What determines the duration of childhood developmental psychology. The problem of childhood in developmental psychology. Childhood and adulthood. Early childhood is a sensitive period for...
Childhood is a term denoting the initial period of ontogeny, from birth to adolescence. Childhood covers infancy, early childhood, preschool age and primary school age, that is, it lasts from birth to 11 years.
Surely, for some, childhood is associated with carelessness, carelessness, games, pranks, study, while for others, childhood is a time of active development, change and learning. In fact, childhood is a period of paradoxes and contradictions, without which there can be no development. So, what is this period characterized by?
It has been observed that the higher a living being ranks among the animals, the longer his childhood lasts and the more helpless this being is at birth. Undoubtedly, man is the most perfect being in nature. This is confirmed by its physical structure, organization of the nervous system, types of activity and methods of its regulation. However, when born, a person is endowed with only the most elementary mechanisms for maintaining life. He is helpless and cannot stand up for himself, he needs care, which is carried out for a long time. This is one of the paradoxes of nature that predetermines the history of childhood.
Many scholars have paid attention to childhood stories. An outstanding specialist in the field of child and educational psychology D.B. Elkonin wrote: “Throughout human history, the starting point of child development has remained unchanged. The child enters into interaction with some ideal form, that is, with the level of development of the culture achieved by the society in which he was born. This ideal form develops all the time, and develops spasmodically, i.e. it changes qualitatively” (Elkonin D.B., 1995). His words are confirmed by the fact that people of different eras are not similar to each other. Consequently, the development of the psyche in ontogenesis must also change radically.
Time does not stand still. With the development of scientific and technological progress, the life of society becomes more complicated and, accordingly, the position of the child in it changes. Previously, children mastered primitive tools of labor, helping their parents to work the land; they learned this from adults, watching them and repeating their actions. With the development of scientific and technological progress and the emergence of new production relations, tools of labor became more complex, and observation of adults alone was not enough to master them. Therefore, it became necessary to first study the process of mastering these tools and only then proceed to their use. Consequently, a new stage of learning was due to the complexity of tools.
D.B. Elkonin connected the periods of child development with the periodization of the development of society (Table 1)
Table 1
Periods of child development according to d.B. Elkonin
It is possible that in the near future it will become mandatory for the development of society that everyone have a higher education. This is due primarily to the development of computer technology. But it is impossible to expand the age limits of childhood indefinitely, therefore, pedagogical and developmental psychology will most likely face the task of improving teaching methods in order to reduce the time for mastering the school curriculum.
It turns out that the duration of childhood is directly dependent on the level of material and spiritual development of society and even its individual strata. In many ways, the duration of childhood also depends on the material well-being of the family: the poorer the family, the earlier the children begin to work.
Complication ^^^^b
Rice. 2. Evolution and duration of childhood
changes in body structure. And the first among them was the transition to upright walking, which freed the hands for the use of tools. The latter diversified the food they eat, and that in turn caused serious changes in the structure of the jaws, digestive organs and brain. Straight gait changed the structure of the larynx and opened up the possibility of
speech. The major changes that followed in the female reproductive system reshaped the structure of sexual relations. But not only that. A powerful superstructure to them in the form of social relations was required. The fact is that a more complex species of living beings, which was now "homo sapiens", was born the most helpless cubs. Their survival directly depended on how much the whole group helps in their upbringing. Thus, in parallel with the institution of parenthood, an intra-group social structure is formed.
The weakness of human cubs was compensated by amazing flexibility and adaptability. A wolf, a rhinoceros or an elephant can only exist in the climate zone in which they were born. Man could live anywhere. And all this is due to the fact that a tough program instincts specifying one or two options for action, replaced the set skills- a system of trained practical skills
knowledge acquired through the transfer of knowledge and their practical training. No wonder many anthropologists define it this way culture- as a set of social skills and abilities.
Born without a programmed behavior, people must each time anew learn how to interpret the world around us and respond to it. Animals don't have to do anything. Learning every time anew is hard work, to which all mankind was doomed from now on. After all, with each new generation, the trained disappeared and the process had to be repeated again.
But again, nature was not indifferent to people. This shortcoming was compensated by the fact that each new generation, forced to re-learn social knowledge, did it at a slightly higher level than the previous one. This is how knowledge was accumulated and multiplied, this is how it gradually developed and deepened. And here it is already necessary to talk about the cultural and social progress of mankind. Biological evolution has ended, cultural evolution has begun.
Biological evolution has given man a unique tool - the brain, capable of capturing the most incredible combinations of sounds, and the larynx, capable of producing them. We are all familiar with the violin and piano, which are also wonderful instruments. Their trouble, by the way, is how
and the larynx of birds, lies in the fact that they are tuned to a rather narrow range of possibilities. Due to the versatility of speech capabilities 
man has created languages of the most varied complexity and of the most varied types. Language became a kind of vehicle of civilization: thanks to it, information was transmitted, created, recorded, duplicated, translated, etc.
