The concept of thinking is the social nature of thinking. Topics of plans for the section people. The concept of language and speech. Functions of speech. Temporal characteristics of speech in native and foreign languages

Topics of plans for the section "People"

1. Man and his nature. / Biological, mental and social in man.

1. 2. Personality in the system of social relations.

2. 3. Socialization of the individual.

3. 4. Activity and its role in the development of the human personality.

4. 5. Spiritual activity and its specificity .

5. 6. The role of cognitive activity.

6. 7. Interpersonal relationships and interactions.

7. 8. Communication and its role in personality development.

8. 9. The game and its role in the formation of the human personality.

9. 10. Personality in modern society.

10. 11. Labor activity.

C8.2.1.

“Man and his nature. / Biological, mental and social in man” . Make a plan according to which you will cover this topic. The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in sub-points.

1) The essence of human nature. / Biopsychosocial nature of man. / Man is a product of the creation of nature and society. 2) Manifestations of human nature: a) biological (race, gender, age, physique, genotype); b) mental (emotions, feelings, will, memory properties, personality orientation, etc.); c) social (skills, knowledge, values, ideals, life experience). 3) Properties of temperament and their consideration in human life: a) phlegmatic; b) choleric; c) sanguine; d) melancholy. 4) The complexity of human nature: a) a person as an individual; b) a person as an individual; c) a person as a person. 5) Natural inclinations - the basis for the formation of abilities.

C8.2.2.

You are instructed to prepare a detailed answer on the topic "Personality in the system of social relations"

1) The concept of personality. / Personality - the subject and object of social relations. / Personality - a set of socially significant qualities. 2) The most important personality traits: a) knowledge about the world, society, oneself; b) cognitive and practical skills; c) social experience; d) moral values ​​and ideals; e) other socially significant qualities. 3) Socialization is the process of a person entering the world of social connections and interactions: a) primary socialization (family, small society, preschool education); b) secondary socialization (school, professional activity, etc.). 4) Models of interaction between the individual and society: a) constructive; b) destructive. 5) The specifics of the formation and formation of personal qualities in the modern era: a) tolerance; b) innovation; c) creativity; d) initiative; e) humanism. 6) Personality and society, interconnection and interdependence.

C8.2.3.

You are instructed to prepare a detailed answer on the topic "Socialization of the individual"

1) The essence of the process of socialization. / Socialization is the process of formation of personal qualities. / Socialization is the process of a person entering the world of social connections and interactions 2) Socialization functions: a) mastering the system of knowledge about the world, man, human society; b) the acquisition of experience in human interaction with society; c) the assimilation of moral values ​​and ideals; d) mastering practical skills and abilities. 3) Levels (stages) of socialization): a) primary socialization; b) secondary socialization. 4) Institutions (agents) of socialization: a) family; b) immediate environment; c) the education system; e) professional activity. 5) The specifics of the process of socialization in the modern era.

C8.2.4.

You are instructed to prepare a detailed answer on the topic "Activity and its role in the development of the human personality"

1) The concept of activity. / Activity is a form of human activity. 2) Distinctive features of human activity (differences between human activity and animal activity): a) purposefulness; b) awareness; c) presentation of an ideal result model; d) transformative, creative character. 3) The main types of human activity: a) play; b) educational; c) labor. 4) Spiritual and practical activity and its manifestations in society. a) spiritual activity (research, prognostic, cognitive, value-oriented); b) practical activity (material and production, social transformation). 5) Activities and communication. 6) Activity and creativity. 7) The role of activity in the transformation of a person's natural inclinations into abilities.

C8.2.5.

You are instructed to prepare a detailed answer on the topic "Spiritual activity and its specificity" . Make a plan according to which you will cover this topic. The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in sub-points.

1) The concept of spiritual activity. / Activity material and spiritual. / Spiritual activity is the production of spiritual goods. 2) Specificity of subjects and objects of spiritual activity. 3) The main goals of spiritual activity: a) the formation of public consciousness; b) formation of values ​​and ideals of a person and society; c) satisfaction of the ideal needs of society; d) the production of spiritual goods. 4) Forms of spiritual activity: a) prognostic; b) cognitive; c) value-oriented. 5) The role of spiritual activity in the modern world.

C8.2.6.

You are instructed to prepare a detailed answer on the topic "The role of cognitive activity"

1) The concept of cognitive activity. / Cognitive activity is an activity aimed at comprehending knowledge. 2) Objects of cognitive activity: a) the world around, nature; b) society; c) a person. 3) Forms of knowledge: a) sensory knowledge b) rational knowledge 4) Cognitive activity - the path of personal self-improvement and self-development

C8.2.7.

You are instructed to prepare a detailed answer on the topic "Interpersonal Relations and Interactions" . Make a plan according to which you will cover this topic. The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in sub-points.

1) The concept of interpersonal relationships. 2) Distinctive features of interpersonal relationships: a) emotionally colored character; b) the direct nature of interaction, communication; c) implementation within a narrow circle of people. 3) The main areas of interpersonal relations: a) family relationships b) relationships among colleagues; c) relationships in a friendly company. 4) The specifics of interpersonal conflict. 5) Conditions for the effectiveness of interpersonal interaction: a) taking a different opinion for granted; b) readiness for dialogue and mutual understanding; c) implementation of joint activities; d) common goals and interests. 6) Rivalry and cooperation in interpersonal relationships.

