Does man continue to evolve, and what physiological changes may threaten us in the future? Classification and types of labor activity
Rosmen, 2005. - 110 p.
ISBN 5-353-02144-4
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In physiological terms, these people tend to suffer from connective tissue diseases. They may have difficulty transporting oxygen and nutrients, as well as problems with cleansing, leading to fluid retention (edema) or toxic tissue damage. These problems are reminiscent of those raised in the description of people of the lymphatic type. Connective tissue deficiency can also lead to organ dysfunction.
People of the receptive type need to take care of themselves, and, as a rule, they are well aware of this. Receptivity is the key to working with these open people. They take the advice given to them very seriously, and audiotapes and other self-development materials, music, and singing can be used in their treatment.
44 Structural types
How should people with a constitution of a receptive type live?
Irises that fully correspond to the receptive type are quite rare, and people of this type have varying degrees of openness. They are quite capable of living in harmony with their constitution. This constitution is found most often in people of the lymphatic type, which has a tendency to retain due to slow clearance. Therefore, you should also refer to what has been said about the lymphatic type of the iris.
NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS Fresh produce. Eat more fruits and vegetables that are rich in essential nutrients such as vitamins, especially those that are high in vitamin C, minerals, trace elements, and antioxidants. For this, oranges, black currants, strawberries, potatoes, brussels sprouts, broccoli, leafy vegetables, green peppers and parsley.
Detoxification. Eat foods that help kill germs. These are fresh fruits and vegetables that are high in vitamin C, antioxidants, and fluids. In addition, all red fruits and berries (blackberries, raspberries, red currants, blueberries and cranberries), as well as fruit and vegetable juices, are ideal. The process of squeezing the juice allows you to extract the maximum amount of minerals and vitamins from the processed products. You can also certainly benefit from "superfoods" such as spirulina, chlorella, and alfalfa (see p. 123).
HEALTHY LIFESTYLE Relax and regenerate. People of the receptive type have less vitality than others and should not be placed in too difficult a position. If you are this type, make sure you give yourself enough time to relax and recover. Make sure your lifestyle
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SUPPORT EXERCISES
Calm forms of exercise such as yoga should be used to develop strength. The best form of aerobic exercise is swimming. Practice calm walking.
did not require too much energy from you. Learn to appreciate the pace of your life and find ways to relax.
Avoid strenuous exercise. Given the sensitivity of connective tissues, it would be unwise to engage in physical exercise that requires great effort; in addition, you are very prone to cartilage and joint problems, displacement of internal organs and early development of arthritis.
USEFUL MEDICINAL PLANTS
A number of medicinal plants can be used as teas or tinctures. US. 116-117 provide recommendations for the preparation of herbal drinks.
Means that stimulate and protect the immune system. Use echinacea, elderberry, elecampane, eucalyptus, garlic, Chinese magnolia vine, baptisia dye, and bird cherry.
Means that increase the supply of vitality. Take astragalus, Siberian ginseng, borage, wild oats, and gotu kola.
Detoxifying agents. Detox gradually, using diet as the basis. Use local medicinal plants such as dandelion, nettle, clover, sorrel, and burdock.
How should people with a constitution of a receptive type 45 live?
SELF-PROTECTIVE IRIS TYPE
The self-protective type is comparable to the highly resistant mud type, since both have a dense iris structure. They are able to create highly effective defenses, often physical ones, that allow them to concentrate and block out unwanted sensations.
Like representatives of the highly resilient type, these people belong to the kinesthetic category and are "creators". They can often be found among the best representatives of those professions that demonstrate a calm, rational behavior that inspires confidence in others. Characteristic features of the iris in self-protective individuals are contraction sulci (at least three or four concentric grooves on the iris) and radial sulci. The latter can be large - deep depressions that radiate outward from the pupil border, cutting through the autonomous ring, into the ciliary zone - or small - smaller and less deep, which originate on the autonomous ring.
22 answers
All living things are constantly evolving. This is an ongoing process. It is difficult to talk about human evolution, because the pressure of natural selection in civilized countries is rather low, and the dynamics of populations is ambiguous. However, some interesting trends are associated with the discovery of the role of microflora in human physiology.
The modern position suggests that the human body is part of a superorganism, which is a symbiosis of bacteria, viruses and humans. It's not just another philosophical theory. There is some overlap here with Dawkins' Extended Phenotype. Our organisms are so closely interconnected that there are common vital metabolic pathways. In simple terms, we cannot live without them, they cannot live without us. Not that it will be bad there, no, we can’t at all. The only way is death.
From this point of view, the evolution of man as a superorganism is a rather interesting question. The bacteria within us have evolved the ability to utilize new compounds that have been invented by man. Thanks to the evolution of the superorganism, we are resistant to many negative factors that did not exist at the dawn of mankind. Also, new bacteria and viruses appeared that primitive man did not meet and they are a product of joint evolution. Our immune system does not adequately respond to the excessive purity of the modern world and I believe in the future we will be able to adapt to this. The bacteria inside us adapt to our drugs and what will happen next is difficult to predict.
The world is much more complicated than it seems and human evolution can be viewed from several sides, classically we are used to talking about limbs and the brain, but there is no selection pressure on their changes, on the contrary, we adapt our environment to our body. But the microcosm is not yet subject to us and continues to live according to its own laws. And the close relationship of our organism with them gives us the right to talk about them as part of the whole organism, which we used to call "man".
Comment
Of course it continues. For example, 7,000 years ago, none of us could digest lactose. Now billions of people (but still not all) can enjoy milk, cheese and ice cream without any stomach problems. Lactose is best absorbed by the inhabitants of Europe and Africa, because it was there that several thousand years ago cows and other animals that give milk began to appear on farms.
Now evolution is working in the direction of fighting diseases: if a few thousand years ago, saber-toothed cats were the most dangerous predators for humans, today they are tiny microbes. In modern history, epidemics have killed millions of people, and this leaves an imprint on our genes.
There are even more recent examples of human evolution. More recently, scientists from Boston University have made public their observations, which have been made since 1948 for 60 years, and even in this short period they have noticed an example of evolution. For example, in women, menopause began to occur later over the years, that is, the reproductive period becomes longer, this is advantageous from the point of view of evolution.
Fed. The point is that earlier the lactase gene was deactivated with growing up and a person lost the ability to digest lactose. Humanity does not yet have data on the entire population, but according to the available data, at least 2 billion people (mainly residents of Southeast Asia) have not become lactose intolerant and are practically unable to consume dairy products after breastfeeding without the risk of poisoning.