So, we call socialization the lifelong process of assimilation of cultural norms and development of social roles. Under the social role, as we already know, we mean such a model of behavior of an individual that corresponds to the status he occupies (position in society) and seeks to put into practice those rights and obligations that are assigned to this status. The concept of cultural norms is somewhat narrower than the term "social role" and involves some form of stylized education (acceptance of the rules of etiquette behavior), but for our purposes it suits like nothing else. With its help, we consolidate the connection that exists between the two processes - socialization and education. But we have not lost a broader phenomenon - the social role - since it is organically included in the composition of the social role. Nothing to lose, but only to gain as you learn new things and expand your life experience - this is not only the motto of sociological knowledge, but also the essence of the process of socialization.
It is possible to assimilate something only theoretically. The rules are adopted. Roles are mastered in practice; development - a set of practical actions. A role is a dynamic characteristic of a status, or a behavior model, when you master a role, you get used to this behavior model.
Learning cultural norms can be called a process of socialization. Final goal socialization- Achieving conformity with the expectations of others. Naturally, as the environment is, so are we. By and large, we are brought up by the closest social environment, and not by social institutions and abstract moral principles that are distant to us. Brought up in a small provincial town, young men and women learn the provincial manners of behavior characteristic of a closed territorial community. Faced with the mores and norms of the big city, they feel awkward and completely disoriented.
True, socialization as a lifelong process of adjusting to the expectations of “significant others” is never complete: none of us achieves one hundred percent compliance with the norms and requirements of the environment. There always remains a certain gap - the degree of deviation (cultural deviation), showing the level of independence of our opinions, views, thoughts and behavior from the thoughts and views of "social relatives", due to which people are diverse and unpredictable in their actions. It should be noted that this unpredictability extends rather to specific, particular actions and does not extend to behavior in general. The latter is largely predictable. Slightly deviating from the average behavior is called diverse, strongly deviating - deviant, or non-conformism, and simply extraordinary behavior is called extravagant.
Socialization is a mutually beneficial process. Without it, the individual will not be able to live in society, study, create a family, work and even love. But society cannot do without it. And it is not known who needs it more. Indeed, through socialization, society conveys to a person the most important thing - its values, norms of behavior, laws, traditions, language. How else can it transplant the collective into the individual? While socializing the individual, the society at the same time - in one package with socialization - imposes its will on him, manipulates his consciousness, controls his behavior. In a word, he does whatever he wants with him, but a person has nowhere to go, because it is impossible to live in society and be free from society, as one classic said.
Socialization is necessary for a person due to the following irremovable reasons:
He is devoid of instincts, and therefore must learn everything through training;
Has an extremely long period of childhood, when he is dependent on adults and needs their care;
It cannot exist at any stage of its life cycle without communication and interaction with other people.
So figure it out after that, how much in each of us from Nature(biology), and how much from Nurture(education) 8 .
Dichotomy Nature vs. nurse, representing a very successful play on words, is the most common motif of sociology textbooks, both American and European, concerning the sections "Personality" and "Socialization".
There is still no unanimity of opinion about the stages, stages or phases through which the process of socialization passes, neither in domestic nor in foreign literature. Some believe that a person goes through two stages of socialization (ethnization) - primary (upbringing in the family) and secondary (conscious entry into society). Or in another formulation: primary socialization (first half of a person's life) and secondary (second half of life). N.V. Andreenkova three phases: 1) primary socialization, or socialization of the child; 2) marginal socialization - a teenager (intermediate); 3) stable, i.e. conceptual - 17-18 - 23-35 years old. And other authors distinguish three stages of socialization, but in accordance with life cycles: childhood, adolescence, maturity. Each stage corresponds to a certain level of assimilation of social norms and values. At the first stage, the leader of socialization is the family, at the second - the school, at the third - production. The third group of researchers divides the entire process of socialization into three stages: 1) prepubertal (up to 12 years); 2) teenage (12 - 16-18 years old); 3) adult - after 18. G.M. Andreeva identifies three main stages (stages) of socialization: pre-labor, labor and post-labor. At the pre-labor stage, these are the family, preschool children's institutions, school, university. She considers the production team to be the main institution of socialization at the labor stage. As for the post-labor stage, the question, according to the scientist, remains open.
Three phases and three factors of socialization
Renowned psychiatrist Harry Sullivan 9 singled out six phase in development human personality:
infancy, ending with the appearance of articulate speech, even if meaningless;
childhood with a need for adult playmates;
9 Sullivan H.S. The interpersonal theory of psychiatry. N.Y., 1953.
infancy with his need for real playmates who look like himself;
teenage years with the need for close relationships with a friend or bosom friend of the same sex;
youth with the need for a close partner of the opposite sex;
maturity, when feelings for the chosen one of the opposite sex prevail over feelings for oneself (which implies that real maturity, or growing up, is much less common than we think).
