodic repeated examinations, a tendency for changes in the flora under the influence of humans is revealed, primarily adventization, i.e. an increase in the proportion of alien species and a decrease in floristic diversity.
The study of regional floras is necessary for the geobotanical study of vegetation, the assessment of botanical resources and the development of a system for the protection of plant biodiversity in the region.

Specific floras.
Unlike regional floras, which are identified for any territory, regardless of the diversity of environmental conditions (they may include different natural zones, plains and mountains, etc.), specific floras are identified for ecologically homogeneous territories (with one type of climate, one type of geomorphological structure of the surface, one type of predominant vegetation). For example, the flora of the Baymak or Abzelilovsky district, which include lowland and mountainous territories, cannot be considered as specific floras. The flora of the steppe part of the Bashkir Trans-Urals, the flora of the southern part of the mountain forest zone of Bashkortostan, etc. can be considered as specific.
The identification of specific floras is carried out over a fairly large area, within which the influence of the natural complex and human activity on the composition of plant species is fully manifested. This value can vary from 100 km? in the Arctic up to 1000 km? in the tropics.

Partial floras.
The concept of “partial flora” was proposed by B.A. Yurtsev within the framework of the method of specific floras, but this concept is also used in the study of regional floras. Partial flora is understood as the flora of a certain type of habitat and, accordingly, a certain type of plant community associated with it (in this case, the partial flora is called coenoflora). Thus, partial floras of reservoirs and coastal-aquatic habitats, lowland, transitional and raised swamps, southern steppe rocky slopes, post-forest meadows, wastelands, and fields are distinguished. When studying the floras of populated areas, partial floras of vegetable gardens, courtyards, trampled habitats, ditches, dung heaps, etc. are identified.

Assessing gamma diversity.
Gamma diversity is a form of biological diversity, defined as the number of plant species in a landscape or geographic area. It is synonymous with regional flora.
Gamma diversity depends on the area of the study area and is formed as a result of the interaction of two forms of diversity:
Alpha - diversity - species diversity of communities;
Beta diversity - diversity of communities.
These two indicators are related nonlinearly, because In different communities, species richness is different, however, it is obvious that the richer the community is in species and the higher the diversity of these communities, the higher the gamma diversity. Naturally, both components of gamma diversity depend on the characteristics of climate and topography. On the flat territory of the desert zone, the values of alpha and beta diversity and, accordingly, gamma diversity will be minimal. In the temperate zone, with a complex topography that combines species-rich communities of steppes, meadows, forests, and, in addition, there are coastal-aquatic and aquatic communities and ruderal and segetal communities associated with human influence, gamma diversity will be high.

Analysis of flora composition.
Any flora (regional, specific, partial) consists of species that differ in a significant number of parameters: systematic affiliation, life form, geographical characteristics, biological characteristics. For this reason, a qualitative analysis of the composition of the flora (compilation of various spectra) is one of the mandatory sections of any floristic study.
Flora analysis includes compiling spectra based on the following parameters.

Systematic composition.
The representation of different families is analyzed, special attention is paid to the first 10 families, which are called leading. The degree of their participation in the flora and the complex of soil-climatic factors, and the history and current state of the flora under human influence. Thus, for the natural flora of the temperate zone, to which Bashkortostan belongs, the leading families (Table 1) are characterized by the participation of Asteraceae, grasses, roses, sedges, legumes, cruciferous plants, cloves, noricaceae, etc. With increasing human influence (synanthropization and adventivization flora) the proportion of species from the families Chenopodiaceae and Cruciferae is increasing.
When analyzing the systematic composition of the flora, such indicators as the average number of species in a genus, the average number of genera in a family, the average number of species in a family that can receive an evolutionary interpretation are used (the more genera in families, the older they are; the more species in genera , on the contrary, they reflect later stages of evolution).

Spectrum of life forms.
This spectrum also reflects the diversity of environmental conditions in which the studied flora was formed. Thus, in tropical rainforests, phanerophytes predominate; in the forests of the temperate zone, to which Bashkortostan belongs, despite the fact that phanerophytes dominate, hemicryptophytes predominate in the flora. In the steppes and meadows there are few phanerophytes and the predominance of hemicryptophytes is more complete. Therophytes predominate in deserts. The significant participation of therophytes indicates synanthropization of the environment.

Synanthropicity of the flora.
Assessing the replenishment of flora by adventitious plants is an informative method of biomonitoring, because the proportion of alien plants is directly related to the intensity of vegetation transformation by humans.
This version of the analysis includes the compilation of spectra for the proportional participation of different groups of synanthropic species from among local species that have adapted to intense human influence, as well as adventive species.

Phytosociological spectrum.
The most promising way to compare floras (especially specific ones) is to evaluate the modern ecological structure of the flora and the degree of its adventivization.
By comparing the share of species of different orders or classes of vegetation, one can obtain the most integrated information about the geography, ecology and anthropogenic disturbance of the studied flora.

Contribution of flora to overall biodiversity.

The most important component of biodiversity is flora as a set of plant species growing in a certain area.
Let's consider the connections between plants and wildlife in the forest, between flora and fauna. The forest is inhabited by many different living creatures - from the smallest insects to large animals. They differ not only in their size, but in their lifestyle, type of nutrition, and many other characteristics. They all play a certain role in the life of the forest as a whole. This is an obligatory component of the forest biogeocenosis.
The relationship between representatives of the flora and fauna in the forest comes down to the fact that the flora affects the fauna, which, in turn, has the opposite effect. In other words, the impact goes in two mutually opposite directions.
Let's consider the influence of flora on fauna. Plants play an important role in the life of the animal population of the forest, providing it with food, providing an opportunity for settlement, shelter from enemies, reproduction, etc. There are many examples that can be given. Take food resources, for example. The living mass of forest plants provides food for a variety of forest inhabitants - all kinds of herbivorous insects, birds, and animals. Among insects, these are, for example, butterfly caterpillars, the larvae of some beetles, and the beetles themselves. Plant food plays a large role in the diet of grouse birds, wood mice, squirrels, not to mention deer, roe deer, wild boars, moose... Leaves, shoots, buds, needles, etc. are eaten. The fruits of forest plants are also important food resource. They feed primarily on various birds and four-legged animals. The role of juicy fruits is especially great. Of greatest importance for animals and birds are the juicy fruits of mass plants, which usually form thickets in the forest - blueberries, lingonberries, raspberries. The succulent fruits of rowan, bird cherry, elderberry, buckthorn, honeysuckle, euonymus, viburnum, etc. are of significant nutritional value. Birds especially readily eat them. Dry fruits also serve as food for forest fauna. Hazel nuts are eaten in large quantities by squirrels, oak acorns by wood mice, etc.
Living creatures living in the forest use not only the green mass of plants and their fruits for food, they also take other “tribute” from plants. Insects, for example, collect pollen and nectar from flowers. The caterpillars of some butterflies and the larvae of certain species of beetles feed on living tissues of ovaries and unripe fruits (for example, caterpillars of the acorn moth, larvae of the acorn weevil, etc.). Aphids and scale insects use special devices to suck out the “juices” of plants. Moles, mice, and shrews feed on living underground parts of plants, especially succulent ones. In short, plants serve as suppliers of a wide variety of food products for fauna.
However, forest inhabitants use not only living parts of plants for food. Many also feed on dead plant debris, primarily those that fall to the ground. They also contain many consumers - earthworms, various soil insects, their larvae, etc. All these living creatures in one way or another process dead plant matter, which contributes to its faster decomposition.
Other examples of the connection between plants and animal life can be given. In particular, the role of plants as a place of shelter for all kinds of living creatures is very important. Some forest birds nest in dense thickets of bushes in the forest. Hollows in the trunks of large old trees serve as a refuge for forest bees; owls and eagle owls need them to raise their chicks. Woodpeckers make nests in aspen trunks.
The role of plants in the life of animals also lies in the fact that they serve as suppliers of building material for homes, nests, etc. Plant material is used, for example, to build the nests of some forest birds. Do you remember what beavers build their dams from? And here we cannot do without building materials borrowed from plants. The example of ants is no less familiar. These forest orderlies build their homes from plant debris - dry needles, twigs, leaves, etc.
So, in the forest the role of plants in the life of animals is very significant and this is manifested in many ways. It is important to note one thing: the animal world is highly dependent on plants. Flora serves as the basis for the formation of not only vegetation, but also ecosystems. In accordance with the well-known ecological principle “diversity begets diversity,” flora predetermines the composition of heterotrophic components of ecosystems.

Characteristics of the flora of Bashkortostan.

Bashkortostan is a hotbed of floristic diversity of global importance

According to the latest data, the flora of vascular plants of Bashkortostan includes 1730 species, bryoflora - 405 species, lichen biota - 400 species. The floristic diversity of different regions of Bashkortostan varies. Areas with a high concentration of species are the Iremel and Yaman-Tau mountains; shikhans (mountains - outliers) Tratau, Yuraktau, Tastuba, Balkantau, Yaryshtau, Susaktau; ridges Mashak, Zigalga, Irendyk, Krykty, Kraka, Shaitan - Tau; valleys of the rivers Belaya, Inzer, Ural, Sakmara, Zilim, Nugush, Uryuk, B. and M. Ik, Zilair, Fortress Zilair, Tanalyk; lakes Yakty - Kul, Urgun, Talkas, Karagaily; swamps Tyulyukskoye, Tygynskoye, Zhuravlinoe, Septinskoye, Arkaulovskoye, Lagerevskoye, etc.
The formation of high floristic diversity is associated with the influence of a number of natural, historical and anthropogenic factors.