To answer
CommentYes. The first thing to do is to explain how evolution works. Sometimes, some individual has a mutation, useful or not. If the mutation is beneficial (such as a camouflage color) to that environment, then the offspring of an individual with that mutation will spread more and more, while individuals without that beneficial mutation will gradually disappear. Individuals with harmful mutations simply die out, clearing the gene pool.
Now the conditions for evolution have become worse: due to the development of medicine, natural selection is less efficient than it was 200 years ago. In this regard, mutations, for example, useless ones, do not disappear through natural selection.
Evolution is a very long thing, since mutations (especially useful ones) do not happen often, and it becomes difficult to notice any changes, due to our short life.
The point here is not in specific mutations, but in the fact, for example, that very premature babies, who would have died even a hundred years ago, are now being nursed and have to multiply, passing on their weak genotype further. The same is true of children with poor health, who a century ago would have died from banal pneumonia. Etc.
To answer
Comment
Yes, but not enough for non-specialists to notice. The DNA of human cells is constantly subject to mutations. On average, a child carries about 60 differences from its parents in its genome. The older the father at the time of conception, the more differences there will be (about 75% of new mutations occur in those chromosomes that were inherited from the father). Fortunately, most of these mutations do not affect human life and health in any way. However, sometimes deleterious mutations occur that lead to genetic diseases (eg, hemophilia). It is more difficult for people with such genes to survive and leave offspring, their genes are rejected by selection. And it is very rare that a mutation happens that not only does not interfere with life, but, on the contrary, helps. One of the most recent of these occurred about 7,500 years ago in an area somewhere from Hungary to Turkey. An unknown person had an error in the LCT gene. With the normal operation of this gene, from the age of 4-5 years, the body ceases to produce an enzyme that breaks down lactose. That is, milk ceases to be absorbed by maturing people. However, this "mutant" could be saturated with milk all his life, since the gene that "turned off" the digestion of milk broke down in him or her. Such is the superpower. The mutation turned out to be very useful, today about 30% of humanity can absorb milk in adulthood. And this is for 7500 years! As you can see, beneficial mutations are very rare.
Yes. Being biological objects, we obey all the same laws of this reality, including evolutionary ones. If it seems to you that evolution has stopped, it's because they happen rather slowly. Evolution does not have an ultimate goal to achieve some kind of perfection, the main thing is survival, and environmental conditions are constantly changing ..
Therefore, the question "Where else to evolve?" should not arise.
Examples..
Some inhabitants of tropical countries have developed a high resistance to malaria, which is not uncommon in those places. True, this resistance has a harsh downside - they are carriers of genes for another deadly disease, sickle cell anemia.
You can also remember lactose intolerance, which several thousand years ago (as DNA tests showed) was much more common than it is now. This is due to the fact that then they used mainly cottage cheese and cheese, poor in milk sugar.
In general, a person as a species is also changing. And scientists make various predictions about how people will change under the influence of the built environment.
This is an illustration from the Soviet "Book for reading on human anatomy, physiology and hygiene" (1978) (with which, apparently, the authors of the book do not agree at all)
Apparently, the author of this drawing believed that people would be a little smarter than they are now, but why there are only three fingers, where the ribs are, is not clear .. :)
But other scientists believe that the memory of a person of the future will be worse, because. Devices and so everyone knows.
Maybe someday we will learn to control all these processes. In any case, a little more intelligence to solve many pressing problems would not hurt ..
Time will show.
(As always, I really hope that knowledgeable people will add more examples)
Not the easiest question, given that the rate of evolutionary change depends on the frequency of generational change, and taking this indicator into account, humanity is very young (only a thousand generations have changed since the Paleolithic, and the same number is replaced in Drosophila in a few years). But some evolutionary changes still manage to be fixed. So the volume of the human brain since the same Upper Paleolithic has decreased by about 5% (from 1500 cubic centimeters in adult men to 1425 in our time).
It is indisputable, however, that social changes have significantly weakened the influence of biological factors, and the development of genetic engineering is completely capable of reducing it to zero.
Evolution cannot end, since it is just a change in the frequency of occurrence of alleles (gene variants) in the gene pool.
You meet a partner and exchange genetic material by mutual agreement, you have children - this is evolution. You can stand in a very pretentious pose and say: "each child is a new step in evolution", and in general, not go far from the truth. By choosing who and with whom we exchange genes, we can influence evolution, this is called "selection". This is how new varieties of plants, new breeds of animals are obtained. In principle, you can do the same with a person, but this is considered unethical, for obvious reasons.
What a person will look like in the future is hard to say. Genetic engineering is developing rapidly now, so transgenic people are literally on the horizon. Of course, everything will start with the removal and correction of dangerous alleles that give rise to terrible genetic diseases, but no one can guarantee that in 100-150 years the frequency of alleles in the human population will not be controlled by complex computer algorithms in order to diversify the gene pool as much as possible and at the same time reduce minimize genetic diseases. This will break, of course, all natural models known to us, so predicting anything is a dead number.
Somehow, the American scientist and popularizer of science Michio Kaku was asked this question. I will quote his answer below.
...the deadly battle for survival that made us human for humanity is over. Let's say once, when we lived in the forests, natural selection played a key role, thanks to which we got a big brain, learned to use tools, run and navigate the terrain. Everything to survive in the forest. Selection played a key role, because those unadapted to life in the forest died and their genes did not reach us.But what role does evolution play in our lives today? Firstly, the Australian factor does not work in the modern world. At one time in Australia, which separated from other continents, evolution went its own way and in a short time created many new life forms. In today's world, this is no longer possible. After all, now we have jet aircraft, with which all corners of the planet are available to us, where you can find your half and have children, continuing your genes on the other side of the Earth. There are no more isolated places like Australia that could have given impetus to human evolution.
But this does not mean that evolution has stopped. When two people conceive a child, that is also evolution. It is driven by our immune system and metabolism. I mean, it didn't stop. But evolution for survival, which will turn us into big-eyed creatures with a huge bald head on a tiny body, such evolution, radically speaking, has ended altogether.However, we still have genetic engineering in reserve, but we will master it decades later. Now we can manipulate only at the level of individual genes. This is a very labor intensive process. Let's say you can't create a winged pig with it, because it would require the manipulation of thousands of genes, which modern technology does not allow.