C8.2.8.

You are instructed to prepare a detailed answer on the topic "Communication and its role in personality development" . Make a plan according to which you will cover this topic. The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in sub-points.

1) Communication as a special kind of human activity. / Communication is an activity carried out in the presence of a partner. 2) Main functions of communication: a) communicative (exchange of information); b) perceptual (acceptance of each other); c) interactive (interaction with each other). 3) Sociability (sociability) as a property of the individual. 4) Conditions for constructive communication: a) readiness for cooperation, compromise; b) accepting a different point of view while defending one's own; c) respect for the partner. 5) Communication in the game, work, teaching. 6) The specifics of communication in the network community: a) intensity of communications; b) virtual communication; c) abundance and variety of information flows. 7) Communication in the formation of the personality of the modern type.

C8.2.9.

You are instructed to prepare a detailed answer on the topic "The game and its role in the formation of the human personality" . Make a plan according to which you will cover this topic. The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in sub-points.

1) Game as a special kind of human activity. / Game is an activity associated with the manifestation of the creative, creative abilities of a person. 2) Main features of the game: a) creative nature; b) the presence of an imaginary environment; c) mastering new social roles; d) the existence of certain rules. 3) Classification of games: a) role-playing (daughter-mothers, cowboys and Indians); b) situational (flight to the moon, being on a desert island); c) business (resolution of a problem situation in the company); d) sports, etc. 4) The specifics of games in childhood and adulthood. 5) The game is a necessary condition for the development of creativity and sociability.

C8.2.10.

You are instructed to prepare a detailed answer on the topic "Personality in modern society" . Make a plan according to which you will cover this topic. The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in sub-points.

1) Personality - the subject and product of social relations and activities. 2) Personality properties: a) universal (timeless, characteristic of people from different historical eras); b) concrete historical (formed depending on historical conditions). 3) Specific qualities of a personality of a modern type: a) willingness to innovate; b) adaptability to a rapidly changing world; c) creativity; d) openness, tolerant perception of the new; e) initiative and initiative; f) the ability to live and interact in a multicultural society. 4) The main factors influencing the personality in modern society: a) the system of mass communication; b) increased information flows; c) the changed nature of education and work; d) intensification of communication in the network community. 5) Intellectual development is an important condition for the effectiveness of the individual in the modern era.

C8.2.11.

You are instructed to prepare a detailed answer on the topic "Labor activity" . Make a plan according to which you will cover this topic. The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in sub-points.

1) Labor is the activity of transforming the substances of nature. 2) Signs of labor activity: a) practical nature (satisfaction of material needs); b) transformative character (transformation of the forces and substances of nature); c) creative nature (creation of a new, unparalleled). 3) Main types of labor: a) physical and mental; b) simple and complex. 4) The specifics of labor activity in modern society: a) the complex nature of work; b) science intensity, intellectual labor; c) manufacturability of labor, reduction of the sphere of simple physical labor. 5) The role of labor in the formation of the individual and the formation of the team: a) development of communication skills; b) development of thinking and creativity; c) the formation of the ability to act outside the box; d) the formation of the ability to cooperate in achieving a common goal; e) the formation of a cohesive and effective team. 6) Labor is the basis of the welfare of society.

On the nature of human thought.

Life is an eternal becoming that defines the reality of our being, it is a trend that never limits itself to one pattern. In the process of his development, a person reveals what is inherent in him by nature, by God. "The evolution of life is creativity that follows without end due to the initial movement." (Henri Bergson, p.94)

"We feel our evolution and feeling this is like a fringe that is drawn around our own intellectual representation." (Bergson, 42).

"I" as an individual is a naked abstraction. Like the absolute idea, it is amorphous and indifferent. It is a mirror in which we are ready to look at the world. But as soon as we see ourselves in this mirror, we immediately change the genre role to the formidable Judge, who was portrayed in an inappropriate, in his opinion, form.

In each of us lives a lot of "I", sometimes so different from each other. Sometimes they quarrel among themselves and not always they manage to come to a common opinion.

Where did they come from and why is it so difficult for them to be with each other? Apparently, these are the developments of our previous incarnations, each of which has gone its own way.

Among them there are "I" male and female, "I" worldly, full of vanity, and "I" ascetic, who are so well away from everyday worries.

Let's call the dance of our "I" Conscience. Everyone has their own and is based on the cumulative experience of past generations.

For some, it is a prisoner of momentary desires, for others it not only fills the physical body, but also goes beyond its limits, as if illuminating everything around.

Apparently, there is something inside our consciousness that is capable of determining such a prosperity of Conscience or, on the contrary, its extinction.

Where the flagship of her behavior is intuition, there the Conscience flourishes in the splendor of everything within itself, the sounding choir of other "I", but where the main arbiter is "ratio", there is no agreement with oneself.

What, then, distinguishes the rational from the intuitive? Let's look at them as a pair of concepts that are in a certain relationship with each other. Moreover, the nature of these relationships can change, certainly affecting the "line" of human behavior.