Relief. The Southern Urals mountain system is located on the territory of Bashkortostan. Due to the vertical zonation, mountainous terrain allows different biomes to be combined in a limited area - from mountain tundras and boreal forests to deciduous forests and steppes.

The contribution of vertical zonation to the BR of the region is significantly increased by the large extent of the Southern Urals from north to south: forest communities are depleted of forest species proper and are saturated with meadow and steppe species.

History of flora. The enrichment of the flora was facilitated by the complex history of the territory of Bashkortostan, especially its mountainous part. It contains many relics that reflect the history of the region over the past 1.5 million years, when climate cooling and warming alternated in the Pleistocene and Holocene.

The composition of the flora was especially strongly influenced by climate fluctuations in the Holocene, when during cold periods species from the Arctic and the highlands of Southern Siberia penetrated into the Southern Urals. Now they are part of the mountain tundra of the highest peaks of the Southern Urals. Climate cooling is also associated with the penetration of broad-leaved forests into the zone along the western macroslope of the Southern Urals up to the latitudinal bend of the river. White linden-spruce forests with a boreal suite of herbaceous plants (annual moss, Siberian zygadenus, common wood sorrel, etc.).
The thermal maximum of the Middle Holocene is associated with a significant penetration of steppe groups deep into the Southern Urals.
Endemic species that were formed during the transformation of local conditions in the pre-glacial and Pleistocene periods make their contribution to the flora of Bashkortostan.

Geographical location: the junction of Europe and Asia. The position of Bashkortostan at the junction of Europe and Asia has led to the combination of Siberian and European species in communities (the formation of an ecotone effect on a geographic scale). Thus, in the forests of the Southern Urals typical European species are combined, such as the amazing violet, the obscure lungwort, the forest chickweed, the grandiflora foxglove, the fragrant bedstraw, and species Siberian area– Siberian adonis, northern aconite, Gmelin’s rank, unripe lance-shaped, etc.

A similar mixture of European, Siberian and Central Asian-Kazakh species is observed in steppe communities. At the same time, species of the southern Russian steppes are widely represented in the steppes of the western macroslope (Salvia nutans, Razumovsky's kopekweed - Hedysarum razoumovianum, Kaufman's mytillary - Pedicularis kaufmanni, etc.), and on the eastern macroslope - species of Asian flora (Siberian, Central Asian - Kazakh): lustrous chives (Achnatherum splendens), drooping onions (Allium nutans), cold wormwood (Artemisia frigida), silken cinquefoil (Potentilla sericia), etc.

Latitudinal zone. The location at the junction of forest and steppe zones gave rise to widespread hemiboreal forests with pine dominating the tree layer (with the participation of birch, larch and aspen). These are the richest forests in the Southern Urals, which is also due to the ecotone effect. With the undeniable dominance of boreal species in the herbage (reed grass, northern aconite, lily-leaved bellweed), nemoral and subnemoral species are common in these forests: male shield grass, spreading boron, stiff-leaved chickweed, common gooseberry, amazing violet, etc. A significant role is played by meadow, meadow- steppe and steppe species, such as: steppe cherry, chiliga, Russian broom, oregano, etc.

The position of the Southern Urals on the border of Europe and Asia and at the junction of the steppe and forest zones has become the reason for the saturation of its biota with species that have habitat boundaries in this territory.
The dense network of habitat boundaries creates special problems for the protection of BRs, since species near the boundaries of their distribution form populations with reduced resistance to the influence of anthropogenic factors.

Human influence. During the period of sustainable environmental management, characteristic of the Bashkirs before the reform of 1861, anthropogenic factors did not cause significant damage to BR and other renewable resources. Moreover, some forms of human influence were a factor that increased BR. Thus, it was thanks to humans that species-rich communities of lowland and mountain post-forest meadows were formed. After the disappearance of natural large steppe phytophages (saiga, tarpan), it was the school horse breeding of the Bashkirs that was the main factor in the preservation of the steppe biome. Schools of horses constantly moved across the steppe landscapes, ensuring uniform grazing of phytomass. In addition, horses have the least detrimental effect on steppe communities: hoof pressure is minimal, and a wide diet contributes to uniform consumption of grass.

More than half of the foothill territory of the Southern Urals is occupied by arable land with the complete destruction of natural steppe and partly forest ecosystems, in addition, another 20% of the territory is occupied by natural forage lands. Grazing causes great harm to BR forests. All this led not only to the destruction of a significant part of the natural biota, but also to the destruction of soil humus - the main treasure of soil fertility.
Over the last century, the area of forests has decreased significantly, especially in the foothills of the Urals. In addition, in some of the populated areas there was an undesirable change from species such as pine, spruce and oak to low-value ones - birch, linden, and aspen. As a result, a shortage of coniferous wood arose in the region and a significant amount of overmature wood from birch forests accumulated. The resources of secondary forest use - medicinal raw materials - have been depleted.
Significant damage to renewable resources was caused by the process of urbanization, which is particularly active in the conditions of the Southern Urals and currently more than 70% of the population lives in cities. Cities in the region are constantly increasing their area, which reduces the share of natural, primarily forest, ecosystems. In addition, the urban population has a strong recreational impact on natural ecosystems within a radius of tens of kilometers.
A significant part of the territory of the Southern Urals is occupied by solid industrial waste storage facilities - waste rock from mining, ash dumps, industrial waste dumps, etc. In vast areas around industrial enterprises and transport highways, as a result of atmospheric emissions, soils are contaminated with heavy metals and other environmentally hazardous substances. Huge quantities of untreated or under-treated industrial and municipal wastewater are discharged into aquatic ecosystems, primarily rivers, which cause colossal damage to the BD of these ecosystems.
Habitats disturbed by humans have become a haven for dozens of alien species that occupy the niches of local plant species, thereby adversely affecting the native BR. In recent years, dangerous alien species of the North American genera Ambrosia and Cyclachaena have become naturalized in the Republic of Belarus.
This combined influence of negative anthropogenic factors has created high risks for many species of the flora of Bashkortostan. Thus, currently more than 150 species of plants are threatened, including: 40 steppe, 27 forest, 22 swamp, 20 mountain-tundra, 14 meadow, 13 meadow-steppe, 12 rocky.

Systematic composition of the flora.

The flora of vascular plants of Bashkortostan includes 1730 species, 593 genera, 124 families. Horsetails are represented by 8 species, lycophytes - 4, ferns - 30, gymnosperms - 8.
Flowering plants are represented by 1680 species and 107 families (natural 103, cultivated 4). Including dicotyledons - 86 families (445 genera, 1279 species), monocotyledons - 21 families (121 genera, 401 species).
The distribution of species by family is shown in Tables 1 and 2.
There are 4 species each in the following families: Asclepiadaceae, Fumariaceae, Hypericaceae, Lemnaceae, Lythraceae, Nymphaeaceae, Papaveraceae, Polygalaceae, Solanaceae. .
The families contain 3 species each: Aceraceae (Maple), Cannabaceae (Hemp), Cucurbitaceae (Pumpkin), Elatiniaceae (Gumaceae), Hydrocharitaceae (Hydrocharitaceae), Illecebraceae (Cartilaginous), Lentibulariaceae (Bubblewort), Polemoniaceae (Santalaceae), Santalaceae (Santalaceae) , Thyphaceae (Cataceae), Ulmaceae (Elm).

Table 1. Representation of families of higher spores and gymnosperms in the flora of Bashkortostan.

Family	Number of births	Number of species
Division Equisetophyta (Equisetaceae)
Equisetaceae (Equisetaceae)	1	8
Division Lycopodiophyta (Lycopophyta)
Lycopodiaceae (Mossaceae)	2	3
Huperziaceae	1	1
Division Polypodiophyta (Ferns)
Onocleaceae	1	1
Athyriaceae	6	9
Woodsiaceae	1	2
Dryopteridaceae	2	5
Thelypteridaceae	2	2
Aspleniaceae	1	4
Polypodiaceae (Centipedes)	1	1
Hypolepidaceae (Hypolepisaceae)	1	1
Ophioglossaceae	1	1
Botrychiaceae	1	3
Salviniaceae (Salviniaceae)	1	1
Division Pinophyta (Gymnosperms)
Pinaceae (Pine)	4	4
Cupressaceae (Cypressaceae)	1	3
Ephedraceae	1	1

Table 2. Representation of the main flowering families in the flora of Bashkortostan.