Quite interestingly and in detail, one of the versions is described by the Strugatskys in the novel "The Waves Extinguish the Wind". I don't know if they themselves knew this, but this theory fits perfectly with the concept of the French mystic of the 18th century. Louis-Claude de Saint-Martin, one of the founders of the Martinist order.
Any Reason... in the process of evolution of the first order goes from the state of maximum separation... to the state of unification... This process is controlled by biological, biosocial and specifically social laws... We discover only two real, fundamentally different possibilities for Reason. Or stop, complacency, locking in on yourself, loss of interest in the physical world. Or entering the path of evolution of the second order, the path of evolution planned and controlled, the path to the Monocosm... Synthesis of Minds is inevitable... A new metabolism arises, and, as a result of it, life and health become practically eternal. The age of an individual becomes comparable with the age of cosmic objects - in the complete absence of the accumulation of mental fatigue ... And all this with a continuous, insatiable sensory hunger. Each new individual emerges as a work of syncretic art: it is created by physiologists, geneticists, engineers, psychologists, aestheticians, educators and philosophers.
And this is Saint Martin:
If man, in his ordinary fallen state, is nevertheless capable of discerning in himself a principle which is above his sensible and corporeal nature, why cannot this principle be recognized in the sensible universe as being separate from it and above it, directed specifically into it, to manage it? In every possible way rushing to his development and the development of his neighbors, the improvement of their souls and minds, will not man meet the future not as a wanderer in solitude, but as one of the universal human race, universal unity? It is not given to us to know whether his organism itself will change, for the Principles that compose it have remained unchanged until now, but in their very nature there are roots that stretch shoots into the most distant future. With a single building material, will the buildings erected now, in the past and in the future be uniform? This is doubtful, and the future man will also be provided with new properties, folded from the same Beginnings. And new doors to perfection will be opened before him, but only in the totality of his single universal mind and common universal body.
On the one hand, the evolution of man in the understanding of Darwin slowed down, as Mikhail noted about natural selection. But at the same time, a huge number of changes are accumulating in the human genotype, albeit not always useful, leading to death under normal conditions of natural selection. This mutation base is an excellent material for evolution, if the conditions of human existence suddenly change. For example, a major pandemic of a deadly contagious disease will not wipe out humanity to its roots, there will certainly be individuals resistant to the disease, and the human race will continue.
As for the evolutionary changes in man, there are some that are already noticeable. For example, an increase in average height, an increase in average IQ, etc. Well, atavisms, such as an appendix or little finger on the legs, hairline on the head of men :)
The increase in IQ is the development of culture, anthropologists have said this a bunch of times, growth is within the normal range of reaction, these are not evolutionary changes. There must be selection pressure, selection pressure towards larger brains and no growth. It is assumed that the changes that you named are associated with changes in living conditions, so it is incorrect to talk about evolution here, the maximum is modification variability.
To answer
Comment
Man is constantly evolving. And in changing the environment, human capabilities are not unlimited. Global problems with the climate are also possible, and simply with the availability of resources, the environment. Who knows what will have to adapt. Everyone knows the problems with viruses, most people get the flu 2 times a year, and this reduces life expectancy with complications. At the same time, 10% of people do not get the flu at all. Isn't it a useful sign?
And here is another interesting article about evolution. Do dark ages await us?
Genes for a good education are weeded out by selection
In modern human populations, the level of education received is highly heritable, that is, it is highly dependent on genes. Dozens of alleles affecting this trait have been identified. At the same time, education, as a rule, negatively correlates with Darwinian fitness: educated people reproduce worse. This points to possible selection against "educational genes". A new study based on data from 110,000 Icelanders born between 1910 and 1975 has found that the "educational genes" are indeed under negative selection. These alleles, many of which are also correlated with increased intelligence, good health, and long life, reduce fitness regardless of whether a person has realized their propensity to receive a good education. The study confirmed fears that the evolution of modern humanity is directed towards the deterioration of the genetic basis of traits associated with intelligence. So far, socio-cultural development more than compensates for genetic degradation, but over time, its consequences may become significant.
Man, like other species, is constantly evolving, we just cannot notice this because tens, hundreds of years mean nothing for evolutionary changes. Environmental conditions change (climate, way of life, etc.), the body also changes, but this can only be noticed in the long term.
It was not the ape that evolved into man, but the ape and man had a common ancestor. Subsequently, through the evolution of different branches, different types of monkeys arose, including humans. If monkeys began to grab sticks indiscriminately, develop and evolve, you would not be able to observe them anywhere on our planet.
And now closer to the question: if we take a person separately and exclusively, then there are two options:
The first is that a person remains the same, through evolution he is not a common ancestor of anyone and develops exclusively within his own species. That is, there will be the development of culture, science, industry, new ways to cross-stitch, and in principle anything, but a person will remain a person.
Well, the second - the species "man" is someone's common ancestor and new subspecies diverge from it. In the end, most likely, only one will remain, because a person is not an animal, he is worse. Who will win the fight, only time will tell.
Personally, I believe that if the climate, the shape of our planet, the distance from the Sun, the composition of the atmosphere, and so many other factors do not change, then the appearance will remain the same, but this is exactly what the first version suggests.
Comment
Evolution is indeed over, because the main mover of this natural process - natural selection - due to the development of medicine, no longer has power over us. Rather, the process of human regression is even possible if we do not artificially improve our genome. Here is what Alexander Markov, who heads the Department of Biological Evolution at Moscow State University, said about this: “There is, indeed, a threat of degeneration, in the sense that, most likely, we now have a rapid accumulation of harmful mutations due to the weakening of the purifying selection for traits associated with health, with resistance to infections, and so on. Now even such sick and weak individuals who would have died in childhood can leave offspring, in general, they would not leave offspring. This means that all sorts of harmful mutations are spreading from the gene pool. There are more and more of them with every generation. If this process is not stopped, then, yes - we will become more and more dependent on medicine, we will be in a certain number of generations, maybe in one, maybe in 100 generations - it’s impossible to say for sure yet - but we will , which is called all my life to work only for doctors. And the intellectual level will decrease, because harmful mutations hit the mind, first of all - these are also reasons that I will not go into now. Everyone will become stupid, and these doctors will also become slowly more and more stupid, in general, such a rather gloomy prospect.
Topic 5. Physiological bases and mechanisms of formation of professional activity.
Psychological mechanisms of activity formation.
Physiological bases of labor processes.