One of the first and most recognized can be considered an attempt by Erik Erikson to distinguish eight stages of human life from birth to old age.
1. Basic sense of trust-distrust. From birth to 18 months
2. Autonomy - shame, doubt. 18 to 36 months
3. Initiative (enterprise) - guilt. From 3 to 5 years.
4. Diligence - inferiority. From 6 to 11 years old.
5. Identity is a role mess. From 11 to 18 years old.
6. Intimacy - isolation. early adulthood. 18 years old to early middle age.
7. Productivity - stagnant. adulthood.
8. Integrity - despair, hopelessness. Late adulthood, maturity.
He drew attention to the development of the human "I" in the process of sociogenesis, to the change in personality in relation to the social environment and to oneself, including both positive and negative aspects 10 . An American psychoanalyst created a theory about the age phases of psychosocial development, or, more simply, about what basic personality traits are formed at what age and in what sequence, what age crises and stages a person goes through and what he must learn at each stage in order to become a full-fledged independent personality.
According to E. Haeckel's even earlier theory of biogenesis, individual development (ontogenesis) is an abbreviated development of the human race (phylogenesis), i.e. in the process of becoming a personality, a person (child), repeating the history of mankind in his development, must go through all these stages. Ontogeny rests on the identification of a number of universal age processes: growth, maturation, development, aging, as a result of which the corresponding individual age properties(differences). Both in psychology are generalized in the concept of age stages (phases, stages, periods), in sociology - stages of socialization(childhood, youth, maturity, old age, etc.). Developing these ideas further, A.N. Teslenko 11 believes that age periodization implies not just a formal lifetime (life span), denoting only the chronological framework of individual existence in a particular space and time, regardless of its content, and subject to known laws life cycle. Many biological and social age processes are indeed cyclical; starting with successively alternating phases of ontogeny and ending with a repetition of generations
](Erickson E. Childhood and society. Obninsk, 1993.
Eslenko A.N. Cyclic patterns in the process of socialization and personality development ( http://wwv.lpur.tsu.ru).
generation in a certain set of social roles (work, family, etc.). Cyclicity also characterizes the change of generations in a society where the younger (children) first learn from the elders, then, in parallel with them, self-actualize as individuals and socialize their children, and later, moving to the descending phases of development, “fall into childhood” (weakening of conscious self-control, change time perspective, impotence, etc.).
According to the Samara sociologist prof. E.F. Molevich 12, it is necessary to distinguish 3 stages of the process of intensive socialization: initial (preschool), secondary (school) and final (“afterschool”, associated with obtaining a specialty). If the initial stage of socialization is associated with the social institution of the family, namely with the acquisition of speaking skills, upright posture, elementary skills in counting, writing, etc., then the middle stage of socialization is largely determined by the school organization and the classroom team, as those special structures which are created by society in order to give children the necessary preparation for social life and professional activity 
ness. It is during this period that the individual enters the social institution of education, which performs functions that are different from the institution of the family. And on how the process of socialization of an individual in school goes, his idea of himself and his future social position in society largely depend.
E. Giddens reduces the number of phases of a person's life path. Among them, he singles out: childhood, youth, young adults, maturity and old age. For each phase, human culture develops its own models, niches of behavior. Moreover, the very culture of this or that society is characterized by the predominance of the influence of the role of value orientations of any of the generations 13 .
In his theory of activity mediation, A.V. Petrovsky 14 identified three stages of socialization: adaptation, individualization and integration. The successful passage of these stages in this order ensures a person's success in society. At the stage of adaptation a person learns those norms, moral foundations, values that prevail in his work collective. On the stages of individualization the need to be a person. And on stages of integration if the two previous ones are passed with a “+” sign, the individual and the team become one.
12 Molevich E.F. General sociology. Lecture course. Ed. 2nd. M., 2003.
13 See: Giddens E. Sociology. M., 1999. Ch. 3.
14 Petrovsky A.V. Personality. Activity. Collective. M., 1982.
Consulting experts are convinced that the stage of placement of new employees in the organization is followed by the stage of adaptation of new employees to the conditions of their activities, and the process of adaptation is the first phase of socialization. Social psychologists include internalization in an independent phase of socialization. Political scientists have their own approach. Thus, they speak of phases of democratic socialization, stages of political socialization. Management sociologists introduce the concept of organizational socialization, highlighting such phases of socialization as selection, hiring and placement, cultural adaptation (fogging), reward and promotion, identification and loyalty.