Family	Number of species
Family	absolute	%
Asteraceae (Asteraceae, Compositae)	207	11,97
Poaceae (Poaceae, Grasses)	163	9,43
Rozaceae (Pink)	108	6,25
Cyperaceae (Sedges)	100	5,78
Fabaceae	96	5,55
Brassicaceae (Brassaceae, Cruciferous)	79	4,54
Caryophyllaceae (Cloves)	77	4,45
Scrophulariaceae	76	4,40
Lamiaceae (Lamiaceae, Lamiaceae)	55	3,18
Apiaceae (Celery, Apiaceae)	51	2,95
Ranunculaceae (Ranunculaceae)	51	2,95
Chenopodiaceae (Chenopodiaceae)	47	2,72
Polygonaceae (Buckwheat)	38	2,20
Orchidaceae (Orchids)	36	2,08
Boraginaceae (Borage)	30	1,74
Salicaceae (Willows)	26	1,51
Rubiaceae (Madiaceae)	20	1,16
Liliaceae	19	1,10
Juncaceae (Russia)	17	0,99
Potamogetonaceae (Potamogetonaceae)	17	0,99
Violaceae (Violaceae)	16	0,93
Euphorbiaceae (Euphorbiaceae)	16	0,93
Alliaceae (Alliums)	16	0,93
Primulaceae (Primroses)	15	0,87
Campanulaceae (Campanulaceae)	12	0,70
Geraniaceae (Geraniaceae)	12	0,70
Gentianaceae (Gentianaceae)	12	0,70
Orobanchaceae (Barrapaceae)	11	0,64
Onagraceae (Willowweed)	10	0,58
Ericaceae (Ericaceae)	10	0,58
Plantaginaceae (Plantainaceae)	9	0,52
Cuscutaceae (Dodder)	8	0,47
Betulaceae (Birch)	7	0,41
Crassulaceae (Crassulaceae)	7	0,41
Limoniaceae (Cermeceae)	7	0,41
Pyrolaceae (Wintergreens)	7	0,41
Caprifoliacea (Honeysuckle)	7	0,41
Linaceae (Flax)	7	0,41
Dipsacaceae (Teaseleaceae)	6	0,35
Malvaceae (Malvaceae)	6	0,35
Amaranthaceae (Shchiritsa)	5	0,29
Iridaceae	5	0,29
Alismataceae	5	0,29
Grossulariaceae (Gooseberries)	5	0,29
Saxifragaceae (Saxifragaceae)	5	0,29
Sparganiaceae (Hedgeheads)	5	0,29
Urticaceae (Nettles)	5	0,29
Valerianaceae (Valerianaceae)	5	0,29

2 species each contain families: Aristolochiaceae (Cistaceae), Asparagaceae (Asparagus), Balsaminaceae (Balsamaceae), Callitrichaceae (Swampaceae), Cepatophyllaceae (Hornworts), Cistaceae (Cistaceae), Convolvulaceae (Convolvulaceae), Droseraceae (Dundewaceae), Frankeniaaceae (Frankeniaceae) . .
The families contain 1 species each: Adoxaceae, Araceae, Berberidaceae, Butomaceae, Celastraceae, Cornaceae, Elaeagnaceae, Empetraceae, Fagaceae. . , Tiliaceae (Linden), Trapaceae (Waternut), Zannichelliaceae (Zanichelliaceae).

Resource characteristic

Let's consider the main groups of useful plants of the flora of Bashkortostan: forage, medicinal, melliferous, food, as well as “anti-useful” plants - poisonous, many of which, however, are used as medicines.

Forage plants
Forage plants form the basis of hayfields and pastures. Their number in Bashkortostan is at least 500 species. Forage plants are divided into agrobotanical groups: cereals, legumes, forbs, sedges, wormwood. In turn, these groups can be divided into steppe and meadow.
Cereals
Steppe: Agropyron pectinatum (crested wheat grass), Festuca pseudovina (false fescue), F. Valesiaca (Welsh grass), Koeleria cristata (crested grass), Poa transbaicalica (steppe bluegrass), Stipa capillata (feather grass), S. Lessingiana ( K. Lessing), S. Pennata (K. pinnate), S. Sareptana (K. Sarepta), S. Tirsa (K. angustifolia), S. Zalesskii (K. Zalesski).
Meadow: Agrostis gigantean (giant bentgrass), A. Stolonifera (shoot-forming species), Alopecurus pratensis (meadow foxtail), Bromopsis inermis (awnless brome), Calamagrostis epigeios (ground reed grass), Dactylis glomerata (urchin grass), Elytrigia repens (wheatgrass) creeping), Festuca pratensis (meadow fescue), Phalaroides arundinacea (reed grass), Phleum pratensis (meadow timothy grass), Poa angustifolia (angustifolia bluegrass), P. pratensis (meadow grass).
Legumes
Steppe: Astragalus danicus (Danish astragalus), Medicago romanica (Romanian alfalfa), Melilotus albus (white sweet clover), M. Officinalis (officinalis), Onobrychis arenaria (sandy sainfoin), Trifolium montanum (mountain clover), Vicia tenuifolia (pea narrow-leaved).
Meadow: Lathyrus pratensis (meadow chin), Medicago lupulina (hop alfalfa), Trifolium hybridum (hybrid clover), T. pratense (meadow pea), T. repens (creeping pea), Vicia cracca (mouse pea).
Forbs
Steppe: Achillea millefolium (common yarrow), Centaurea scabiosa (cornflower), Filipendula vulgaris (meadowsweet), Galium verum (bedstraw), S. stepposa (steppe sage), Serratula coronata (crowned cornflower), Thalictrum minus (small cornflower ).
Meadow: Achillea millefolium (common yarrow), Carum carvi (common cumin), Filipendula ulmaria (meadowsweet), Fragaria viridis (green strawberry), Geranium pratensis (meadow geranium), Heracleum sibiricum (Siberian hogweed), Leucanthemum vulgare (common cornflower) , Pimpinella saxifrage (saxifrage), Plantago maior (great plantain), P. media (medium), Polygonum aviculare (bird knotweed), P. bistorta (snake), Potentilla anserina (cinquefoil), Prunella vulgaris ( common blackhead), Ranunculus polyanthemos (multifloral buttercup), Rumex confertus (horse sorrel), R. thyrsiflorus (pyramidal sorrel), Sanguisorba officinalis (burnet), Tanacetum vulgare (common tansy), Taraxacum officinale (dandelion), Tragopogon orientalis ( eastern salsify).
Meadow-marsh: Caltha palustris (marsh marigold), Lythrum salicaria (willow loosestrife), Symphytun officinale (comfrey), Trollius europaeus (European bathhouse).
Sedges
The main part of sedge species is associated with wet and swampy meadows. Sedges are poorly eaten on pastures, and sedge hay is considered of little value. The feed value of sedge forage increases when it is ensiled.
The most common in Bashkortostan on waterlogged soils are Carex acuta (sharp sedge), C. Acutiformis (pointed sedge), C. cespitosa (turfy sedge), C. juncella (sedge sedge). C. pediformis (stop-shaped), C. Praecox (early), C. muricata (spiny) and others are common in steppe meadows and steppes.
Among the saline species, C. asparatilis (rough) and C. distans (distanced) are of greatest nutritional importance.
Wormwood
Artemisia (genus Artemisia) form the basis of semi-desert communities, which do not exist in Bashkortostan. However, some species of wormwood are found in disturbed meadow and ruderal communities (A. Absinthium - wormwood, sieversiana - Siversa village, A. vulgaris - common wormwood), however, most of the wormwood is associated with steppe grass stands, with a special role played by Austrian wormwood ( A. austriaca), dominant in the steppes with heavy grazing. All wormwoods are poorly eaten in pastures and hay.
Medicinal plants

The great medieval physician Paracelsus said that “the whole world is a pharmacy, and the Almighty is a pharmacist.” Currently, the flora of Bashkortostan includes about 120 species used in scientific medicine, and more than 200 species used in folk medicine. List of medicinal plants of the flora of Bashkortostan used in scientific medicine:
Achillea millefolium (common yarrow)
Adonis vernalis (Spring adonis)
Alnus incana (Grey Alder)
Althaea officinalis (Althaea officinalis)
Angelica archangelica (Angelica officinalis)
Artemisia absinthium (Wormwood)
Betula pendula (Warty birch)
Bidens tripartita (Tripartite series)
Bupleurum aureum
Capsella bursa – pastoris (Shepherd's purse)
Carum carvi (Cumin)
Centaurea cyanus (Blue Cornflower)
Centaurium erythraea (Common centaury)
Chamerion angustifolium (Ivan - narrow-leaved tea)
Chamomilla recutita (Chamomile)
Chamomilla suaveolens (Chamomile)
Chelidonium majus (Great celandine)
Convallaria majalis (May lily of the valley)
Crataegus sanguinea (Blood red hawthorn)
Datura stramonium (Datura stramonium)
Delphinium elatum (Tall Larkspur)
Digitalis grandiflora (Foxglove grandiflora)
Dryopteris filix – mas (Male fern)
Echinops sphaerocephalus (Echinops sphaerocephalus)
Elytrigia repens (Creeping wheatgrass)
Erysimum diffusum (Erysimum diffusum)
Equisetum arvense (Horsetail)
Fragaria vesca (Wild strawberry)
Frangula alnus (Break buckthorn)
Glycyrrhiza korshinskyi (Korzhinsky's licorice; the species is included in the Red Book of the Republic of Belarus)
Gnaphalium rossicum (Russian dryweed)
Humulus lupulus (Common hop)
Huperzia selago (Common sheep)
Hyoscyamus niger (Black henbane)
Hypericum perforatum (St. John's wort)
Inula helenium (Elecampane)
Juniperus communis (Common juniper)
Leonurus quinquelobatus (Moonwort five-lobed)
Lycopodium clavatum (Moss moss)
Melilotus officinalis (Melilot officinalis)
Menyanthes trifoliate (Trifoliate watch)
Nuphar lutea (Yellow egg pod)
Origanum vulgare (Oregano)
Oxycoccus palustris (Swamp cranberry)
Padus avium (Bird cherry)
Plantago major
Pinus sylvestris (Scots pine)
Polemonium caeruleum (Blue cyanosis)
Polygonum aviculare (Knotweed)
Polygonum bistorta (Snake knotweed)
Polygonum hydropiper (Water pepper)
Polygonum persicaria (Knotweed)
Potentilla erecta (Potentilla erecta)
Quercus robur (English oak)
Rhamnus cathartica (Gester laxative)
Ribes nigrum (Black currant)
Rosa majalis (May rosehip)
Rubus idaeus (Common raspberry)
Rumex confertus (Horse sorrel)
Sanguisorba officinalis (Burnet)
Sorbus aucuparia (Rowan)
Tanacetum vulgare (Common tansy)
Taraxacum officinale (Dandelion)
Thermopsis lanceolata (Thermopsis lanceolata)
Thymus serpyllum (Creeping thyme)
Tilia cordata (Little Leaf Linden)
Tussilago farfara (Mother and Stepmother)
Urtica dioica (Nettle)
Vaccinium vitis – idaea (Lingonberry)
Valeriana officinalis (Valerian officinalis)
Veratrum lobelianum (Lobel's hellebore)
Viburnum opulus (Viburnum)

Honey plants
Beekeeping is a traditional branch of the Bashkir economy, and the main food supply for bees consists of plants of wild flora, which determines the high commercial quality of Bashkir honey. Honey plants include plants from which bees collect nectar and pollen. Bees get sugar (carbohydrates) from nectar, and protein and fat from pollen.
All plants, including nectar bearers, provide pollen, but wind-pollinated plants are especially rich in it. Among them: tree and shrub species from the genera Alnus (alder), Betula (birch), Corylus (hazel), Populus (poplar), Salix (willow), Quercus (oak), Ulmus (elm); herbs – Cannabis ruderalis (hemp), Humulus lupulus (hops), species of the genera Amaranthus (sorrel), Artemisia (wormwood), Bidens (chain), Chenopodium (pigweed), Rumex (sorrel), Typha (cattail) and others.