A source: Subbotina L. Yu. Psychological mechanisms of activity formation. /
Activities are carried out using a system of various actions. Action can serve as an element of activity analysis, i.e., the smallest subsystem that retains all the characteristics of the whole and is indivisible into smaller parts. Action is a relatively completed element of activity aimed at achieving a certain, intermediate for the activity as a whole and conscious goal. The action can be both external, performed in an expanded form with the participation of the motor apparatus and sensory organs, and internal, performed internally.
Despite being involved in activity, action is a relatively independent process. A sign of independence is the direction of action to achieve a consciously set goal. In contrast to the actual activity, the action often does not have its own motive, but obeys the general motive of the activity. Relative independence is also expressed in the fact that one action can be included in different activities. At the same time, the main goal of the action is preserved, but only the motivation and meaning for the subject change. In different types of labor, actions differ, but they also have common features:
Expediency (purposefulness);
Adequacy to the current state of the object of labor;
Multi-effect (the ability to perform one action with the help of different muscle groups);
A certain ratio of automatic (fixed) and rebuilding (changeable) components;
Social conditionality of labor actions. Actions are classified:
By type of mental activity (mnemonic, intellectual, perceptual);
According to the degree of awareness (volitional, impulsive);
By belonging to the type of activity (labor, educational, gaming, communication).
There are special classifications of actions of labor activity. According to their goals, they are divided into actions:
indicative- to determine the purpose and conditions of activity, to find out the means and ways to achieve the goals. Orientation actions are of two types - theoretical, which are aimed at obtaining the necessary information to develop a working hypothesis that determines the Purpose, process and result of the activity; practical, which are included in the performance in order to control and evaluate the process of activity and its compliance with the overall goal;
performing - consistently realizing the overall goal of the activity;
corrective- actions of amendments, clarifications, changes, information actions about errors;
final - related to checking the quality of the implementation of all actions at the final stage of activities based on their results.
From the point of view of the psychological analysis of activity and action as an element of analysis, a holistic action has the following structure:
Orientation basis;
Performing part;
control standard.
Accordingly, the criteria for action will be:
Execution level;
Generalization;
Abbreviation;
The degree of development.
No activity is carried out by means of a mechanical sum of actions. For the implementation of any, even the most elementary labor process, actions are combined into a system. Adaptation of activity to a person occurs through the formation of a psychological system of activity. It is thanks to the formation of the system that activity acquires a subjective character. Any professional activity appears to the student in the form of a generalized and consolidated experience and abilities of previous generations. This experience is described in training programs, instructions, algorithms and is transferred to the subject by a professional master. This is the reference version of the activity. What is passed on to the student is normatively approved way of activity - way of performing labor activity, generalized and fixed by instructions. In the process of mastering the activity, the student de-objectifies the normatively approved method of activity and carries out the activity in his own way, as he knows how and in the most convenient way for him. In other words, it turns it into individual way of doing things, due to the individually peculiar nature of taking into account the objective and subjective conditions of activity. In the course of this process, the formation of a psychological system of activity takes place. Further improvement of activity leads to the formation of the subject's personal and professional level of performance of activities, when professionalism becomes "a person's second nature". A stable system of techniques, methods, guidelines, aspirations, levels of achievement in the performance of activities is being formed. This individual style of activity - a system of activity formed on the basis of individual characteristics of the individual. The individual style of activity is a stable and effective adaptation of the individual to reality.
The system-forming factor of activity is the “motive-goal” vector. The main functional blocks are built around it: motives of activity; goals of activity; activity programs; information basis of activity; decision making; professionally important qualities.
The process of formation of the psychological system of activity is called systemogenesis. In the course of system genesis, the component composition of the system is determined, functional relationships are established, and individual components develop.
To assess the effectiveness of labor activity, the following parameters are used: productivity, quality, reliability. The goal and result are evaluated from the side of qualitative and quantitative indicators. The specific way to achieve the goal is way of activity. Each action acts as a subsystem of the general psychological system of activity and can serve as an element of its analysis. The process of mastering individual actions is subject to the general laws of system genesis. The main ones are - heterochrony And irregularity formation of the components of the activity system.
The development of individual actions is uneven. Various actions in the overall structure of activity are formed at a different pace and quality. At a certain stage of mastering the activity, some actions may reach the required professional level, while others lag far behind. There are differences in the intensity of the growth of performance indicators in the development of various actions in the same person. The heterochrony of the development of various actions must be taken into account when modeling and mastering activities. For example, during the development of activities, it is necessary to achieve a certain level of productivity, quality and reliability in general. But in the process of real development, a certain level is first achieved in one indicator and in some group of actions, and then other actions and indicators are pulled up.
Labor activity exists in a chain of actions. However, the practical implementation of activities is associated with specific ways of performing these actions. For example, in the sewing activity, there is an action of attaching a button. It can be done by hand with a needle and thread, machine, machine, glue on a button, etc. All these will be different ways to perform the action of attaching a button to the fabric. The specific way in which an action is performed is called operation. The action is transformed into an operation. The same goal of an action can be achieved under different conditions, so one action is realized by different operations.
Operation - it is the way in which the action is performed. It is determined not by the goal itself, but by the conditions in which the goal is given. An operation is a system of movements that make up an action when subordinated to a specific task. The formation of the operation occurs in stages. The general mechanism for the formation of an operation is:
Generalization of the original action;
Its gradual interiorization;
Automation;
Translation into a more complex action.
Allocate production operation and labor movement. A production operation is the smallest relatively completed part of a technological process, carried out with a single production goal, at one workplace, by one worker or group, using the same type of tools, fixtures and combinations of labor techniques. Manufacturing operations are divided into main(aimed at a given transformation of the object of labor) and auxiliary(providing the conditions for such a transformation).
When studying operations performed by a group of persons, methods of social psychology are used. The data obtained are used in the design of labor activity. Operations are realized through movements. Movement is the concrete execution of operations. They are defined by trajectory, pace, speed and power.
Work (labor) movements are included in the labor process as a way of its implementation. The following groups are distinguished
movements: basic, corrective, additional, emergency, superfluous, erroneous, economical-uneconomical.
With the help of movements, first of all, objective actions are realized. An analysis of numerous objective actions shows that they all consist of three relatively simple movements: take (raise), move, release. In addition, in psychology, it is customary to distinguish other types of movements: speech, somatic, expressive, locomotor, etc.
In all cases, coordination and consistency of movements with each other is necessary. There are three main parameters of labor movements: force, spatial, temporal. As the technique develops, the movements become more and more dosed. Large power movements are divided into smaller ones, up to the appearance of micromovements.