Shouldn't we take the concept of the "golden section" as an assistant? In the contexts known to us, it usually calculates the rational aspect as two-thirds of the total length, for example, in an architectural structure, or some tectonic indicator in a piece of music.

I will draw the reader's attention to the fact that gold is a symbol of secret esoteric knowledge. What if we look at the point of the golden section as a kind of watershed of exceptional importance for understanding the nature of human consciousness, where its most extensive area encompasses the sphere of the intuitive, and the smaller one will be determined by the context of the rational.

The controversy of such a statement can be resolved specifically by the historical experience of man. Where to get it? My answer will be simple - in ancient civilizations. But first, let's try to understand the nature of "intuition" and "ration". We will involve Anri Bergson with his work "Creative Evolution" (M.-Petersburg: Russian Thought, 1914) as an assistant.

“It is clear to me,” he writes, “that I am moving from state to state, but these states change every moment. Moving along the path of time, the states of the soul, so to speak, turn into a snowball of itself. that change is continuous, and that the state itself is already change" (Bergson, p. 2).

Only when our state reaches a certain limit and therefore seems completely new, different from the former, does it attract attention as completely new.

Therefore, where there is a constant slope, we tend to see the rungs of the stairs, each of which reflects the acts of our attention.

Each level of consciousness noted by our attention is only "the most illuminated point in the moving zone ... This zone, as a whole, actually constitutes our state." (Bergson, p.3).

Thus, our attention artificially divides the zones of consciousness into separate fragments. The next step is their reunion with the help of an indifferent and amorphous "I". Precisely "... mental states elevated into independent entities are strung on it" (p. 4). Then, like multi-colored pearls in a necklace, attention notices sharp and stable colors instead of fluidity.

But if consciousness were exhausted by the status of our selves, on which separate states are strung, taken out of a holistic context, then duration would not exist for us. For the "I", which does not change, does not last, and the psychological state, which remains identical to itself until it is replaced by the next state, does not last to the same extent "(Bergson, p. 4).

In this case, let's try to define our "I". I am an abstract expression of our beingness, or our existence, as it were, in a filmed form.

Meanwhile, our psychological life, by virtue of its ongoing nature, is unthinkable outside of time, which constitutes its fabric. So, time is the fabric of our psychological life. Therefore, "... duration is the continuous development of the past, absorbing the future and expanding as we move forward ... The past persists by itself, it follows us entirely every moment: everything that we have felt and desire since our first childhood, it's all here - everything gravitates towards the present. (Bergson, p.4).

But in this case, what is included in the functions of our thinking?

First of all, its purpose is not clear. It is especially revealed by two opposing and, at the same time, complementary forces of "intuition" and "ration".

The "mechanism of rationality" was created in order to lower into the unconscious almost the entire totality of the past, and to leave or attract into consciousness only that which can best illuminate the present and promote a specific beneficial action.

The sphere of the intuitive, on the contrary, is interested in using the volume of the entire memory of a person both in his conscious and unconscious life.

How to reconcile the difference between the two natures of thinking?

"Ratio" is the area of ​​all kinds of goal-setting, for which there is no concept of truth. It is replaced by the final result, for the achievement of which all means are suitable.

In intuition there is always God, if not the Universal God with his attributes, then his own, at the level of Atman. Intuition is not closed in on itself; it is open to everything that lives and determines the inexhaustibility of being in the Universe.

Not wanting to infringe upon the interests of any of all living beings, it is turned to their cumulative experience. Therefore, in solving its problem, intuition is always limited and never falls into aggression in relation to other planes of being.

The concept of intuition includes an extract of history, lived by us not only from the birth of the present, but also all previous ones. The only task is to find the key to the various information flows that we have accumulated in our past and present lives.

To do this, you need to know yourself, because we are a fragment of the Universe. And there is nothing in the Universe that is not in us.

We can say that intuition lives according to the laws of the entire Universe, rationally, on the contrary, momentary, everyday needs. Both of them, however, need each other. For example, let's start from the harmonious interaction of such a pair of concepts as instinct and intellect. We will proceed from the fact that instinct is closer to the nature of the intuitive, while the intellect is akin to the nature of the rational.

"Intelligence at its starting point is the ability to fabricate artificial objects, in particular, to create tools from tools and to endlessly diversify their dressing." (Bergson, p. 129).

“If truth creates tools from its own organic nature, naturally controlling them according to its own inner impulse, then the intellect has the ability to build tools from inorganic matter” (ibid.).

“If in instinct the innate meaning extends to the body, then in the intellect it extends to the attitude. If instinct presupposes the knowledge of matter, then the intellect is the knowledge of form” (ibid.).

"In that case, what is matter? Apparently, this is what is given by the perceptive faculties, taken in the form in which their nature gives us. Form is the totality of relations established between these materials to constitute systematic knowledge." (Bergson, p. 133).

"Matter itself tends to compose systems accessible to isolation, which can be considered geometrically." (Bergson, p.9).

"All operations of our intellect are directed to geometry as a subject, where they find their complete completion." (Bergson, p. 189).