E.N. Klobukova - Alisova identifies the following groups of honey plants.

Spring supporting honey plants: Adonis vernalis (spring adonis), Aegopodium podagraria (common cherry), Betula pendula (warty birch), Crataegus sanguinea (blood red hawthorn), Lathyrus vernus (spring chin), Padus avium (common bird cherry), Populus alba (white poplar) , P. nigra (black), P. tremula (aspen), species of the genus Salix (willow), Quercus robur (pedunculate oak), Taraxacum officinale (dandelion), Tussilago farfara (coltsfoot), Ulmus laevis (smooth elm), Viburnum opulus (viburnum).
Summer honey plants: Centaurea cyanus (blue cornflower), Echium vulgare (common cornflower), Melilotus albus (white sweet clover), Rubus idaeus (common raspberry), Tilia cordata (small-leaved linden), Capsella bursa – pastoris (shepherd's purse), Centaurea jacea (meadow cornflower ), Cichorium intybus (common chicory), Origanum vulgare (oregano), Raphanus raphanistrum (wild radish), Rubus caesius (gray blackberry), Trifolium medium (medium clover), Viscaria vulgaris (common gum).
Autumn supporting honey plants: these include many summer species with an extended flowering period: Achillea millefolium (common yarrow), Arctium lappa (large burdock), Bidens tripartita (tripartite), drooping thistle, Chamerion angustifolium (Ivan - tea), Delphinium elatum (larkspur high), Echium vulgare (common bruise), Medicago falcata (yellow alfalfa), Trifolium repens (creeping clover).
Food wild plants
Currently, their role in the nutrition of the population of the republic is small, however, they contribute to the diversity of food and are sources of vitamins and many microelements necessary for the human body.
The most important food plants include: Adenophora liliifolia, Aegopodium podagraria, Allium angulosum, Arctium lappa, Artemisia absinthium, Bunias orientalis, Capsella bursa – pastoris (shepherd's purse), Carum carvi (cumin), Fragaria vesca (wild strawberry), Humulus lupulus (common hop), Hupericum perforatum (St. John's wort), Origanum vulgare (oregano), Oxycoccus palustris (swamp cranberry; the species is listed in the Red Book of the Republic of Belarus), Padus avium (common bird cherry), Pimpinella saxifraga (saxifrage), Pteridium aquilinum (common bracken), Ribes nigrum (black currant), Rosa majalis (May rose hip), Rubus caesius (gray blackberry), R. idaeus (common raspberry), Rumex acetosa (common sorrel), Scirpus lacustris (lake reed), Sorbus aucuparia (common mountain ash), Taraxacum officinale (dandelion), Tilia cordata (small-leaved linden), Urtica dioica (nettle), Viburnum opulus (common viburnum).

Poisonous plants
Some of the flora of Bashkortostan is represented by poisonous plants, and many of the plant poisons in low doses are used as medicines. The most important poisonous plants are the following: Aconitum septentrionale (tall fighter), Actaea spicata (spike-shaped crowberry), Adonis vernalis (spring adonis), Anemonoides altaica (Altai anemone), A. ranunculoides (buttercup), Chelidonium majus (greater celandine), Cicuta virosa (poisonous plant, this is the most poisonous plant), Conium maculatum (spotted hemlock), Convallaria majalis (May lily of the valley), Daphne mezereum (wolf's bast), Equisetum palustre (swamp horsetail), E. pratense (meadow horsetail), E fluviatile (x. river), E. sylvaticum (x. forest), Hyoscyamus niger (black henbane), Juniperus Sabina (Cossack juniper), Paris quadrifolia (four-leaved crow's eye)
Brief description of natural areas of the Republic of Bashkortostan

BASHKIR CIS-URALS
1. Kama-Tanypsky region of broad-leaved, broad-leaved-dark-coniferous and pine forests
The undulating plain between the rivers. Kama, Belaya and Bystry Tanyp. The climate is moderately warm, well-humidified. Gray and light gray forest, soddy-podzolic and floodplain soils predominate.
Human influence. The area is heavily developed and densely populated. Factors of threat to biodiversity and deterioration of the ecological situation: cutting down the last fragments of indigenous forest types and replacing them with artificial plantings; air pollution from industrial emissions and acid rain; pollution (soil, atmosphere, water) during oil production; soil erosion; overgrazing; destruction of natural vegetation during the preparation of the bed of the Nizhnekamsk reservoir; unregulated recreation in coniferous forests (Nikolo-Berezovskoe district); anthropogenic swamping of forests, etc.
Vegetation, flora. In the past, broad-leaved-dark coniferous (linden-fir-spruce, oak-fir-spruce), broad-leaved (linden-birch, linden-oak, etc.) and, along the sandy river terraces, broad-leaved pine forests dominated, which, at present , were mostly replaced by secondary forests, meadows, artificial plantings and farmland. The main forest-forming species: spruce, fir, pine, birch, linden, oak, aspen. The vast swamp areas that existed in the past (Katay, Cherlak-Saz, etc.) in the Pribelskaya Lowland have been destroyed or severely disturbed by land reclamation. The flora is mixed, boreal-nemoral, relatively poor. Relict and endemic species are almost absent.
Objectives of biodiversity protection. Key areas with rich biodiversity: river valleys and their terraces (the Kama, Belaya, Bystry Tanyp, Piz, Bui, etc. rivers), the Karmanovskoye reservoir, the green zone of Neftekamsk, restricted forest strips along river banks, preserved and restored island indigenous types of forests and swamps. The level of protection is low: 1 reserve and 6 natural monuments.
Main objects of protection: standard and rare types of forests (broad-leaved-dark-coniferous and pine, southern taiga pine forests, green moss and lichen, pine-larch-linden - on sandy soils, spruce-white moss forests, etc.), preserved and potentially restored swamps (sphagnum pine, sedge-hypnum, etc. .), rare species of plants (Siberian iris, sandy astragalus, perennial forest grass, wild rosemary, marsh cranberry, grasshopper, etc.). Species requiring reintroduction or restoration of habitats: narrow-cupped carnation, anomalous peony, slender cotton grass.
2. Zabelsky region of broad-leaved forests
General characteristics of the natural complex. Gently undulating and hilly plains of Pribelye. Karst landforms are widely represented. The climate is moderately warm, well-humidified. To one degree or another, podzolized gray forest soils predominate.
Human influence. The area is heavily developed and densely populated. Factors that threaten biodiversity and deteriorate the ecological situation: logging of indigenous forests, overgrazing, soil erosion, river pollution. White industrial wastewater, air pollution, destruction of swamps, unregulated recreation around cities, poaching, urbanization, etc.
Vegetation, flora. In the past, broad-leaved forests (oak, linden, maple, elm) dominated, which have now largely given way to secondary forests (linden, birch, aspen) and farmland. In the north of the region, minor fragments of broad-leaved and dark-coniferous forests have been preserved. On the slopes in small areas there are steppe meadows and meadow steppes. Along the banks of the Belaya and Sim rivers, small fragments of pine forests have been preserved. The flora is mixed, relatively poor.
Security tasks. Key areas with rich biodiversity: valley natural complexes (the Belaya, Sim, Bir, Bystry Tanyp rivers, etc.), restricted forest strips along river banks, numerous sphagnum swamps in karst depressions, old-growth forests, relict island pine forests along the Belaya and Sim. The level of protection is low: 20 small natural monuments and 2 zoological reserves.
Main objects of protection: rare species of plants (salvinia floating, ephedra bispica, rusty schenus, yellow iris, oblique onion, swamp cranberry, water chestnut, blue-blue, etc.).
Species requiring reintroduction or habitat restoration: beautiful feather grass, wood apple tree.
3. Region of deciduous-dark coniferous forests of the Ufa Plateau
General characteristics of the natural complex. A flat hill deeply dissected by river valleys with absolute heights of 450-500m. Karst landforms are widely represented. The climate is moderately warm, well-humidified. Mountain gray forest soils predominate. There are unique frozen soils under green moss forests.
Human influence. The area is heavily developed (long-term logging) and sparsely populated. Factors that threaten biodiversity and deteriorate the ecological situation: logging of the last fragments of indigenous forests (including in restricted areas), air pollution from industrial emissions and acid rain, forest fires, unregulated recreation around the Pavlovsk reservoir, poaching.
Vegetation, flora. In the past, linden-dark coniferous and dark coniferous (spruce, fir) forests predominated. In addition, oak forests were widespread in the western part, and pine and broad-leaved pine forests were widespread in the northern and eastern parts. At present, indigenous forests, disturbed to one degree or another, are preserved mainly only in restricted strips along the Ufa, Yuryuzan, and Ai rivers. The rest of the territory is dominated by secondary birch, aspen and linden forests. Areas of steppe meadows and sphagnum bogs are rare. The flora is mixed boreal-nemoral, enriched with relict Siberian species (Siberian zygadenus, Siberian adonis, bitter bitter, etc.). An endemic species of the Ufa Plateau, the Ural moth, has been described.
etc.................