Each working movement, which implements the psychomotor process, has three sides: mechanical, physiological, psychological.
Given the structure of the movement and the need to comply with this structure of the working area, the following are distinguished at workplaces:
Sensory field - elements of the workplace, informationally influencing human analyzers;
Motor field - elements of the working field, on which the worker's motor influence can be directed.
In all cases, coordination of movements and their consistency with each other is necessary. An analysis of the working movements of a person shows that they depend on the fitness of a person and on a specific professional activity.
The study of actions and operations involves the allocation of their psychological essence and mechanisms. One of these most important mechanisms is the mechanism of skills formation.
Formation of professional skills and abilities
As already mentioned, the specific way the Action is performed turns the latter into an operation. Quite often, the goal of an Action ceases to be actualized in consciousness, and a specific operation is used as a way to achieve the goal of another, larger action. The possibility of performing an operation without actualizing its purpose in the mind appears as a result of the development of appropriate skills. A skill is an automated element of a conscious action that is developed in the process of its implementation, representing a coordinated ability to solve one or another type of motor, sensory, intellectual or mental task.
There are different types of skills: sensorimotor, intellectual, perceptual, etc. In any skill, one can distinguish between "psychological and physiological aspects. Motor skills are one of the first to be developed in phylo- and ontogenesis, as they are developed, becoming more complicated by sensory and intellectual components. A motor skill is a necessary adaptive element for the normal functioning of a person and his interaction with the environment.
The general scheme of skill formation is as follows. In the process of repeated exposure of the body to similar stimuli of the external and internal environment, a certain program of behavior is formed in a person as a reaction to these stimuli. It is the ability to act in a certain situation with a high degree of adaptability to this situation. The trigger mechanism for any skill is a sensory signal that provides information about the state of the environment. The development of a skill is an active psychomotor activity. Speaking of a program of behavior, we inevitably assume some kind of initially laid down systems of actions. For habit, the system of response actions appears as a set of those automatisms due to which this standardized activity takes place. A skill is a structure developed during a lifetime. Not only the beginning of the skill, its trigger is formed in the form of a sensory signal, but the subsequent adjustment of the skill is carried out using sensory information. An important point of any activity is its awareness, and therefore, evaluation. Evaluation is inherent in the performance of a skill. Skill assessment is carried out consciously - the results and subconsciously - the process.
The main cerebral structures are responsible for the formation of a skill. The skill, being formed, is localized at different levels - depending on the automation of certain components. The neural model for the implementation of a skill is the afferent synthesis. Afferent synthesis - it is the neurophysiological basis of the psychological system of activity or action. Afferent synthesis leads to the solution of the question, what kind of result should be obtained at the given moment. Afferent synthesis is the material base of the information basis of activity, which ensures goal setting. Afferent synthesis underlies the activation support of a skill. Each activity in its development acquires features of efficiency. The goal to be achieved in this action appears in the form of an image - a standard. By carrying out methods of action, a person perceives a mismatch between the actual state of the object and the one that should be achieved as a result of this action. The organization of a substantive action requires that this discrepancy be assessed against the background of all available information about the situation that has developed at that moment. The neurophysiological mechanism of such an assessment is action acceptor, i.e., a neural model of the parameters of the anticipated real outcome. According to the mechanism of the action acceptor, the skill is adjusted.
The intermediate stage of mastering a new way of acting on the basis of knowledge that has not reached the level of skill is called skill. Skill is knowledge that is understood by the student and is correctly reproduced, acting in the form of a correctly performed action and acquiring some features of efficiency.
At the stage of skill, the learned mode of action is regulated by knowledge; as training progresses, the transformation of Skill into skill is achieved. In this case, there is a change in the orienting basis of the action.
In labor activity, motor skills are of greater importance as a necessary adaptive element of the normal functioning of a person. A motor skill is a coordination structure, which is a mastered ability to solve one or another type of motor task. In this regard, most of the research is devoted specifically to motor skills. The structure of motor a was analyzed by N.A. Bernstein, who believed that in the process of exercise, a skill is built. Each motor skill represents a multilevel structure. ON THE. Bernstein identifies five such levels, starting with the lowest, located in the spinal cord, and ending with the highest, the cortical. In each skill, some level will be leading - the rest will be background. (For example: posture - rubrospinal level; writing - cortical.) When the conditions of activity change, there may be a switch of the leading level, although this is very difficult. Each stage of the development of a motor skill is an active psychomotor activity that forms a skill in the content and performance aspects.
The formation of a motor skill is a whole chain of sequentially replacing each other phases of different meanings and qualitatively different mechanisms. The development of a motor skill is a semantic chain action.
In building any skill, N.A. Bernstein identifies two periods.
The first period is the actual building of the skill. The main task of the operations of the first period is to ensure the accuracy and standardization of the performance of the skill. It includes phases:
establishing a leading level. At this phase, the brain level that dominates in the initial stage of building a skill is determined. This phase is almost a foregone conclusion. In childhood, this is the level of spatial orientation, in adults it is the level of objective action. These levels hold a monopoly on the role of leaders at the initial stage of all formed skills:
determining the motor composition of a skill, i.e., the form and external character of the movement. In this phase, there is an individual coordination of the features of the motor composition and personal properties of the subject;
identifying adequate sensory corrections. Corrections are internal sensory cues that govern a skill. This is the most difficult of all phases. All incoming signals carry the information necessary for the implementation of the skill. Therefore, at this phase, the signals are sorted into significant and insignificant.
Automation is the switching of a number of coordinating elements of a motor act to lower levels that are more adequate for these corrections. Automation can consist in the use of ready-made backgrounds and in the development of special automatisms. In each skill, only the composition determined by its leading level is realized. If the leading level is very high, then the unconscious background goals of corrections can be very complex in composition and long in time. The external form of such parts of skills is called mechanical actions. The second period is stabilization. The range of external and internal conditions within which the implementation of the skill will be effective is being expanded. The second period includes phases:
activation of skill elements. As mentioned above, skill adjustment is carried out at various brain levels. Information processing is provided by background and leading levels. This process must be internally consistent. The difficulty of triggering is that all the flows of information and corrective signals fall on the same executive system. This so-called phenomenon simultaneous interference. If it proceeds painfully, then a plateau of already automated action appears, i.e. the skill does not improve, but stabilizes at the same level;
standardization. There is a struggle to ensure that the movement does not go beyond the level of acceptable variability. The central nervous system develops certain corrections and automatisms for standardization, aimed at maintaining a stable form of movement;
stabilization. The stability of the motor skill, the resistance to its confounding influences are being worked out. External and internal obstacles and complications can act as confounding influences. Particular attention should be paid to the possibility of de-automation of the skill. Deautomatization is the partial or complete disintegration of a skill. Deautomatization occurs when, for some reason, a subordinate level becomes the leading one, or when the movement itself switches to a different, unusual level. Based on this mechanism, a method of artificial deautomatization has been developed.