"The intellect is bathed in an atmosphere of spatiality, from which it is as inseparable as a living body from the air it breathes." (S. 199).

"The more consciousness is intellectualized, the more spatial matter becomes." (Bergson, p. 170).

By itself, "... the intellect clearly imagines only the discontinuous." (Bergson, p. 139). And space itself is the view of the intellect.

It would not be a big exaggeration to say that spatiality and intelligence are copied from each other.

"In its origin, our thought is associated with action. Action is the form with which our intellect was cast." (Bergson, p. 40).

"...intelligence is present wherever there is a judgment, consisting in directing past experience to present experience", - laying the foundation for invention. (Bergson, p. 123).

Let us return to the diplasty of the "intuitive-rational". There is in their essential attitudes both common - after all, they do not exist without each other - and excellent. Let us turn to the energy characteristics of these two phenomena. We will proceed from the fact that does not require special proofs.

The sun radiates, according to Boris Bolotov, two streams - photons and electrons, therefore two types of life arose on Earth - plant and animal. Investigating the waste products of cells of plant and animal origin, the scientist came to the conclusion that plant cells exist due to the processes of photosynthesis, and animal cells exist due to the processes of beta synthesis.

Photosynthesis and beta synthesis are nuclear processes, but with a low energy exchange. Both phenomena are based on the radiant power of heated bodies.

All phenomena in the universe are paired, because everything is a relation. I will give a number of examples.

Plant life provides for the ethereal-gravitational aspect of being, and the beta-synthesis of the animal environment is similar to the electromagnetic aspect.

There are two nutritional systems in the human body - the lymphatic system and the circulatory system.

If the lymphatic system corresponds to the ethereal-gravitational field, then the circulatory system corresponds to the electromagnetic one.

Let us assume that intuition, as God in man and the Light of his Soul, is connected with the ethereal-gravitational influence of the Cosmos and nature. The nature of the rational is revealed in the context of electromagnetic radiation.

We receive these two types of radiation from the Cosmos, after which there should be a return of the received. On the obligation of these bestowals, like "inhalation" and "exhalation", everything in the Universe is built, which is an organism as complex as ours, the human one.

According to A. Bergson, there are only two types of movement in the world. The first is a falling like a self-opening scroll, and the second, opposite to the first, is the movement of ascent. But this is only a general and therefore somewhat simplified scheme.

In fact, the inertia of the vertical fall is opposed by the horizontal movement. This happens because the energy message given to us by the Sun, falling into a dense medium for it, immediately begins to experience its resistance, and due to the ongoing energy mutation, falls under the control of the Earth's electromagnetic influences, which begin to stretch the "falling vertical" into the "horizontal" ".

Here, at the level of our spatial-intellectual representations, a "cross" appears. Thus, apparently, its forgotten esoteric meaning is revealed.

The horizontal can go into the diagonal of spiritual ascent. If this does not happen, then it flattens into a circle.

The movement of the "fall-scroll" is an ethereal-gravitational wave, and the flattened movement - the "horizontal" by its nature corresponds to an electromagnetic wave. Precisely because there is no momentary return of the energy of the Sun, there is an accumulation of energy, which from the "snowball" of all the planetary energy received are condensed in its core.

According to the composition of its core, the Earth is a superdense magnetogravitational phenomenon. It can change its energy status only if it goes into an expanding spiral, that is, into lighter and ultralight planetary layers.

The movement of the "fall" is not accompanied by a momentary return of the "ascent", which is why it is necessary to make great efforts to replenish the light message of the Spiritual creative forces.

One of the aspects of "bestowal" is worked out by a person as he realizes his spiritual ascent.

Recoil can be of different density and intensity. Its greatest concentration is possible as a result of the accumulation of "light" potential in the human body. But in this case, its structure and energy indicators should be clearly presented. (The structure of the human body was described in detail in reports at conferences and lectures by the founder of the Russian School of Yoga, G.G. Statsenko).

The structure of the human body is determined by eight energy shells, of which only one is visible - this is the physical body. It is replaced by the ethereal body, which, in its outline, with some large-scale increase, repeats the physical body we see. It is followed by the astral body, which is responsible for the emotional world of a person, and the mental body, associated with mental images.

The following four bodies will be defined as the world of our soul. Their "first floor" represents Buddhi. They contain experience, skill and skill. The next "two floors" are occupied by Samadhi. Siddhis are stored here in the form of the most diverse set of talents, including clairvoyance, clairaudience, etc. The Atman, or Universal Soul, completes the overall construction.

If each energy field bears the seal of the individuality of its owner, then the Atman is impersonal. It can be represented as a "fragment" of a single Divine monad, from which the world of the Universe was born.

The general "construction" of the human body is quite reminiscent of a series of "matryoshka in a matryoshka". Isn't this the esoteric meaning they conveyed to us?

I would like to draw your attention to the fact that Samadhis carry common properties developed in all previous incarnations. Compared to the Buddhas, they occupy two whole floors.

If we take into account that in Buddhi skills are assimilated, brought to a certain automatism of instinctiveness, then Samadhi is freed from a touch of reflex automatism and represents a sphere, as it were, of pure intuition.