Lecture outline:

1. Position of the territory of the Rostov region in the system of botanical zoning. Overview of vegetation types in the area.

2. Features of the flora of the region.

3. Botanical and geographical zoning of the region.

1. Position of the territory of the Rostov region in the system of botanical zoning. Overview of vegetation types in the area.

The basin of the lower reaches of the Don and its western part - the Rostov region - are completely located within the Eurasian steppe zone. Steppes, as a zonal type of vegetation, are characteristic of leveled or slightly sloping watershed spaces, or plains. Steppes develop under conditions of a continental arid climate and flat terrain on soils of heavy mechanical composition (clayey and loamy) - on chernozems and chestnut soils. Steppe vegetation is a community of perennial drought-resistant and frost-resistant perennial grasses, the dominants of which are narrow-leaved dense-turf grasses and grass-like perennials.

Due to the vastness of the steppe zone, steppe communities do not remain homogeneous throughout its entire length and are sensitive to the slightest changes in environmental conditions. In European Russia, the steppe zone includes four stripes, or subzones, of steppe vegetation: northern meadow, true forb-turfgrass and dry turfgrass and desert wormwood-turfgrass steppes.

Three subzonal types of steppes are common in the region: true rich-forb and forb-turf-grass steppes, dry turf-grass steppes (poor forb-grass steppes) and desert wormwood-turf-grass steppes. Having dominated in the past in the steppe part of the Don basin, by now they have been almost completely plowed. On varieties of zonal soils, often in non-zonal positions, edaphic variants of steppe vegetation are distinguished: halophytic, petrophytic, hemipsammophytic and psammophytic. They are distinguished by the best modern preservation.

The surviving steppes, including their edaphic variants, occupy, according to various sources, from 16.6% to 17.3% of the total area of the region. Before plowing, they covered about 90% of the region's territory. The remaining areas of steppes are found in small fragments on gentle slopes of ravines unsuitable for arable land, in the territories of forestry enterprises, nature reserves, in water protection and other protection zones. They are distributed in more or less significant massifs in the southeastern regions, where the only steppe reserve in the region “Rostovsky” is located, as well as on rocky lands and on sandy river terraces above the floodplain.

The boundaries between subzonal types of steppes within the region have a meridional, rather than latitudinal, as usual, strike, which is associated with the direction of the axis of increasing climate aridity from northwest to southeast and the direct climatic influence of the Western Turanian (Caspian) deserts. Approximately these boundaries coincide with the isohyets of 450 and 400 mm of precipitation per year. However, the general direction of change in subzonal types of steppes is complicated and in some places disrupted by the presence of hills (Donetsk ridge, Don chalk ridge, spurs of the Kalach and Ergeninskaya uplands) and lowlands (Manych depression, lowering of the relief in the Azov region). Changes in absolute heights from 200 m and above at elevations to 50 m and below at lowlands in the vegetation cover are reflected in the form of an extremely weakened phenomenon of “vertical zoning”: less xerophilic variants of steppe vegetation are confined to more elevated areas.

Thermal conditions also matter. Thus, in the northern regions of the region, with a relatively low amount of precipitation (less than 450 mm per year in the western part of the Don Chalk Ridge), due to lower average annual and summer temperatures, a favorable moisture balance develops for the development of the most mesophilic rich forb-turf-grass steppes and complex grove oak forests.

The botanical and geographical zoning of the steppe zone of Eurasia was carried out by the outstanding Russian steppe specialist, academician E.M. Lavrenko. According to this zoning, the steppes of the Rostov region are located within the Black Sea-Kazakhstan subregion of the Eurasian steppe region. Most of them are located in the Black Sea (Pontic) steppe province, and only the steppes of the extreme southeast belong to the Trans-Volga-Kazakhstan steppe province. The border between the Azov-Black Sea (Azov-Pontic) and Middle Don steppe subprovinces of the Black Sea (Pontic) province in the region runs along the Seversky Donets valley and further east along the Don valley. The steppes of the southeastern regions belong to one steppe subprovince - Ergeninsky-Zavolzhsky.

It should be noted that the provincial differences in the Don steppes are smoothed out. Many Pannonian-Pontic species characteristic of the Azov-Black Sea steppe subprovince penetrate into the extreme southwestern section of the Middle Don steppe subprovince, including one of the most important dominants of the steppes, Ukrainian feather grass Stipa ucrainica. The same applies to the steppes of the western section of the contour of the Ergeninsky-Trans-Volga steppe subprovince.

Non-zonal vegetation of the Rostov region is represented by several types. In negative forms of relief (river valleys, ravines, estuaries) communities of intrazonal (near-water, swamp, meadow) and extrazonal forest vegetation develop. Communities of desert halophytic vegetation on salt marshes, as well as on meadow and steppe solonetzes are also extrazonal. Intrazonal higher aquatic vegetation develops in the reservoirs of the region. In addition, on rocky rock outcrops and on alluvial and fluvioglacial sands of river terraces above the floodplain, unique intrazonal types of petrophytic and psammophytic vegetation are common. In both cases, this vegetation is the initial stage of the natural development of vegetation cover on these substrates, giving way to corresponding edaphic variants of steppe vegetation.

Finally, due to the high economic development of the territory, considerable areas in the region are occupied by vegetation of anthropogenically transformed ecotopes (technogenic, residential, ruderal, etc.), usually called synanthropic. Certain complexes of wild plants are also formed in artificial cenoses - forest plantations, shelterbelts, etc.

2. Features of the flora of the region.

The flora of the steppe part of the Don basin is distinguished by its richness and diversity of species composition. There are about 1950 species of vascular plants. In addition to vascular plants, 158 species of bryophytes, 192 species of lichens, about 550 species of fungi – macromycetes, and 800 species of phytopathogenic macro- and micromycetes were identified in the flora of the region. Algoflora of the Taganrog Bay and river. The Don and its tributaries contain over 900 species of phytoplankton and 45 species of algae - macrophytes.

The uniqueness of the Lower Don flora, the main core of which consists of species of zonal steppe communities, lies in the significant participation in it of species from adjacent zones. The contact of floristic complexes and communities of humid and arid florogenetic centers occurring on the territory of the steppe part of the Don basin, their mutual irradiation determine its rather variegated formational composition and transitional character, but at the same time, great species richness.

The taxonomic structure of the flora is characterized by the following leading families: Asteraceae – 13.6, Poaceae – 9.0, Brassicaceae – 6.2, Fabaceae – 6.0, Caryophyllaceae – 4.4, Lamiaceae – 4.3, Scrophulariaceae – 4.2, Apiaceae– 3.8% of the total number of species. Compared to the average taxonomic spectrum for the Eastern European flora as a whole, the Lower Don flora is distinguished by an increased proportion of species of the families Poaceae, Brassicaceae And Caryophyllaceae, which is determined by its connections with the ancient Mediterranean florogenetic centers. As part of the family Brassicaceae, containing many widespread synanthropic species, this may also be a consequence of its anthropogenic transformation. The major genera of the flora are Rosa(45 species), Carex(32 species), Veronica(30 species), Euphorbia(27 species), Centaurea(25 species), Allium, Artemisia, Galium(20 – 24 species each), Dianthus, Trifolium, Orobanche, Juncus etc. A third of all flora species (32.3%) belong to genera containing more than 10 species.

Among other indicators characterizing the taxonomic structure of the Lower Don flora, we point out the following. The average number of species per family is 14.3, per genus – 3.0. The ratio of species of the dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous classes is 3.9:1. More than half of its composition (51.5%) belongs to the ten leading families of the flora; more than two-thirds (70.6%) belong to 15. According to these parameters, the Lower Don flora occupies a transitional position between the floras of humid and arid florogenetic centers with great proximity to the latter.

The geographical heterogeneity of the flora of the region clearly appears when comparing three key floristic centers - northwestern, central and southeastern, corresponding to the distribution of the most characteristic types of subzonal forb-turfgrass, turf-grass and desert wormwood-turfgrass steppes. The richness of the floras of these centers is equal to 1202 species in the northwestern, 1013 in the central and 784 species in the southeastern. They have 676 species in common; 322 are specific to the northwestern, 64 to the central, and 18 to the southeastern. Species common to the northwestern and central nodal centers (204) are 2.3 times greater than for the central and southeastern (87). The seemingly more intense expansion of “northern” humid species into the central nodal flora, in relative terms (taking into account the species richness of floras) turns out to be not so significant: 16.1% versus 11.2% of penetrating arid desert species.

Steppe species form the core of the flora, both in general and in the floras of nodal centers, in individual specific and local floras. The proportion of steppe species ranges from 22–23 to 30–32% in the floras of individual regions, naturally increasing from the northwest to the southeast of the region. The general depletion of flora in this direction occurs due to a sharp decrease in the number of forest species. The increase in the number of halophyte species is less pronounced. Otherwise, the formational structure of the nodal floras is quite homogeneous (see Table 1).

Table 1

Formational structure of the flora of the nodal floristic centers

(I – number of species, II – as a percentage of the total number)

The uniqueness of the flora is emphasized by the presence of endemic species. The flora of the region contains both local endemics and endemics of the Pontic steppe province and its subprovinces. Most local endemics are associated with the phenomena of edaphic endemism and are confined to outcrops of various rocks and sands. The local Cis-Caucasian endemic is the false iris Iris notha. Local endemics of the Donetsk Ridge include Cleome Donetsk Cleome donetzica, bedstraw Dubovik Galium dubovicii, Serpukha Donetsk Serratula donetzica and others, to the Donetsk-Azov region - Pallas's hyacinth Hyacinthella pallasiana, Azov rosehip Rosa maeotica, norichnik Donetsk Scrophularia donetzica, Smolevka Donetsk Silene donetzica, milkweed Euphorbia cretophila and etc.