Despite the complexity of the skill, the actual process of capturing the necessary connections can happen at lightning speed. This is due to the multi-level active skill building. The dynamics of skill development is that where there is development, each next exercise is better than the previous one, that is, it does not repeat it. In fact, there is a repetition without repetition. When forming a skill, an exercise is not a repetition of a movement, but its construction. A correctly conducted exercise repeats over and over again not the means used to solve this problem, but the solution process itself, changing and improving its form from time to time.
Skill building is distributed over time. This is due to the fact that the active search for the most adequate solution, which takes place in the central nervous system, requires a significant amount of time. Adds time-consuming non-standard tasks and the background of the general environment in which the building of the skill takes place.
Based on Bernstein's concept of any sensorimotor skill, it is possible to determine what period and phase it is in at the moment and what brain structures are involved. Therefore, it is possible to model the process of skill formation.
The problem of learning
The problem of learning is closely related to the problem of building a habit. The development of activity significantly changes the expedient behavior of the individual, both externally and internally. The process associated with a change in human behavior and actions is called learning. Learning is a sustainable, purposeful change in physical and mental activity (behavior) that occurs due to previous activity (or behavior), and is not caused directly by innate physiological reactions of the body.
Learning as a psychological mechanism includes two aspects: functional and structural.
Functional aspect characterizes how successfully learning changes in terms of achieving the goal (i.e., the result - what is achieved).
Structural aspect characterizes a change in the very mode of behavior, its structure (i.e., the method of achievement - how and when it is achieved.) In relation to a person, learning is expressed in the assimilation of certain knowledge and certain actions by a person. Any experience (knowledge, skills, abilities) can be acquired through learning. The main content of learning is the formation of cognitive, sensorimotor and kinesthetic structures. The physiological essence of learning is expressed in the formation of a neurofunctional system of a behavioral act.
The learning criteria are indicators:
Formation of individual components of the system at the cognitive level;
Ability development;
Efficiency of performing activities;
Physiological mechanisms of activity.
In the course of training and repeated repetition of exercises in the course of learning, a change in behavior and forms of human activity occurs.
Any type of learning belongs to the associative or intellectual mind. Associative the type of learning is realized by the formation of connections based on adjacency, intellectual the type of learning is the reflection and assimilation of essential connections, structures, relations of objective reality.
Any kind of learning can act on a reflex or cognitive level. At the reflex level, learning can be sensory and motor, as well as sensorimotor (a combination of these types). The sensory concept emphasizes the informational, cognitive nature of learning (reflective activity of the psyche). The motor concept emphasizes the active, purposeful nature of learning (regulatory activity of the psyche). Such learning is characteristic of both man and animals.
At the cognitive level, learning acts as the learning of knowledge and concepts; skills and abilities; thinking. The above classification is rather conditional. Real learning includes all types and levels in various combinations. "Regardless of the type of learning, the main way to implement it is training - repeated repetition of a series of exercises in the same operation.
The understanding of learning as a change in activity as a result of training has been quite constructive for a long time. However, from today's standpoint, this definition has two shortcomings. Learning can take place:
No change in activity;
Without training (by observation with instructions).
The modern approach to understanding learning makes extensive use of the concept of a person as an information processing system. According to this concept, a person is an active participant in the learning process. In the process of processing information, the information flow that occurs at the stage of perception undergoes a series of cognitive changes that culminate in a person's reaction or a change in the state of memory. For example, when looking at a picture, we first perform an image recognition operation, then establish an associative link with something that we have already encountered before, and then store the image by memorization.
Within the framework of this concept, much attention is paid to the question of how to interpret incoming information. The informational approach compares a person with a computer, and considers learning as a process consisting of three stages: coding, memorization, reproduction.
Information units in learning will be judgments and associative links. Of particular importance are predictive conclusions structured in human memory. The memory elements responsible for predictive conclusions are called in engineering psychology scripts(schemes, frames).
The most important properties of such memory structures are:
Inheritance of traits, i.e., the ability of memory elements to inherit some higher-order memory property. For example: "The company offers all types of overlogs, knitting and widge machines." We do not know what overlogs and widge machines are, but we know that a machine is some kind of mechanism, so we assume that these objects represent some kind of knitting mechanisms. The phrase becomes relatively intelligible; fuzziness of meanings, i.e., the ability to imply the existence of certain qualities at one price or another in a particular situation, even when they are not explicitly reported. For example, in this example, we can assume that there are some moving parts in overlogs and vision machines, as all machines have them.
Such predictive judgments greatly facilitate communication and learning.
Current learning research focuses on how a person acquires complex cognitive skills. (For example, computer programming; solving political and sociological problems.)
Within the framework of this understanding, the presence of three types of learning is fixed:
Building up - the accumulation of knowledge about new facts in memory (knowledge, what can be done);
restructuring - the initial formation of associative links in memory (receiving procedures, i.e. knowledge, how to do something);
setting - the formation of mnemonic techniques for the purpose of faster and more reliable use of operational images.
Having knowledge of the mechanisms of learning, one can successfully design the learning process in all its forms. The problem of skill formation is directly reflected in the organization and implementation of labor activity. The work of a manager, operator, politician or any other specialist cannot be realized without an appropriate psychological system of activity, a set of professional actions and skills. The solution of these practical problems cannot be carried out without appropriate scientific developments. Recently, the issue of designing educational systems, such as computer programs, has become acute. Depending on the work of the designer, it is possible to significantly increase the power, flexibility and reliability of the human-computer system. It is the human factor that is characterized by the greatest uncertainty in this system, and its effectiveness can be increased only through the study of the psychological mechanisms of the formation of Activities, actions, skills and learning.
A source: Myshkin I. Yu. Physiological bases of labor processes. . / in the book: Labor Psychology: Proc. for stud. higher textbook institutions / Ed. prof. A. V. Karpova. - M.: Publishing house VLADOS-PRESS, 2003. - 352p.