By itself, the reflex automatism of Buddhi bears echoes of the intellect, but does not merge with it.

The main thing is that between Samadhi and Buddhi there is a certain ratio of the order "more-less", and the point of their separation, in my opinion, is the "golden section".

So, in its higher spheres, human nature provides for the installation of the supremacy of the intuitive and the subordination of the rational. Isn't such a "layout" an ideal model of human thinking?

Let us now try to present a general "picture" of the structure of a person from the point of view of the energy characteristics of each plane of his beingness.

Our ethereal, mental body and the Universal Soul (Atman) entirely correspond to the nature of ethereal-gravitational radiation. Both pairs of energies are present in Buddhi and Samadhi. True, in Samadhi they are assembled in a "cross" combination, like electrogravitational and ethereal-magnetic waves.

Only the astral body is represented by the electromagnetic field.

It is not difficult to find a common root in the phenomena of the energetic order.

It is known that the ether, being an aspect of the subtle plane, is interpreted in esotericism as the right variant of earthly electricity.

It can be assumed that the gravitational wave is paired with the movement of the ether in space. Moreover, on the cosmic plane, the ethereal-gravitational wave is similar to the electromagnetic wave of the earthly plane.

Ether, like light, consists of photons, which are characterized by dualism. In some cases, the photon behaves like a material particle, in others - like an electromagnetic wave. Moreover, the micro-particle itself is neither one nor the other. It only looks like a wave or a particle in this or that experiment.

The quarks of the ethereal wave do not differ in dualism and behave like an electromagnetic wave on the subtle plane.

The genetic relationship of the two types of waves is obvious. The electromagnetic wave model is similar to the ethereal-gravitational one. The core of an electromagnetic wave is electricity, and the spiral moving according to the principle of a torus is a magnetic wave. The core of the ethereal-gravitational wave is the ether, and the gravitational wave becomes a spiral moving according to the torus principle.

If we imagine a bagel, then the electromagnetic wave moves on it along the torus itself, and the ethereal-gravitational wave - along the "worm holes". The ethereal-gravitational wave is distinguished by a lower density, hence its all-permeability.

It can be assumed that the movement along the "wormholes" from the side of the electromagnetic wave provides for complete release from the inertia of the magnetic field. On the earthly plane, both pairs of fields rarely exist without each other.

It is not difficult to understand that the nature of radiation consists in the invasion of two energy pairs in the "cross" combination from the level of Samadhi in the "lower" floor of the human body, which leads to an energy imbalance of all or many systems in the body, depending on the measure of rational influence.

But back to the nature of the intuitive. To understand it, I had to talk about the "house" in which a person lives. In ancient esoteric sources, its device varies. In the upper planes, the spiritual soul is sometimes structurally generalized into one "floor", but at the same time "Prana" and "Prana conductor" stand out.

I propose to look at prana as an ethereal-gravitational flow that connects the daily needs of a person with the "upper" planes of his beingness, and especially with the Atman.

If the intellect works on the principle of "selection" and "structuring", subject to all kinds of goal-setting, then intuition, being not closed by momentary tasks, is open to the boundless sea of ​​its potentialities: from Buddhi to Samadhi and Atman. In a word, intuition is open to Eternity.

There is a certain proportional correlation in the dialogue between the rational and the intuitive. Intuition is inexhaustible in its energy openness to the Universe, rationality, on the contrary, is flattened by factors of a concrete historical order. For their productive community, it is precisely the principle of the "golden section" that must be observed, which will save the Human from the rigid pragmatics of their needs and allow the voice of all living beings to be heard.

Bibliography

For the preparation of this work, materials from the site http://www.superidea.ru/ were used.

The organic, inextricable link between thinking and language clearly reveals the social, socio-historical essence of human thinking. Knowledge necessarily presupposes the continuity of all knowledge acquired in the course of human history. This historical continuity of knowledge is possible only if they are fixed, consolidated, preserved and transferred from one person to another, from generation to generation. Such a fixation of all the main results of cognition is carried out with the help of language - in books, magazines, etc. In all this, the social nature of human thinking is very revealing. The mental development of a person necessarily takes place in the process of assimilation of knowledge developed by mankind in the course of socio-historical development. The process of cognition of the world by an individual is conditioned, mediated by the historical development of scientific knowledge, the results of which each individual masters in the course of training; it is like a communication between man and mankind.

During the entire period of schooling, a ready-made, established, well-known system of knowledge, concepts, etc., discovered and developed by mankind in the course of all previous history, appears before the child. But what is known to humanity and is not new to it, inevitably turns out to be initially unknown and new for every child. Therefore, the assimilation of the entire historically accumulated wealth of knowledge requires from the child great efforts of thinking, serious creative work, although he masters a ready-made system of concepts, and masters it under the guidance of adults. Consequently, the fact that children assimilate knowledge already known to mankind and do it with the help of adults does not exclude, but, on the contrary, implies the need for independent thinking in the children themselves. Otherwise, the assimilation of knowledge will be purely formal, superficial, thoughtless, mechanical. Thus, mental activity is a necessary basis both for the assimilation of knowledge (for example, by children) and for the acquisition of completely new knowledge (primarily by scientists) in the course of the historical development of mankind.