Donetsk-Don endemic plants are plants of chalk outcrops and open sands, for example, white-tomentose wormwood Artemisia hololeuca, types of cornflower Centaurea donetzica, C. protogerberi, C. tanaitica, abalone flower Klokova Chenorhinum klokovii, Don gorse Genista tanaitica, thin-legged Talieva Koeleria taliewii, chalk toadflax Linaria cretacea, chalk burrow Scrophularia cretacea, Don salsify Tragopogon tanaiticus and others, 20 species in total.

To the endemic sands of the basin of the middle and lower reaches of the Don, i.e. Don, include very rare extinct relict species of Astragalus Don Astragalus tanaiticus and Dubyansky's cornflower Centaurea dubjanskyi, the Volga-Don endemics include mainly plants of Cretaceous outcrops. Among the latter we can name the double-row chalk Diplotaxis cretacea, Meyer's bug Lepidium meyeri, chalk pennyweed Hedysarum cretaceum, doubtful hawthorn Crataegus ambigua, Norichnik Sarepta Scrophularia sareptana and etc.

Eastern Pontic endemics include more than 30 species, quite variegated in their ecological and phytocenotic composition. Most often these are steppe plants ( Euphorbia kaleniczenkoi, Onosma polychroma, O. subtinctoria, Veronica maeotica, Vincetoxicum maeoticum etc.), chalk and limestone outcrops ( Linum czerniaevii, Onosma tanaitica, Thymus calcareus etc.), a whole series of rosehip species ( Rosa chomutoviensis, R. diplodonta, R. lonaczevskii, R. subpygmaea, R. tesquicola and etc.).

The number of subendemics is significantly larger, there are about 200 species ( Caragana scythica, Ceratophyllum tanaiticum, Bellevallia sarmatica, Calophaca wolgarica, Dianthus squarrosus, Crocus reticulatus, Centaurea taliewii and etc.). Among the relict disjunctive subendemics is the most valuable and rare plant, which does not grow anywhere in Russia except in the Rostov region, Cymbochasma Dnieper Cymbochasma borysthenica.

The largest number of tertiary thermophilic relics is observed among aquatic flora: Althenia filiformis, Trapa natans, Vallisneria spiralis, aquatic fern Salvinia natans and etc.

In general, the level of endemism of the Lower Don flora is close to 15%. The presence of a large number of relict and endemic species indicates the long-term autochthonous development of the Lower Don flora. The questions of its genesis have not yet been fully investigated. The genesis of forest vegetation and associated floristic complexes has been analyzed in most detail. These studies belong to G.M. Zozulin. Based on general ideas about the historical development of the vegetation cover of the south of the European part of Russia, we can assume that its main floristic complexes took shape by the end of the Pliocene on the basis of the Turgai flora, enriched with elements of the ancient Mediterranean florogenetic centers. The Donetsk Ridge played a major role in the development of lowland flora, the flora of which has been characterized by continuous development at least since the beginning of the Paleogene.

3. Botanical and geographical zoning of the region.

Regional botanical and geographical zoning of the Rostov region was carried out by G.M. Zozulin and G.D. Pashkov (1974). On the territory of the region, 11 districts have been identified, taking into account the dominant subzonal types of steppes, the prevalence of non-zonal types of vegetation, and the characteristics of the floristic composition of communities. The outlines of these areas are shown in Figure 1, and their brief characteristics are as follows.

1). Northernmost region Kalach Upland(KV) with a developed erosion-denudation relief is located in a strip of rich herb-turf-grass steppes. Most of the ravines here are forested; complex oak forests prevail, overlooking the watershed slopes. Floristically, ravine forests are rich in nemoral species ( Ulmus glabra, Asarum europaeum, Polygonatum multiflorum, Carex montana, Stellaria holostea and etc.). Only in this area are some northern forest species, such as bracken, recorded at the southern borders of their ranges Pteridium aquilinum, woodsman Mercurialis perennis, bluegrass three-lobed Laser trilobum, Norway maple Acer platanoides and etc.

2). Srednedonskaya region (SD), or the region of the valley of the middle reaches of the Don, includes the right bank (high parts and the northern slope of the Don ridge dissected by ravines) and the left bank (with floodplain and sandy terraces above the floodplain) of the Don in its middle course. Forb-turfgrass steppes dominate; in the Don floodplain there is the Middle Don subtype of non-saline meadows with average moisture content. Large areas are occupied by floodplain forests and psammophytic herbaceous vegetation in combination with floristically rich arena forests (birch forests, aspen forests, oak forests, alder forests). Floodplain forests are dominated by oak forests; elm and alder forests are often found in near-terrace depressions. Alder forests contain a concentration of rare northern forest species ( Аthyrium filix-femina, Caltha palustris, Naumburgia thyrsiflora, Padus avium, Salix caprea, Thelypteris palustris etc.) The beams are wooded. Simplified oak forests are common in them; complex ones are noted only in the western part of the region. In ravine forests, many forest species have the southern boundaries of their ranges ( Asarum europaeum, Glechoma hirsuta, Carex elongata, C. montana, C. hartmannii, Bromopsis benekenii and etc.).

On the right bank of the Don, chalk outcrops with the richest chalk vegetation are widespread, in which chalk hyssops formed by obligate chalk ( Hyssopus cretaceus, Linaria cretacea and etc.). Only here they meet Hedysarum cretaceum, Serratula tanaitica, Juniperus sabina, Centaurea dubjanskyi, Polygala sibirica, Primula veris, Helictotrichon pubescens, Neottia nidus-avis and etc.

3). Kalitvensky district (K) - located on the southern gentle slope of the Don ridge in the river basin. Kalitva and its tributaries. Forb-turfgrass steppes predominate on the plains and poor forb-turfgrass steppes dominate on the slopes of river valleys. The ravines are forested, but the number of ravine forests to the south and southeast is decreasing, and they are concentrated in the upper reaches and bottom parts of the ravines. Simplified oak forests predominate north of the line “Millerovsky district - river. Alder." To the south of it, nemoral forest species, such as Aegopodium podagraria, Milium effusum, Pulmonaria obscura, Stachys sylvatica etc. Light forest species predominate in ravine forests ( Melica picta, Dictamnus caucasicus, Delphinium sergii, Symphytum tauricum, Vicia pisiformis and etc.).

Botanical and geographical areas of the Rostov region

(according to G.M. Zozulin and G.D. Pashkov, 1974).

Regions: KV - Kalach Upland, SD - valleys of the middle reaches of the Don, K - Kalitvensky, DC - Dono-Chirsky, DK - Donetsk Ridge, P - Priazovsky, DN - valleys of the lower reaches of the Don, AE - Azovo-Egorlyksky, DM - Manych valleys , DS – Dono-Salsky, EB – Ergeninskaya Upland.

There are widespread chalk outcrops belonging to the Voloshinsky (with developed chalk hyssopniks) and Kalitvensko-Glubokinsky (hyssopniks are weakly expressed) regions of Cretaceous vegetation. Psammophytic vegetation is found along the Seversky Donets and Kalitva. The forest coverage of sandy arenas is weak. Small peg and ribbon forests are floristically poor and formationally variegated, containing few forest species (of which Padus avium, Carex pallescens, Poa nemoralis, Scrophularia nodosa and etc.). Only found in this area Artemisia hololeuca, Carex divulsa, Coronaria flos-cuculi, Campanula altaica, Psathyrostachys juncea, Lathyrus niger and etc.

4). Dono-Chirsky district (DC) covers the Chira basin. A depleted version of forb-turfgrass steppes predominates, transforming along the slopes into moderately dry and dry turfgrass steppes in combination with the vegetation of steppe solonetzes. Bayrachnye forests are rare, located in the upper reaches of deep ravines and are represented by a subformation of simple oak forests with Acer tataricum And Euonymus verrucosa in the undergrowth. The grass cover in them is formed by weeds and forests ( Anthriscus sylvestris, Chelidonium majus, Galium aparine etc.) and, less commonly, light forest species. The Chira floodplain is poorly forested: island willow forests, aspen forests, and rarely elm forests are confined to the near-terrace floodplain; in its central part, only island birch bark forests and shrub formations—willow and black maple forests—are found; oak forests are completely absent. Steppe meadows (saline and non-saline) are widespread.

In the southern part of the region there is the Don-Tsimlyansky sandy massif with a complex of arena forests, psammophyte steppes and meadows. The arena forests are floristically poor and are represented by low-growing birch and aspen forests in valley-like depressions (there are no oak or alder forests here). Shrub thickets form Salix rosmarinifolia. Psammophytic steppes and pioneer groups on the sands alternate with sandy meadows in valley-like depressions (saline saline wheatgrass and non-saline reed grass).

Only found in this area Lycopodiella inundata, Orchis morio, O. palustris, Scabiosa isetensis, Dianthus rigidus, Nitraria shoberi and etc.

5). Area Donetsk Ridge(DK) is distinguished by the dominance of forb-turfgrass steppes and their petrophytic variants in combination with thyme forests on sandstones, limestones and shales. Bayrachnye forests are observed in deep ravines (simplified and simple oak forests). They are bordered by edge shrub formations and contain sub-Mediterranean species in the herbaceous layer and understory, e.g. Aegonychon purpureo-caeruleum, Vinca herbacea, Ornithogalum boucheanum, Ligustrum vulgare etc. (however, they lack many forest species). The Seversk-Donetsk floodplain is well forested. Meadow vegetation is represented by the western subtype of medium-humidity meadows. In the lower reaches of the river. Kundryuchya is the southernmost sandy massif in the region with arena forests and psammophyte herbaceous vegetation.