One of the contradictions of scientific and technological progress is that, along with huge positive results, modern production, widely equipped with complex technical systems, makes increased demands on a person. They force a person to work at the limit of his psychological capabilities, and often in extremely difficult working conditions. At the same time, a person is responsible for the effective functioning of large control systems, and a mistake made can lead to very serious consequences. Basic physiological characteristics of work
An important pattern of social development was the division of labor into two forms: mental labor and physical labor. From this point of view, during work, the specific weight of the muscle load, or the specific weight of one of the components of the nervous load - the mental load, is taken into account. Labor is classified as physical with the predominance of the muscular component, as mental - with the predominance of the mental component.
To characterize and evaluate the physiological cost of work, the terms "severity" and "labor intensity" are used. Both terms are covered by a single concept of "functional stress of the body at work." Functional stress is determined both by the nature of the workload and by the working environment. When working, the body is presented with two types of load: muscular and nervous. Therefore, the functional stress of the body during work should, depending on the type of load, be characterized either as the severity or as the intensity of labor. The intensity of labor is the functional state of the body when working with a predominance of muscle load. The severity of labor is the involvement of the musculoskeletal system and energy supply functions in the labor process.
The assessment of the severity of labor is given on the basis of energy consumption during work. This is explained by the fact that energy costs reflect well the dynamic load on the musculoskeletal system and ensure the performance of vegetative functions under this load - respiration, blood circulation. However, static work has relatively little effect on the level of energy consumption. Therefore, indicators such as the weight of the load being held (the force of holding the load), the nature of the working posture, the stationarity or non-stationarity of the workplace are also used. The intensity of labor is the functional state of the body when working with a predominance of nerve load. In physiological terms, human labor activity can be characterized in two ways: firstly, in terms of labor and the functional stress it causes (the qualitative side); secondly, according to the degree of this Functional tension (quantitative side).
Classification and types of labor activity
I. Forms of labor that require significant muscle activity.
This group includes professions of heavy and medium physical labor. Examples are the professions of a digger, a loader, a blacksmith, a bricklayer, and agricultural professions. All these works are characterized by increased energy costs of the order of 4000-7000 kcal/day. or in units of work - 200-300 thousand kgm per shift. An essential negative feature of physical labor is its social inefficiency. To achieve any performance that justifies itself, a high, non-optimal strain of the physical forces of a person is required. Another drawback in the physiological plan is that physical labor always develops the muscular system one-sidedly, and often causes muscle hypertrophy.
II. Forms of mechanized labor.
The group includes numerous professions in all industries. Energy costs in these groups are 3000-4000 kcal/day, and mechanical work can be up to 100 thousand kgm per shift. A distinctive feature of mechanized labor, in addition to reducing the muscle component in work, is the development of speed and accuracy of movements. The program of actions becomes more complicated, which is associated with two circumstances: the maintenance of mechanisms requires knowledge of their design; before the execution of the work, it is planned, calculated according to the drawings. Therefore, professions of mechanized labor require the accumulation of special knowledge and motor skills.
III. Forms of labor associated with semi-automatic and automatic production.
These are forms of labor associated with the further mechanization of the production process. In semi-automatic production, a person is completely switched off from the processing process. Its task is to feed the material for processing into the machine, start the mechanism, and remove the finished product. The main feature of these works is monotony. No high qualification required. Almost all the work is addressed to the motor apparatus, which requires, first of all, the speed and accuracy of movements. Automation dramatically changes the role of a person in the labor process. It ceases to complement the mechanism, which now performs not only the main, but also auxiliary functions. The worker controls the machinery. Its job is to keep things running smoothly. The main feature of the action in all cases is the readiness for action and the urgency of reactions associated with it.
IV. Forms of group work.
A typical type of group work is conveyors. The basis of labor productivity on the assembly line is the automation of motor skills, leading to a minimum of time for their implementation. The group form of labor is inconceivable without synchronization of the work of its participants, which determine the cycle of the conveyor, i.e., the time interval provided to the worker to perform the next operation. The smaller the interval, the more monotonous the work. The most significant feature that characterizes the operation of the conveyor is monotony.
v. Forms of work associated with remote control.
Remote control of production arises on the basis of mechanization and automation. From a physiological point of view, there are two main forms of remote control of the production process. In some cases, control panels require frequent human actions, and in others - rare ones. At the same time, workers have different functional states. In the first case, the uninterrupted attention of the worker receives a discharge in numerous movements or speech-motor acts. In the second case, the worker is mainly in a state of readiness for action, but his reactions are few.
VI. Forms of intellectual labor.
There are two forms of intellectual (mental) labor: 1) Professions employed in the sphere of material production, but not directly related to the objects of labor. These are the professions of an engineer, designer, programmer. 2) Professions related to scientific work, professions of applied knowledge (teachers, doctors), professions in the field of literature, art (actors, painters, writers).
The sphere of material production to a greater extent requires the application of forces in terms of technization and organization. Among the professions of an engineering profile, two types can be distinguished: one is associated with the design and forecasting of the production process (designers); the task of the second is the implementation of operational functions (operators, technicians, dispatchers, accountants, statisticians). Intellectual labor with little muscle activity is the most energy efficient. Daily costs are 2400-2800 kcal/day. (i.e., they exceed the main metabolism by only 600-1000 kcal.). These savings are due to reduced physical activity and are not positive. Brain activity is deprived of support from the muscles, which can lead to negative consequences (various cardiovascular diseases, diseases of the musculoskeletal system). The main features of intellectual labor are the complexity and variability of the action program. The more signals of different content and meaning are received by the employee, the more difficult it is to choose the right action, the more stressful the work.
Methods for assessing the severity and intensity of labor
To assess the severity and intensity of labor, various indicators and criteria are used. Usually there are four degrees of severity and intensity of labor. As criteria for assessing the severity of labor, both external indicators are used - the characteristics of the work, and internal - the cost for the body. To assess tension, such a gradation is not always acceptable.
Evaluation of the severity of labor. The severity of physical labor is determined by the following indicators of dynamic and static work: the weight of the load being moved and the power of work; the magnitude of the static load; the nature of the working posture.
The power of external work is determined by the amount of physical energy expended by a person. To calculate the power of external work, the amount of work performed per unit of time is calculated. Since physical work is associated with the movement of any goods or materials over a distance, the calculation takes into account: lifting the load; move it horizontally lowering the load. The calculation of the work performed is carried out according to the formula:
A \u003d [P x H + (P x 1/9) + (P x h) / 2] x k,
where A is the amount of work in kgm; P is the weight of the cargo in kg; H is the height of the load from the initial state; 1 - distance of movement of cargo horizontally; h is the distance of lowering the load; k - coefficient equal to 6.