The process of socialization, its development over time can be traced at the individual and group levels. Process individual Scientists describe socialization in time using two concepts - the life cycle and the life path.
Life cycle describes relatively closed, qualitatively isolated stages of a person's life: childhood, working life, family life, retirement life. Each cycle is characterized by a special set of statuses and roles, a special set of institutions and agents of socialization.
life path describes a continuous trajectory, a line of life within a biography. It does not include cycles, but a sequence of important events that set the direction in life. They can take place in the form of qualitative leaps or shifts in development, which are called critical (or crisis) periods. Important events include graduating from school, entering a university, marriage, military service, having children, choosing a profession, retirement, death of a spouse, etc. Crisis periods include the so-called “mid-life crisis”, when 40-50- an old person thinks about the meaning of life, evaluates the path traveled and weighs the remaining opportunities to change his life.
We adhere to the point of view that the process of socialization goes through phases that coincide with the stages of the human life cycle. This childhood, youth, maturity And old age. Previously, preparation for adulthood was short: at the age of 14-15, the young man passed into the category of adults, and the girls at the age of 13 got married and formed an independent family. This was the case in traditional society. Even today, in those societies that have retained the traditional way of life, there is an early cessation of childhood.
must be distinguished from socialization adaptation(time-limited process of getting used to new conditions), education(acquisition of new knowledge), upbringing(purposeful influence of socialization agents on the spiritual sphere and behavior of the individual), growing up(sociopsychological development of a person in a narrow age range from 10 to 20 years), maturity(physical and physiological process of strengthening the human body in adolescence and youth), finally, education - institutional form of training, education and socialization.
So, the process of socialization goes through phases, which are also called the main ones. life cycle stages(Fig. 3):
Childhood and youth(from 1 years to 18 years) - preparation for an active labor period.
Maturity(18-60 years) - active working period.
Old age(60 years and older) - exit from the active labor period.
Rice. 3. The process of socialization, critical points and stages of the life cycle
On fig. 3 indicates three crisis points in a person's life: BUT - graduating from high school and preparing to enter a university or looking for a job; IN- midlife crisis C - retirement and transition to the passive part of socialization. This is a period of active socialization, limited by three crisis points.
The period between these three points, indicated by the figure abc, represents the time of maximum labor activity of a person. It is preceded by a period of maximum learning activity - 11 years of schooling. For many, it continues even later - until the moment of graduation from the university, i.e. 22-23 years old.
In t. BUT a person can, but does not know how to work, and in t. C, a person can no longer physically, but knows how to work. And only in t. B a person can, knows how and wants to work, i.e. all three parameters match.
span of life ABC exists for the accumulation of money, life experience, in order to reduce active leisure after that. A society that cannot provide a decent old age for its citizens cannot be considered civilized.
According to the degree of completion, the process of socialization can be divided into two major stages - beginning socialization, exciting first half of a person's life, and ending, which refers to the second half of life. Beginning socialization is mainly the area of assigned statuses, the ending one is the area of achieved ones.
Finding at the beginning political(obtaining a passport and the right to vote, as well as to be elected), then economic(getting a job that can completely feed a person) and social(marrying and starting a family of their own, separating from parents and becoming a parent) independence means a qualitative boundary between two stages of socialization - beginning (early) and ending (late
her). In traditional society, there were no independent, qualitatively different stages of infancy, childhood, adolescence and youth. Childhood gained recognition in Europe in the Middle Ages, and adolescence only in the 20th century. More recently, and even then in developed industrial countries, adolescence (youth) has been recognized as an independent stage of the life cycle. In an industrial and post-industrial society, a person continues his studies sometimes up to 25 years. In comparison with our ape-like ancestors, the period of preparation for life has increased at least 5 times.
In addition to the stages or phases of the process of socialization, it is also necessary to single out the concept of "content of socialization". Interaction with their own kind in the process of socialization, when one social group teaches the "rules of life" to another, is called the formation of a social "I". The content of socialization- not only gaining social and economic independence, but personality formation.
The formation of a social "I" is possible only as a process of assimilating the opinion of significant others about me, which serve as a mirror "I". It can be said differently: at the socio-psychological level, the formation of the social "I" occurs through the internalization of cultural norms and social values. Internalization- the transformation of external norms into internal rules of conduct.
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In our opinion, socialization is a lifelong process of assimilation of cultural norms and development of social roles. Z. Bauman perfectly expressed the need to present socialization as a continuous process that continues throughout life: “... The examples given help us to present the problems caused by secondary socialization in the most acute and sharp form. Less obvious problems each of us faces almost daily; most likely, we will experience something similar when we have to urgently change schools; if we, having entered the university, are forced to leave it; if we move to a new job, get married, buy our own house, move to a new place of residence, become parents, become pensioners, etc. It is probably more accurate to represent socialization as a continuous process, rather than dividing it into two separate stages. As we now know, the social role includes many cultural norms, rules and stereotypes of behavior, invisible social threads - rights, duties, relationships - it is connected with other roles. And all this must be mastered. That is why the term “mastering” is more applicable to socialization than “learning”. It is broader in content and includes training as one of its parts.