Only in this area are there species endemic to the Donetsk Ridge. Serratula donetzica, Cleome donetzica, Galium dubovicii etc., as well as Asplenium septentrionale, A. trichomanes, Onosma graniticola, Polygonatum latifolium, Pulmonaria mollissima and etc.

6). Priazovsky region (P), located on a coastal accumulative plain with gully-gully dissection, is characterized by an almost complete absence of ravine forests, which are replaced by shrub formations. In zonal positions, forb-turf-grass steppes are common in their most xerophytic Azov variant with edaphic petrophytic variants on rocky soils on the slopes of river valleys and ravines. Calciphiles are very typical for the steppes Salvia nutans, S. austriaca, Marrubium praecox, Teucrium polium, Clematis pseudoflammula, Cleistogenes maeotica etc. In the southernmost Tuzlovsky region of chalk vegetation, typical chalk hyssopniks do not form; dominates in pioneer groups Thymus calcareus with visible participation Artemisia salsoloides And Pimpinella titanophila. Species specific to the area are Eremurus spectabilis, Euphorbia cretophila, Genista scythica, Hyacinthella pallasiana, Linum hirsutum and etc.

7). Area Lower Don Valley(DN) gravitates towards the alluvial accumulative floodplain plain and is distinguished by the wide distribution of the Lower Don regional subtype of floodplain meadows (different types in moisture and salinity), rich in aquatic and semi-aquatic vegetation. The forest cover of the floodplain is uneven. Noticeable tracts of floodplain forests are observed in the estuarine part of the Seversky Donets, where, along with small-leaved forests (sedge forests, pussy willows, white poplar forests), oak forests are also found. Forest species of grasses are practically absent. Below the village. The Bagaevsky floodplain of the Don is treeless, not counting shrub formations and artificial forest plantations. There are few species specific to the area: Carex hordeistichos, Galega officinalis, Juncellus serotinus etc. Thermophilic aquatic relics are characteristic ( Vallisneria spiralis, Salvinia natans, Trapa natans s.l., Nymphoides peltata and etc.).

8). Area Manych valley(DM) is characterized by the dominance of moderately dry and dry turfgrass, valley and, in the extreme south, desert wormwood-turfgrass steppes in combination with solonetzes on the valley slopes and above-floodplain terraces. There are no natural forests. Communities of saline meadows, salt marshes, and meadow solonetzes are widespread, which include many desert-halophytic species ( Halocnemum strobilaceum, Halimione verrucifera and etc.). Only here in the relict Manych lakes and reservoirs of the Egorlyki floodplain are disjunctive thermophilic species found Althenia filiformis And Aldrovanda vesiculosa. Also typical for the area Frankenia pulverulenta, Crambe koktebelica(probably disappeared) Limonium suffruticosum, Tamarix meyeri, Marrubium leonuroides, Sameraria cardiocarpa and etc.

9). Azovo-Egorlyksky The region (AE) on the weakly dissected Yeisk-Egorlyk plain is located in the zone of dominance of rich forb-turf-grass Azov steppes. The area is completely treeless; in some places there are shrub formations in the ravines. After a break in the Azov region, meadow-steppe species participate in the formation of steppes: Echium maculatum, Filipendula vulgaris, Polygala comosa, Trifolium alpestre, T. montanum, Vicia tenuifolium, Libanotis montana and others. Meadows are represented by the western subtype of meadows of average and insufficient moisture and estuary - on the bottoms of estuaries of subsidence origin. Only in this area are marked Astragalus ponticus, Centaurium spicatum, Cymbochasma borysthenica, Iris notha, Kickxia elatine.

10). Dono-Salsky district (DS) covers the Sal basin in the middle and lower reaches, high areas Salo-Manych ridge and its eastern slope. Dry soddy-grass steppes predominate here (in the west of the region there is a depleted version of forb-turfgrass steppes) in combination with steppe solonetzes. It is completely treeless, with occasional shrub formations in the ravines. The meadow vegetation is dominated by steppe meadows. Along the shore of the Tsimlyansk Reservoir there is a large tract of rocky steppes and thyme forests on marls and flasks with their characteristic Thymus kirgisorum. Only here they meet Buschia lateriflora, Astragalus calycinus and etc.

eleven). Near Ergeninskaya Upland(EV) within the Trans-Volga-Kazakhstan steppe province (on the western slope of Ergeni) desert wormwood-turfgrass steppes with a clear complexity of plant cover and a significant participation of desert-steppe xerophytes dominate ( Agropyron desertorum, Leymus ramosus, Stipa sareptana, Salsola laricina and etc.). There are no natural forests; low-shrub formations are spread sporadically in the ravines Caragana frutex, Calophaca wolgarica etc. In the upper reaches of the Sal basin, a special Verkhnesalsky variant of steppe meadows is widespread. Of the characteristic species - Euphorbia undulata,Stipa sareptana and etc.

LECTURE 2. Issues of protection and use of flora in the Rostov region.

Lecture outline:

1. Ecological and geographical groups of rare and endangered plant species .

2. Protection of the flora of the region in the system of protected areas.

3. Plant resources of the region and their potential.

1. Ecological and geographical groups of rare and endangered plant species.

In the complex set of problems of protecting vegetation in relation to the Rostov region, one has been most developed - the protection of the species diversity of natural flora. The high degree of economic development of the region's territory, the presence in the flora of a large number of species on the borders of their habitats and endemic ones are the reason that a significant part of the plants belongs to the category of rare, endangered and requiring protection. These are plants listed in the Red Book of the Rostov Region, the first edition of which was published in 2004.

In total, 327 species of plants and mushrooms are listed in the Red Book of the Rostov Region. Among them are fungi - 64 species (including 20 species of lichenized fungi, or lichens, and 44 species of fungi - macromycetes) and plants - 263 species (including 46 species of mosses, 28 species of higher spores, 1 species of gymnosperms and 188 species of angiosperms). In relative terms, the share of these species from the total number growing in the region is quite high: it is about 6.5% for fungi - macromycetes, about 10% for lichens, almost a third of mosses (30.2%) and about 10% - for vascular plants. Among the latter, almost all species of higher spore plants - mosses, horsetails (with the exception of 3 species) and ferns - are rare and endangered; There are 28 species in total. One of the two wild species of gymnosperms, Cossack juniper, is also included in the Red Book.

Thus, in total, approximately 9.5% of the species richness of fungi and plants identified to date in the Rostov region is included in the Red Book of the region. There are several reasons for such a large number of species that are rare and in need of protection.

Firstly, a significant number of naturally rare species grow in the region. These are species that are ecologically associated with specific substrates and therefore have a limited distribution, for example, species of rocky outcrops, marine littoral zones, fluvioglacial sands, etc. This group is dominated by obligate chalk plants - plants of chalk outcrops on the right banks of the Don and its tributaries in the northern half of the region, more than half of which are included in the federal Red Book.

Secondly, the flora of the steppe part of the Don basin is very ancient, especially the flora of the Donetsk Ridge. Continuous autochthonous development of flora modern type can be traced back to the Paleogene, due to which it contains a scientifically interesting group of endangered relict species of different ages. Among them can be called chalk jaundice Erysimum cretaceum, Cymbochasma Dnieper, however, the most ancient species of the Lower Don flora are, apparently, a number of moss species with huge disjunctive areas ( Pterigoneurum kozlovii, Weissia rostellata and etc.).

The specificity of the Lower Don flora also lies in the fact that it contains a large number of borderline species. The steppe part of the Don basin is an arena of contact and interpenetration of species of northern humid (nemoral and boreal forest) and southern arid ancient Mediterranean mountain-steppe and desert) florogenetic centers. Some of the species of these florogenetic complexes are found in the region in isolated island locations on the border or outside the boundaries of their main range and, of course, are subject to protection.

Finally, a significant proportion of species included in the regional “Red Book” need protection for anthropogenic reasons. Their rarity or progressive reduction in range and numbers is due to destruction (of the steppe) or severe anthropogenic disturbance of habitats, which is characteristic of almost all remaining areas of natural vegetation in the region, including various types of reservoirs. For a number of species, eradication acts as the main limiting factor - these are resource species (edible macromycete mushrooms, medicinal and ornamental plants, etc.).

It is the combination of these factors, primarily the high economic development of the territory, that results in a critical, and for many species of plants and fungi of the Lower Don flora and mycobiota, a threatening state of their populations within the Rostov region.

Among rare and endangered species of vascular plants, seven main groups are distinguished depending on their association with certain types of vegetation and habitats, type of habitats and biological features.

Group steppe The species are united by previously widespread, but now on the verge of extinction, plants of the zonal steppes (due to the plowing of the steppes and intensive grazing on the remaining virgin lands). First of all, stenotopic obligate “steppes”, beautifully flowering early spring ephemeroids, and selectively eradicated useful plants became rare. This group includes 42 species (19.6%), incl. 19 are included in the federal Red Book. The latter include edificators of the former Don steppes of feather grass Stipa ucrainica, S. dasyphylla, S. pennata, S. pulcherrima, S. zalesskyi; early spring ephemeroids and hemiephemeroids Bellevalia sarmatica, Bulbocodium versicolor, Colchicum laetum, Eremurus spectabilis, Fritillaria ruthenica, Iris pumila, Paeonia tenuifolia, Tulipa schrenkii), Pontic and Pontic-Caspian endemics ( Calophaca wolgarica, Cymbochasma borysthenica, Delphinium puniceum, Elytrigia stipifolia, Eriosynaphe longifolia).