Motivation of thinking.

Thinking activity, like any other activity, is always caused by some kind of human needs. If there are no needs, then there is no activity that they could cause.

Studying thinking, like any other mental process, psychological science takes into account and, to one degree or another, specifically investigates:

Needs and motives that make a person engage in mental activity;

Specific circumstances in which a person needs analysis, synthesis, etc.

The motives of thinking studied in psychology are of two types: 1) specific cognitive and 2) non-specific.

In the first case, the motivators and driving forces of mental activity are the interests and motives in which cognitive needs are manifested (curiosity, craving for knowledge, etc.).

In the second case, thinking begins under the influence of more or less external causes, and not purely cognitive interests.

For example, a student may start preparing lessons, solving a problem, thinking about it not out of a desire to learn and discover something new, but only because he is afraid to fall behind his comrades, etc. But whatever the initial motivation of thinking, as it is carried out, proper cognitive motives begin to act. It often happens that a student sits down to study lessons only when forced by adults, but in the process of learning he also develops purely cognitive interests in what he does, reads, and decides.

Thus, a person begins to think under the influence of certain needs, and in the course of his mental activity, ever deeper and stronger cognitive needs arise and develop.

Learning and development of thinking run parallel and mutually stimulate each other. Thus, the transition of a child from objective thinking to visual-figurative helps to expand his horizons. At the same time, this transition becomes possible largely due to training.

The development of thinking and learning begins long before a child enters school. At first, learning takes place in communication with adults, then gaming activities are connected. By the beginning of school age, the thinking and all mental development of the child reaches a fairly high level. A first grader is already well versed in the world around him, knows how to guess riddles, solve problems, can quite coherently express his opinion about various events, knows how to draw, sculpt, design, etc. Thanks to learning activities, there is a transition from visual-figurative thinking to verbal-logical , conceptual thinking. This entails a radical restructuring of all other mental processes. The transition to verbal-logical thinking is associated with a change in the content of thinking, which is based on the operation of concepts. The child no longer operates with concrete representations that have a visual basis and reflect the external features of objects, but with concepts that reflect the most essential properties of objects and phenomena and the relationship between them. This new content of thinking is stimulated by learning. The main stimulating effect of learning is the ability to carry out operations that are the reverse of those performed, that is, the child masters the principle of conservation. So, he understands that a liquid poured into another glass will not change its volume. At the same stage in the development of thinking, under the influence of training, children come to understand the two most important logical principles:

the principle of equivalence, according to which: if A=B, and B=C, then A=C;

the principle that objects have several measurable characteristics, such as weight and size, which can be in various ratios: a pebble is small and light, a balloon is large but still light, and a car is large and heavy.

Education also contributes to the emergence of such new formations of mental activity as:

Analysis, the folding of which begins with the selection of various properties and features in objects and phenomena. As children develop, expand their horizons and get acquainted with various aspects of reality and special education, this ability is increasingly being improved. To develop this skill, the method of comparing this object with others with different properties is used. The practical use of this technique by the child himself leads to its consolidation. At the next stage of learning, the child is asked to highlight the properties of the object without comparison with other observed objects. Gradually, in the learning process, the concept of general and distinctive (private), essential and non-essential features is introduced;

The formation of an internal action plan begins with a practical action with objects, then with its image, diagram, after which the stage of performing the initial action in terms of “loud speech” follows, then it becomes sufficient to pronounce this action “to oneself” and, finally, at the final stage, the action fully assimilated and becomes an action "in the mind";

New forms of thinking that arise at school age become the basis for further learning. Thus, the process of development of thinking and learning complement and stimulate each other.

In order to live and survive, a person never has enough information. Sensation and perception give us a lot of information and knowledge. These processes make it possible to superficially learn about single objects and phenomena around the individual. But this is not enough, such knowledge and information cannot be considered sufficient.

A person is not a stone or a tree; for a normal life, he needs to foresee the consequences of certain phenomena, events or his actions. In order to foresee the possible development of events, it is necessary to understand these events, that is, to compose in your head a more or less working model of an object or phenomenon. Knowledge of the individual is not a sufficient basis for foresight.

Our own experience can show us that all mushrooms in the forest are edible. And having eaten a poisonous mushroom, we may never know that poisonous mushrooms exist in the world. And if we first learn from other people that there are poisonous mushrooms and that they look a certain way, we have at least two images (models) in our head: the image of an edible mushroom and the image of a poisonous mushroom. Already in this, in the formation of new images-models, the work of thinking consists. Having met a suspicious mushroom in the forest and critically examined it, we again use our thinking.

Thinking is a very complex and heterogeneous process in which almost our entire brain is involved. And Isaac Newton, who understands and formulates physical laws, and a schoolboy who memorizes a poem, and even a music lover who listens to another hit - they all actively involve thinking.

You can often hear naive arguments that schoolchildren should not be forced to "cram". This, allegedly, does not contribute to the development of intelligence. Such people think that "cramming" is a very simple process, like spinning a vinyl record or downloading certain files from the Internet to your computer. Another thing is that in "cramming" mainly visual thinking is involved, and for the full development of the intellect, one must have extensive experience in abstract-logical reasoning.