Bauman 3. Think sociologically: Proc. allowance. M., 1996. S. 41.
Preparation for independent living is not only longer, but also more complex and costly. Human society was able to give a full-fledged education to everyone from any social stratum only in the 20th century. For tens of thousands of years, it has been accumulating resources for this. Universal secondary education is a major achievement of our time. If all expenses are taken into account, then the state in developed countries spends up to 30% of national income on education. There was nothing like this before: in a traditional society, learning took place spontaneously (the elders passed on knowledge to the younger ones in the family).
Only a few had the opportunity to attend special institutions - schools, lyceums, gymnasiums, universities.
It is sometimes believed that the significance of socialization is limited to just this: the education of children, preparation for adult life, the assimilation of the elementary rules of social life. In fact, this is the narrow meaning of the term. Sociologists use a broader interpretation. Socialization - beginning in infancy and ending in old age, the process of assimilation of social roles and cultural norms. Why were sociologists not satisfied with a narrow understanding of socialization?
The fact is that school, university, industrial or any other training is just a technical event organized to acquire new knowledge. A young man listens to lectures, reads books, does homework and seminars, goes through a period of practice and passes an exam. At the end, he receives a certificate certifying his qualifications in a certain field of knowledge. Such
kind of training can last 5 years, or maybe only 2 months. However, teaching a subject and teaching life are completely different things. No 
a teacher and no school will teach a person how to be a good wife or housewife, family man, business partner, professional athlete or writer. You have to learn this all your life, making mistakes and correcting them, but doing all this not in the laboratory, but in real conditions.
It is impossible to learn a social role from books or by the method of a business game, although it is possible to improve oneself in it in this way. The leader or king brings up his successor for many years; the performer of this role is brought up by the environment, the practice of making managerial decisions, which one has to master, actually becoming a king or leader.
Since throughout life we have to master not one, but a whole lot of social roles, moving up the age and career ladder, the process of socialization continues throughout life. Until a very old age, a person changes his views on life, habits, tastes, rules of conduct, roles, etc. The concept of "socialization" explains how a person turns from a biological being into a social being. Not a single biological species has learned to "roll up" the stages of its development. Thanks to socialization, a weak human cub does not have to go through this entire endlessly long path of development.
EXAMPLE QUESTIONS OF THE FINAL TEST FOR THE COURSE "PSYCHOLOGY"
MODULE I
1. Man is the only being capable of:
1. communicate information about past and future events
2. use tools
3. live in communities
4. all answers are correct
2. Scientific method:
1. rationalistic
2. mainly consists of testing hypotheses
3. subjective
4. all answers are correct
3. The first psychological laboratory was created:
1. Wilhelm Wundt
2. in 1732
3. to study the functions of consciousness
4. all answers are correct
4. The S-R scheme focuses on:
1. objective description of behavior
2. Uselessness of the concept of consciousness
3. correspondence between the response and the given stimulus
4. all answers are correct
5. Educational psychologist:
1. can provide psychological support to the student
2. conducts diagnostic tests and surveys
3. strives to introduce effective teaching methods
4. all answers are correct
6. The study of the relationship between the activity of the nervous system and behavior is mainly engaged in:
1. zoopsychology
2. parapsychology
3. psychopharmacology
4. psychophysiology
7. Publication of a message about the results of the experiment:
1. only necessary if convincing results are obtained
2. should not contain a description of the method used
3. should not raise new questions
4. all answers are wrong
8. Choose words that denote mental phenomena:
Tears, nervous process, thinking, memory, sleep, laughter, running,
information, breath, will, fear, love, faith, knowledge, feeling,
heartbeat, instinct, brain biocurrents, analyzer, hearing, mind, perception,
mood, interest, pain, sympathy, envy, irritation,
sensitivity.
9. Divide this list into two groups of concepts that characterize material and ideal phenomena:
Forgetting, cortical arousal, feeling, pride,
remembering, thinking, happiness, grief, judgment, inhibition of the nervous
momentum, instinct, defensive reflex, physiological processes
brain, receptor, body aging, heredity, genes,
subjective, cerebral hemispheres, mental process, book.
10. From these concepts, build a series so that each previous concept is generic (more general) in relation to the next one:
Mind, knowledge, reflection, consciousness, psychological science, general
psychology.
11. From the words in brackets, choose those that are
to this word in the same respect as in the example given:
a) Matter - ... (nature, substance, reflection, action).