The second group of species is very numerous - plant species rocky outcrops. Along with steppe plants, these are extremely vulnerable stenotopic plants, which are deprived of a substrate for growth during the development of rocky rocks. Most of them belong to the pioneers of overgrowing rocky outcrops, are little competitive and are not found in more or less closed communities of rocky steppes. In addition, unlike steppe plants, petrophytic plants have always been relatively rare due to the limited distribution of rocky outcrops themselves.

Of the 46 (21.5%) species of rare and endangered petrophytes, 21 are obligate chalk. An extremely unique flora is associated with the chalk outcrops of the Rostov region, the originality of which is due to the specificity of chalk as a substrate, geographical reasons and historical reasons for its formation.

The steppe part of the Don basin, including the Seversky Donets basin, is one of the main genetic centers of the chalk flora and vegetation of the East European Plain - the so-called South Russian Cretaceous center. The vegetation and flora of the Cretaceous outcrops of the middle reaches of the Don and the Seversky Donets are distinguished by an increased concentration of Tertiary (Paleogene and Neogene) paleoendemics (for example, white-tomentose wormwood, Cretaceous toadflax, Cretaceous pennyweed, Meyer's bug, etc.) and products of the latest race formation - local and stenotopic neoendemics (hyssop Cretaceous, Klokov's abalone, Cretaceous woodruff, Cretaceous hornwort, Cretaceous hornwort, Don serpukha, Don gorse, etc.).

Of the plants and fungi living on chalk outcrops, 34 obligate and facultative chalk species are listed in the regional Red Book, of which 15 are also listed in the Red Book of the Russian Federation - this is a third of the plant species growing in the region included in the federal list.

Endemic chalk outcrops are one of the most valuable autochthonous components of the core of the regional flora from environmental and scientific points of view.

Some species of this group are narrowly local and disjunctive endemics, confined to outcrops of crystalline rocks and shales of the Donetsk Ridge and its spurs ( Сleome donetzica, Onosma graniticola, Scrophularia donetzica, Serratula donetzica etc.), the extreme natural rarity and small population size of which is complicated, unfortunately, by the lack of real forms of their protection.

The third group unites plants of pioneer groups open sands– coastal and, mainly, fluvioglacial on sandy river terraces above the floodplain, called arenas (from lat. arena- sand).

The flora of sands occupy a special place among other floristic complexes of the south of European Russia, being a brilliant and historically long-standing analogue of the flora of sandy deserts. It reveals a record concentration of endemic species for lowland floras (from 20 to 40% of the species in its composition are endemics of different ages and ranks), which is an indicator of long-term autochthonous development. Sands, like rocky outcrops, are the arena of the latest race and speciation (a series of neo-endemics in the genera cornflower, clove, thyme, wheatgrass, woodruff, etc.).

Psammophytic flora underlies a special edaphic variant of steppe vegetation - sandy steppe, widespread in ancient sandy arenas of river terraces, and many authors (M.V. Klokov, E.M. Lavrenko, etc.) allow the earlier emergence of sandy steppe as a type of vegetation in the Black Sea zone of the south of the East European Plain than in the zonal steppe on black soil.

The Red Book of the Rostov Region includes, among the species of open sands, 3 species of macromycete fungi, 4 species of mosses, 16 vascular plants ( Astragalus tanaiticus, Centaurea dubjanskyi,Crambe pontica, Eryngium maritimum) and hummocky on river terraces above the floodplain ( Allium savranicum, Centaurea donetzica, C. gerberi, C. protogerberi, Pulsatilla pratensis etc., 12 species in total), among the last 5 species are narrowly local endemics and 4 species from the federal Red Book. The most scientifically valuable and rapidly dying species is the endemic and relict Astragalus Don. The situation with the current state of populations of this species is completely unknown. It is highly likely to be consumed by the young pontic endemic Astragalus fusiflora and requires urgent study and protection.

Three more species are found only or predominantly on the sands within the region: Juniperus sabina, Radiola linoides and a southern European disjunctive species included in the federal Red Book Prangos trifida, known from old collections from a single locality and probably disappeared.

Flora called a set of plant species living in a certain area.

Geographical elements and floristic areas:

1) Arctic element -(dwarf birch, cloudberry).

2)Northern or boreal element - in the area of coniferous forests. Note boreal. species – spruce, pine, northern linnaea.

3) Central European element - avg. Europe (oak, maple, ash, beech, hornbeam and herbaceous species characteristic of broad-leaved forests - kopyten, Peter's cross, lungwort, etc.).

4) Atlantic element - gr. V. with ranges to the west. areas of the European part of Russia (lobelia, waxweed).

5)Pontic element - gr. V., South Russian steppes, but meetings. in Romanian and Hungarian. steppes (spring adonis, chickweed, violet mullein, broom).

6) Mediterranean element - gr. c., spread in dry areas, surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, and in the east growing in the Crimea and the Caucasus. These are mostly evergreen trees and shrubs. - earthlings. tree, boxwood, myrtle.

7) Central Asian element- gr. with habitats along the mountain ranges of Central Asia, Tien Shan, Pamir-Alai, Altai (walnut, juniper, eremurus, irises)

8) Turanian element- gr. V. with a habitat in the Turan Lowland of Central Asia. This is an element of desert character, typical representatives are wormwood.

9) Manchu element - gr. V. with a range in Manchuria (Manchurian walnut, Manchurian aralia, variegated hazel).

1) Holarctic kingdom. Occupied all of Europe and Asia (without Hindustan and Indochina), the North. America, China and Japan, i.e. occupied. the entire Arctic, temperate and subtropical latitudes to the Tropic of Cancer. General features of the golar flora. kingdoms speak of the dinner continent, once creatures. in place of Europe, Asia and North America.

2) Paleotropical kingdom. Occupied Tropical Africa, subtropical South Africa to the Cape Province, Arabia, Hindustan and Indochina, Indonesia, the Philippine Islands, the islands of Polynesia and Melanesia, Northern Australia. The similarity of their floras suggests that these territories were once also part of a common massif.

3) Neotropical kingdom. Occupied more part of Mexico, Central America up to 40° south latitude and the Pacific Islands.

4) Australian kingdom. Occupied Australia and Tasmania. Of the 12 thousand species, 9 thousand are endemic.

5) Cape kingdom. Occupied Cape Province of South Africa.

6) Holantartic kingdom. Occupied the southern tip of South America, Tierra del Fuego and the Antarctic islands.

111) Ecotypes of plants in relation to various abiotic factors. Details of their morphological and anatomical structure and habitat (xerophytes, mesophytes, hygrophytes, hydrophytes; sciophytes, heliophytes, etc.)

Plants in relation to water are divided into two groups:

ü aquatic plants- permanently living in water;

ü land plants- land

A. Schimper and E. Warming proposed to divide Plants in relation to water are divided into 3 groups:

· hydrophytes - plants of aquatic and excessively moist habitats;

· xerophytes - plants of dry habitats with high drought resistance are divided into:

ü succulents

ü sclerophytes

· mesophytes - plants living in average (sufficient) moisture conditions.

Somewhat later a group was identified hygrophytes .

Hydrophytes - hydor- water and phyton- plant.

With a narrow understanding of this term hydrophytes Only those plants that live in water in a semi-submerged state are called (that is, they have underwater and above-water parts).

Xerophytes- terrestrial plants that have adapted to life with a significant permanent or temporary lack of moisture in the soil and/or air. (Greek xeros- dry and phyton- plant)

Sclerophytes- plants with hard shoots, relatively small leaves, sometimes covered with dense pubescence or a waxy layer (Greek. scleros- hard and phyton- plant)

Succulents- plants that accumulate water in succulent, fleshy stems and leaves. (lat. succulentus– juicy).

Mesophytes- terrestrial plants that prefer moderate moisture conditions (Greek. mesos- average, phyton– growth)

Hygrophytes- terrestrial plants living in conditions of high environmental humidity (in damp forests, swamps, etc.). Hygrophytes are characterized by tender stems and leaves and a poorly developed root system. They wilt easily if there is not enough water. (Greek hygros- wet and phyton- plant).

In relation to light there are:

· Heliophytes – light-loving plants. leaves are smaller and landmark. so as to reduce the radiation dose during the daytime; The leaf surface is shiny.

· Sciophytes – shade-loving plants. to obtain the maximum amount of incident radiation. The leaf cells are large, the system of intercellular spaces is well developed, the stomata are large, located only on the underside of the leaf

· Hemisciophytes – shade-tolerant plants

112) Life forms of plants and their classification according to Raunkier.

Classif. K. Raunkner(1905, 1907), based on the position. kidney resume in relation to to the surface soils in unfavorable conditions. conditions (in winter or during dry periods) and the nature of the protective kidney integument.

Raunkier highlights the trail. 5 types of housing form:

phanerophytes- plants whose buds and terminal shoots, designed to survive unfavorable periods, are located high above the ground (trees, shrubs, woody vines, epiphytes).

chamephytes- low plants with buds, located no higher than 20-30 cm above the ground and often overwintering under the snow (shrubs, subshrubs, some perennial herbs = from the author: subshrubs, passive chamephytes, active chamephytes and cushion plants).

hemicryptophytes- herbaceous perennials. plants, the shoots of which at the beginning of an unfavorable period die to the soil level, therefore, during this period only the lower parts of the plants, protected by the earth and dead leaves of the plant, remain alive. They bear buds intended for the formation of shoots for the next season with leaves and flowers.

cryptophytes- buds are hidden underground (rhizomatous, tuberous, bulbous geophytes) or under water (hydrophytes);

therophytes- annuals - plants that survive unfavorable seasons exclusively in the form of seeds.

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