The capabilities of the brain are finite and very limited, although the idea, which came from the 1960s, that we use only a few percent of our capabilities, is still popular. The brain and thinking simply could not manage to model all the surrounding objects and phenomena separately. One of the biggest tricks of nature is that it has taught our brain to isolate similar objects and phenomena from the environment and model them not individually, but "in a crowd". When we hear the word "stone", we imagine not a specific stone, but a certain class of stones. This stone class may have subclasses, such as "grey stone". In general, our entire picture (model) of the world is a tree of such concepts.

The ability to generalize similar objects and phenomena made it possible to effectively use the brain, and also gave the ability to anticipate the behavior of objects that had not yet been encountered. Having met, for example, a new person on the street, we are not afraid, we do not freeze in surprise, we generally do not pay much attention to a new person, because we had a huge experience of interacting with other people, the “Man” model (well, or “Countryman Man” ) we have formed very well, we know what to expect from new acquaintances.

Thinking is largely occupied with precisely this - the transition from the individual to the general and from the general again to the individual. Thinking is referred in general psychology to the highest cognitive mental processes. It deserves such a place also because it constantly generates new knowledge, even such that no one before us possessed. At the exit from thinking, we have new knowledge, but what is at the entrance? At the input - information from the surrounding world, visual or contained in memory, as well as already existing knowledge.

The work of thinking takes place in very close coupling with the work of perception. It is far from always obvious where perception ends and thinking begins. Although, it must be admitted, these two processes have very different tasks: for perception, the task is to “delay the moment”, and for thinking, as already mentioned, it is to generate new knowledge. Perception in some way makes life easier for itself by structuring visual or auditory images, discarding the superfluous. Perception supplies thinking with the current image-structure. Thinking through the mechanisms of attention also affects perception.

An important task that thinking solves is indirect cognition of objective reality. The essence of indirect cognition lies in the fact that we are able to make judgments about the properties or characteristics of objects and phenomena without direct contact with them, but by analyzing indirect information. To find out what the weather is like today, you can go outside and find out directly with your senses. However, you can do otherwise: you can use a thermometer, a home weather station, look at the current state of the weather on the Internet, or call a friend who has already been outside. The work of thinking here lies in which method to choose, and in how to interpret the information received, and in self-criticism, not to mention what pragmatic conclusions we will get in the end.

Mediated thinking usually does not distort the reality around us, it allows us to know it deeper, more accurately and more fully through the formation of new knowledge. So, generalization makes it possible to reveal not only the essential properties of the things around us, but also the main regular connections of objects and phenomena. In addition, the mediated nature of thinking gives us the opportunity not only to deepen the information we have, but also to expand it, since the area of ​​thinking is wider than the area of ​​what we perceive.

However, it must be recognized that there is false knowledge. This knowledge we could draw from communication, books or the Internet, this false knowledge can be the fruit of our own reflections. Therefore, mediated thinking often distorts the reality around us, and distorts it very much. There are also illusory knowledge. This knowledge, generated by the shortcomings of our perception, also limits us in understanding reality. Most motorists, for example, believe that the stopping distance of a car is proportional to its speed. This misconception is caused by the fact that we perceive the speed of objects well, but we do not perceive and therefore have a poor understanding of acceleration (positive or negative). In fact, the stopping distance is proportional to the square of the speed of the car.

Without going beyond the limits of sensory perception, we cannot even understand what “some white fragments on the kitchen floor” looked like a minute ago or what caused the car accident. But, relying on sensory perception, supported by thinking, we are able to know the past of the Earth, the development of the plant and animal world, to find out the structure of stars in a distant galaxy. We are able to predict even the future of the Earth with a certain degree of certainty. Thus, in the process of thinking, we learn something that is generally inaccessible to perception and representation.

It is important to distinguish between the concepts of "reason" and "thinking". Thinking is a mental cognitive process. Under the mind, rather, they understand the ability of a person to act flexibly, difficultly, unpredictably for others. A tree, devoid of reason, stands in one place and "hopes" that the rain will pour the earth around, and other trees will not obscure the sun. If a tree were sentient, it would walk in search of moist soil, move away from large neighbors, or even attack other trees. Thinking is usually considered only as a tool that helps a person to solve complex problems, to achieve goals.

The process of thinking begins to manifest itself most clearly only when a problem situation arises that needs to be solved (that is, in one way or another, a task is set before thinking). Thinking always begins with a question, the answer to which is the goal of thinking. Moreover, the answer to this question is not found immediately, but with the help of certain mental operations, during which the modification and transformation of the available information takes place.

A difficult theoretical problem is whether thinking is a completely rational and purposeful process, or whether it is associative and unpredictable in its conclusions. A. A. Smirnov warns of the need to distinguish between thinking and the associative flow of intellectual processes. In mental activity, we widely use associations, since they provide very significant assistance in solving mental problems. A characteristic case - we recall from past experience cases similar to the one we are facing now and which is the essence of the problem. Involuntarily or arbitrarily, associations arise that are used to solve our mental problem. Some associations do not take us away from it, but bring us closer to the answer, some - on the contrary.