Sample: the brain is the psyche.
b) Nervous process - ... (reflex, reflection, objective,
material, mental).
Sample: consciousness is subjective.
c) Consciousness - ... (physiological, real, ideal, active).
Sample: the brain is material.
d) Mental - ... (active, derivative, objective).
Sample: physical is primary.
12. From these concepts, build several rows so that each previous concept is generic (more general) in relation to the next one in a specific row:
Consciousness, reflection, psyche, information, thought, irritability,
biological reflection, instinct, tropisms, concept.
13. Our perception of the world is connected:
1. with the culture we belong to
2. with practice
3. with experience
4. with our individual features
5. All answers are correct
14. Threshold of sensitivity:
1. represents the sensitivity limit of the receptor
2. determined genetically
3. may change with age
4. all answers are correct
15. Binocular vision:
1. the only thing that allows you to perceive depth
2. ineffective at a distance of more than 15 meters
3. can be replaced by monocular signs
4. all answers are correct
16. According to W. Wundt, the differences between sensations and feelings are due to the fact that:
1. feelings are related to the subject
2. feel more
3. sensations are simple, but feelings are complex
Answers to tests
13 – 4, 14 – 4, 15 – 3, 16 – 1.
17. When solving a problem, the preparation stage:
1. this is the first step in the solution process
2. may take several days
3. allows you to collect all the information related to the problem
4. all answers are correct
18. When we find a solution at random, then this:
1. result of random enumeration
2. trial and error strategy
3. often leads to unforeseen consequences
4. all answers are correct
19. According to J. Piaget, the development of thinking is mainly connected with:
1. with the development of speech
2. interaction between organism and environment
3. with the extinction of the process of assimilation
4. all answers are wrong
20. According to the views of behaviorists:
1. thought is an internal dialogue
2. speech is a thought expressed aloud
3. thoughts are always accompanied by implicit movements
4. all answers are correct
MODULE II
The length of a person's childhood depends on...
a) the rate of its biological maturation;
b) Socio-economic status of the family;
c) the level of education received by him;
G) level of development of the society in which he lives.
2. The end of childhood in human society is determined by...
A) physiological maturation of the body;
B) the completion of a person's education;
IN) the acquisition by an individual of the ability to perform the functions of a member of society;
D) the achievement of maturity "I".
3. L.S. Vygotsky proposed these criteria for the periodization of childhood...
A) neoplasms, the leading type of activity;
B) neoplasms, the dynamics of the transition from one period to another;
C) the dynamics of the transition from one period to another, the social situation of development;
G) neoplasms, social situation of development.
4. The idea of mental development occurring through the adaptation (adaptation) of the individual to the surrounding social environment belongs to ...
A) Z. Freud;
B) J. Piaget;
C) E. Erickson;
D) L.S. Vygotsky.
5. Among the main neoplasms of the infancy, there are ...
A) the first social smile;
B) crawling;
IN) grasping act;
D) the ability to learn.
6. In the first half of a child's life, the development of sensory systems ...
BUT) ahead of the development of the motor system;
B) lags behind the development of the motor system;
C) and the development of the motor system are synchronous;
D) lags behind both the development of the motor system and the speech development of the baby.
7. The greatest developmental effect for a young child has ...
A) unformed objects for the game, allowing fantasizing;
B) real or reduced adult objects-tools;
In computer games;
D) toys.
8. The period of early childhood is a sensitive period for ...
A) the assimilation of moral norms;
B) development of creative thinking;
C) the development of arbitrariness;
G) speech development.
One of the main mechanisms of mental development of a child after three years of age
B) visual-figurative;
C) abstract-logical;
D) verbal-conceptual.
13. The leading activity of adolescence D.B. Elkonin believed ...
BUT) learning activities;
B) intimate-personal communication with peers;
C) educational and professional activities;
D) socially useful activity.
14. One of the emerging features of adolescent thinking is ...
BUT) the ability to think about possibilities that are not directly given;
B) mastering the principle of conservation (volume, quantity, etc.);
C) the ability to solve problems in a visual-figurative plan;
D) the ability to coordinate simultaneously 2 points of view.
abstract in the discipline "Psychology"
on the topic: "Age psychology"
Plan
1. Introduction.
2. The subject and tasks of developmental psychology.
3. Research methods in developmental psychology.
4. The meaning of the concept of "childhood" in different historical periods.
5. Conclusion.
6. List of references.
1. Introduction.
The history of the development of the personality of each individual person is the history of passing through certain age stages. Each of the stages corresponds to its own set of actual human needs. For example, for a five-year-old, this is the improvement of motor-motor skills and symbolic functions of thinking, which is facilitated, first of all, by the game; for a twenty-five-year-old, the need to create a family and acquire their own parental experience is relevant. The transition from one age period to another is accompanied by a crisis - a time when the needs of the individual have already changed, and there are still not enough ways to satisfy them. A comfortable and psychologically prosperous existence of a person, therefore, is connected with how successfully the age stages themselves proceed, as well as the crises that accompany their change.