Associations are woven into a common chain, and each of the associations serves as a step for the next association or the following conclusion. Consequently, the associations that we use in the process of thinking are controlled by our will, and their reproduction is carried out for a specific purpose. But this is in the case of "ordinary" - one might say, logical - thinking.

With the associative flow of intellectual processes, the situation is different. We do not set ourselves any goal, because we do not solve any problem. In this case, one process is replaced by another only because it is associated with it formally associatively. Depending on what associations are made, thoughts and ideas can go in a variety of directions, including those leading away from the starting point. An example (rather crude) of the associative flow of intellectual processes is the reasoning: "The hare is white - he can jump - the snowman is white - he can jump."

The associative flow of thoughts is characterized by the presence of chains of images. The logical flow of thoughts is built around speech - the core of logical thought. One of the advantages of speech is that it allows you to reflect well on your own course of thought, to return to your previous thoughts. The associative flow of thoughts is devoid of this dignity, it is usually impossible to remember why this or that association arose. This is possible, of course, if this association is accompanied by verbal reflection. And then you can go back along this verbal chain. It is speech that endows our thinking with the capacity for self-criticism - without which the process of thinking would be quite primitive.

The inextricable link between logical thinking and speech is observed in all people, even if a person was born deaf and dumb and has never heard a living word in his life. We always think in words and simply cannot think without uttering the word (at least to ourselves). Experiments have shown that during a person's thinking, special devices register muscle contractions that are characteristic of ordinary "speech aloud." Thinking to ourselves, in this way, we, as it were, also speak out loud, only very quietly.

Thinking is a mediated and generalized reflection of reality in its essential connections and relationships; a type of mental activity, which consists in knowing the essence of things and phenomena, regular connections and relationships between them.

The first feature of thinking is its indirect character. What a person cannot know directly, directly, he knows indirectly, i.e. indirectly: some properties through others, the unknown through the known. A person resorts to mediated cognition in the following cases:

Direct knowledge is impossible because of our analyzers (for example, we do not have analyzers to capture X-rays);

Direct knowledge is in principle possible, but impossible under the given conditions;

Direct knowledge is possible, but not rational.

The second feature of thinking is its generalization. Generalization as knowledge of the general and essential in the objects of reality is possible because all the properties of these objects are connected with each other. The generalized reflection of reality, which is thinking, is the result of processing not only the experience of an individual and his contemporaries, but also previous generations.

Thinking acts mainly as a solution to problems, questions, problems that are constantly put forward before people by life. Solving problems should always give a person something new, new knowledge. The search for solutions is sometimes very difficult, so mental activity, as a rule, is an active activity that requires focused attention and patience. The real process of thought is always a process not only cognitive, but also emotional-volitional.

The objective material form of thinking is language. A thought becomes a thought both for oneself and for others only through the word - oral and written. Thanks to the language, people's thoughts are not lost, but are transmitted in the form of a system of knowledge from generation to generation. However, there are additional means of transmitting the results of thinking: light and sound signals, electrical impulses, gestures, etc. Putting on a verbal form, a thought is also formed and realized in the process of speech. The movement of thought, its refinement, the connection of thoughts with each other, and so on, occur only through speech activity.

The physiological basis of thinking is the reflex activity of the brain, those temporary nerve connections that are formed in the cerebral cortex. These connections arise under the influence of the signals of the second system (speech), reflecting reality, but with the obligatory reliance on the signals of the first system (sensation, perception, representation). In the process of thinking, both systems are closely related to each other. The second signal system is based on the first and determines the continuous connection of a generalized reflection of reality, which is thinking, with sensory knowledge of the objective world through sensations, perceptions, ideas.

Thinking is also inextricably linked with the practical activities of people. Any type of activity involves thinking, taking into account the conditions of action, planning, observation. By acting, a person solves any problems. Practical activity is the main condition for the emergence and development of thinking, as well as a criterion for the truth of thinking.

Depending on what place the word, image and action occupy in the thought process, how they relate to each other, there are three types of thinking:

concretely effective,

concrete-shaped,

Abstract.

These types of thinking are also distinguished on the basis of the characteristics of the tasks - practical and theoretical.

Specifically effective thinking (practical) is aimed at solving specific problems in the conditions of production, constructive, organizational and other practical activities of people. Practical thinking is, first of all, technical, constructive thinking. It consists in the understanding of technology and in the ability of a person to independently solve technical problems. The process of technical activity is the process of interaction between mental and practical components of work. Complex operations of abstract thinking are intertwined with the practical actions of a person, inextricably linked with them. The characteristic features of concrete-effective thinking are pronounced observation, attention to details, particulars and the ability to use them in a specific situation, operating with spatial images and schemes, the ability to quickly move from thinking to action and vice versa. It is in this kind of thinking that the unity of thought and will is manifested to the greatest extent.

Concrete-figurative (artistic) thinking is characterized by the fact that a person embodies abstract thoughts, generalizations into concrete images.

Abstract (verbal-logical) thinking is mainly aimed at finding common patterns in nature and human society. Within this type, the following types of thinking are distinguished: theoretical, practical, productive, reproductive, involuntary and arbitrary.

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