Based on the foregoing, it is clear that the role of developmental psychology in the science of personality is difficult to overestimate. In addition, in our opinion, knowledge of the dynamics of the development of processes occurring in our psyche can be useful not only for psychologists, but also for every person for whom their own inner world is of interest. As well as the psychological well-being of his children, who are not always able to independently recognize and, moreover, satisfy their needs, characteristic of a particular age period.
As an independent field of knowledge, developmental psychology was formed relatively recently, having separated from child psychology towards the end of the 19th century. However, by now it has a rather complex structure, including a whole range of directions, concepts and theories. In addition, it includes several subsections, each of which was created at different times and studies small periods of human personality development within one, more significant one: prenatal psychology, child psychology, school psychology, acmeology and psychogerontology.
Despite such a diverse and rich content of this branch of psychology, we tried to touch on the main aspects of its content, as far as possible, within the framework of this short work, paying the closest attention to one of its most developed and, in our opinion, important sections - child psychology.
2. The subject and tasks of developmental psychology.
Developmental psychology is a branch of psychological science that studies the facts and patterns of human development as it grows and matures, the age dynamics of its psyche.
The subject of developmental psychology is the age periods of development, the mechanisms and causes of their change and appearance, as well as general patterns, the pace and direction of the development of the psyche in ontogenesis. In other words, it is the development of a person's personality in its most diverse aspects.
Mental development is a clear sequence of irreversible and regular changes in the human psyche that occur over time. The reason for this is the process of growth and the biological changes accompanying it, which periodically leads a person to a contradiction with the external social environment and confronts the need to resolve this conflict, that is, to make the transition from one way of self-expression to another. The result of such a transition is a change in the quality of relations with others, the formation of a new level of reflection of reality, as well as attitudes towards oneself.
The most important factor in the development of the psyche is maturation. This is a process of successive age-related changes in the systems of the body, which imposes some restrictions and at the same time creates conditions for the birth and implementation of mental functions. Different parts and functions of the nervous system mature at different rates, reaching full maturity at their respective developmental stages. In this regard, normative and individual mental development are distinguished.
The tasks of developmental psychology can be divided into three types: applied, scientific, theoretical.
Among the theoretical tasks, the main one is the creation of a true theoretical model of development.
Scientific tasks are, first of all, the study of the sources and patterns of changes that make up the essence of a person’s mental development, as well as its periodization, the study of age-related personality development and the determination of age norms of mental functions, which, along with identifying the resources and creative potential of the human psyche, forms the basis for solving applied problems of this branch of psychology.
Applied tasks include building systems for age-related and clinical diagnostics, as well as systems for correcting mental development, and preventing possible violations of its course.
3. Research methods in developmental psychology.
The main research method in developmental psychology is observation. It can be self-observation or another person. The latter is most often realized through experiment. In view of the fact that the experiment makes it possible for the researcher to intervene in the activity of the subject, thus making it possible to create conditions for a clear identification of a psychological fact, this makes it one of the main and most reliable methods for obtaining reliable information in research work with children.
The child is included in a certain experimental situation associated with the leading type of activity, and, observing the reaction of the subject to the influencing stimuli, they draw conclusions about which of the properties of his psyche are manifested and which are not, including that he cannot verbalize when polled.
A survey, along with testing, is one of the additional methods. It is carried out in writing or orally, both during individual work with the subject, and when working with a group. An important auxiliary value is also played by the projective method, which consists in the analysis of drawings and other products of the creative activity of the subjects. Additional research methods also include comparative: twin (explores the role of upbringing, heredity and environment), cross-cultural (allows you to identify the features of the mental development of people in different cultures), the method of comparing the norm and pathology and the biographical method.
In developmental psychology, there are two main strategies for conducting empirical research, the purpose of which is to study changes that occur over time.
The first method: the cross-sectional method, which is a simultaneous study of unrelated groups of people of the same age and comparison of the results with data obtained from the study of representatives of a different age category; it allows you to collect information about the norms, revealing typical age characteristics;
The second method: the method of longitudinal sections (longitude) is aimed at tracking age-related changes in the psyche of the same people over a long period of time; its application allows to determine the range of age-related changes, as well as to make a forecast of further mental development.
4. The meaning of the concept of "childhood" in different historical periods.
Having arisen as child psychology, developmental psychology has long been limited to the study of the processes of a child's mental development, and therefore now this section of time is the most developed. At present, it is known that it is during the period of childhood in the psyche that those processes take place that, being the basis, the foundation for the formation of the personality of an adult, continue to exert their influence throughout his life, I will introduce what, the study of child psychology is singled out by us as the most important section of the scientific branch under consideration. In this regard, of particular interest is one of his key concepts - the concept of "childhood".
Childhood is a period lasting from birth to full social and, consequently, psychological maturity; its result is the formation of the individual a full-fledged member of human society. Trying to determine the boundaries of this age period, we inevitably encounter a difficulty, which consists in the fact that for different cultures at different periods of their development, the “official” age of maturity is different due to the fact that the path leading to the final formation of personality in them is not the same. . P. P. Blonsky, defining childhood as a time of development, wrote that it is not an eternal, but a changing phenomenon: it is different at a different stage of the development of the animal world, it is different at each stage of the historical development of mankind. In support of his words, one can recall an example from the book of Douglas Lockwood, describing his journey to Western Australia and meeting with the natives of the Pintubi tribe. The whole way of life of the inhabitants of this tribe was so primitive that it could be compared with the Stone Age. People in it did not wear clothes, did not build dwellings and, in order to keep warm at night, made fires. There were three small children in the tribe, but none of them cried, and a two-year-old girl herself made a fire, fanned it and threw up branches to keep it burning. By her age, she was already actually included in adult life, from which it follows that in primitive society such a phenomenon, which could now be designated by the concept of “childhood”, did not exist at all. As for medieval Europe, up to the age of 6-7 years old, children were treated like babies, and after it - like small adults, accustoming them to adult conversations, eating, dressing them up in adult clothes, and so on ...
L. S. Vygotsky emphasized that there is no “eternally childish”, but only “historically childish”, since the duration of childhood directly depends on the level of material and spiritual culture of both society as a whole and its individual layers. For example, at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, most children whose parents belonged to the working class worked from the age of 6-8.
In his study, A.V. Tolstykh gave the following picture of the changes in this age period that took place in Russia during the 20th century.
In 1930, in connection with the introduction of compulsory primary education for all children, the duration of childhood was the first 12 years of life;
In 1959, the duration of childhood was increased to 15 years by the passage of a new law on junior high school;
In our time, the duration of childhood covers the period from birth to 17 years, within this period all childhood ages are represented and clearly differentiated.
In the modern world, the general rights and age of children are regulated by the “Convention on the Rights of the Child”, adopted by UNESCO in 1989. and ratified by most countries in the world. In it, the achievement of a person at the age of 18 is proclaimed as the boundary of childhood.
Since childhood is a socio-cultural phenomenon, it is historical in nature and has its own history of development.
Consider the three main historical periods of childhood.
1. Quasi-childhood (primitive childhood). It is typical for the early stages of human history, when the children's community was not singled out, but was directly included in joint labor activity with adults.
2. Undeveloped childhood (childhood in the Middle Ages and Modern times) - the children's community is singled out and it faces the task of integrating into the adult community. A role-playing game appears as a way of modeling the activities of adults.
3. Developed childhood (modern childhood). Its emergence is associated with the complication of the modern world, in which the motives and meanings of adult behavior have ceased to be self-evident. At present, children are faced with the task of creative assimilation of culture as an open multidimensional structure.
5. Conclusion.
In this paper, we have tried to give a general overview of the science of the mental development of the human personality. This field of knowledge is relatively young, many problems (such as the crisis of secondary education, in modern school, psychological support in old age, a detailed study of the human psyche in the prenatal period, including with the aim of improving the process of obstetric care) have yet to be solved. However, her discoveries shed light on many features in the behavior of children, as well as the reasons that gave rise to them. The discoveries made it possible to approach the upbringing of a person more meaningfully, made it possible to make this process effective in terms of the formation of a holistic self-concept. And also more lively, filled with creativity and capable of bringing mutual joy to both parties taking part in it. The discoveries of developmental psychology have also expanded the possibilities of psychotherapy in working with adults, making it possible to correct disorders that have arisen in the psyche, both in the current time and in earlier periods of life.
This paper deciphers the basic concepts that developmental psychology operates with, among which a special place is occupied by "childhood", which, as it was established, had various characteristics and features throughout the history of all mankind.
6. List of references.
1. E.B. Usova. Developmental psychology - Minsk.: Publishing House of MIU, 2010.
2. V.T. Kudryavtsev - M.: Institute of Psychology named after L.S. Vygotsky RGGU, 1999.
3. Kudryavtsev V.T. Developed childhood and developing education: a cultural-historical approach / V.T. Kudryavtsev. - Ch. I, II. - Dubna, 1997.
4. Erickson E. Childhood and society / E. Erickson. - 2nd ed. - St. Petersburg, 1996.
5. L.F. Obukhov. Child psychology: theories, facts, problems M., Trivola, 1995.