To calculate the power of work, the formula is used:
N \u003d (A / t) x k,
where N is the power of work in watts / s; A is the amount of work in kgm; one; - the time for which this work is done in seconds; k - conversion factor kgm to watts, equal to 10.
The maximum value of the transported load is the main indicator for determining the severity of labor.
In everyday life, static work manifests itself in two forms: maintaining a posture and holding a load. In most cases, when holding a load or maintaining a working posture, the opposing force is gravity. In some cases, static contraction may be directed to overcome another external force, such as pressing a pedal. The static load associated with the maintenance of an effort by a person without moving the body or its individual links is characterized by the magnitude of the retained load or effort. The static load is determined by the product of the force and the holding time. The value of the static load is expressed in kg/s. An indicator of the static load is also the magnitude of the angles of inclination and the duration of stay in a particular position in full relation to the duration of the work shift. Posture - maintaining the human body in a certain position. Posture determines the psychological effect, which is expressed in the concept of comfort.
For a practical assessment of the severity of labor, we can recommend the indicators given in Table. one.
The intensity of labor characterizes that side of labor activity that requires the mobilization of higher mental functions of a person, such as perception, attention, working memory, and analytical and synthetic activity of the central nervous system. Different degrees of tension of these functions are little or almost not reflected in such indicators as gas exchange, energy consumption, blood circulation. If we limit mental labor to those types of activities that are widely used in production, and leave aside the highest forms of creative and performing labor (scientists, artists, public figures), we can distinguish the following indicators used to assess labor intensity: 1) the degree of attention strain; 2) density of perceived signals; 3) pace of work; 4) the density of the work shift; 5) intensity of analyzer functions; 6) the degree of emotional stress; 7) intellectual tension; 8) monotony of work; 9) memory load; 10) shift work. Let's consider these indicators in more detail.
Attention. There is no single reasonable criterion for assessing the intensity of attention in a production environment (depending on the activity). It is recommended that the assessment of labor intensity in terms of the attention parameter be carried out according to production criteria. With regard to operator activities, we can talk about the number of objects of simultaneous observation or control, i.e. how many of the total number of objects of observation are the most important and require simultaneous observation. (For example, out of 100 objects, 5 or 10 are the most important and require constant monitoring: machine tools, console signals, in essence, we are talking about the volume of the information field.) Another indicator that characterizes attention is the duration of concentrated observation. This indicator is calculated as a relative value as a percentage of the total shift time. Since the operator is required to be able to quickly switch attention, the frequency (average, maximum) of these switches can serve as an indicator of labor intensity.
Density of perceived signals. This indicator characterizes the degree of labor intensity depending on the amount of incoming information per unit of time. An assessment of the degree of labor intensity according to this indicator should take into account the nature of the activity, the quantity and nature of information transformation. The signal density calculation is calculated as the product of the number of information features per unit of time. For example, the number of messages is 60, each message has 4 features. The total is 4 x 60 = 240 per unit of time (usually per hour). Thus, this indicator characterizes the amount of information per unit of time.
The pace and density of the work shift. These indicators characterize the degree and uniformity of the workload per shift. Depending on the nature of the activity, two types of activity can be distinguished: 1) motor, 2) control and observation. The “activity coefficient” can serve as an integral indicator of the work shift density. This is an indicator of the ratio of the total duration of active (adjusting, performing) actions to the total time of observation, control, but not the duration of the shift. The low weight of active actions, when it is necessary to maintain constant vigilance, creates the conditions for a motivational conflict, which requires significant nervous tension (less than 0.2). At the same time, too high "activity coefficient" (more than 0.8) reflects the intensity of work associated with increased physical activity.
Intensity of analyzer functions associated with the detection and selection of signals of various modalities (vision, hearing, smell, tactile sensitivity). By physical strength, the signals are divided into: 1) weak - below the operational threshold; 2) optimal - within the intervals of the boundaries of the operational threshold; 3) annoying - above the operational threshold. Another approach to assessing the degree of load on the analyzers is that the degree of load is compared with the category of normative indicators. The degree of visual strain is determined according to SN 245-75 of the category of visual work, where 6 categories of visual work are distinguished depending on the size of the object in the field of view. The degree of tension of the organ of hearing can be determined in two ways. First, by the audibility of speech from a distance or by the intelligibility of speech as a percentage of the ratio with the level of the mind. Secondly, according to the norms of permissible sound pressure levels and sound levels at workplaces
| Table 1 | ||||||||
| - | ||||||||
| Criteria for the severity of physical labor | ||||||||
| Signs Quantitative criteria for the severity of labor | ||||||||
| (indicators of external work) | ||||||||
| Physical labor | I - easy | II - medium | III - heavy | IV - very severe | ||||
| Up to 5 | 6 to 10 | from 11 to 30 | over 30 | |||||
| Maximum value | ||||||||
| transported cargo, kg | ||||||||
| External power | To 10 | up to 22 | Up to 45 | over 45 | ||||
| work, Tue, with participation | ||||||||
| shoulder girdle, | ||||||||
| with the participation of the lower | ||||||||
| limbs and torso | ||||||||
| The value of the static load per shift, kg / s., when creating forces: with two hands with the participation of the body and legs | up to 20 | up to 45 | up to 90 | over 90 | ||||
| up to 43 200 | up to 97 200 | up to 208 800 | over 208800 | |||||
| up to 61 200 | up to 129 600 | up to 266 400 | over 266 400 | |||||
| Working posture and movements in space | Stationary workplace. Free posture. | Stationary workplace. Tilts up to 30° | Stationary workplace. Tilts up to 30° 100 - 300 times per shift or stay | Stationary place. Tilts up to 30° or more more than 300 times per shift or stay | ||||
| 50 - 100 times per shift or stay in an inclined position up to 30° 10-25% of the working time. Walking up to 4 km per shift. | inclined position up to 30° 25-50% of the working time. Walking up to 7 km per shift. | in an inclined position more than 50% of the working time. | ||||||
| Walking up to 15 km per shift. | ||||||||
| Physiological cost: | Quantitative criteria for the severity of labor (internal indicators - cost for the body) | |||||||
| in terms of energy costs (basal metabolism - 1.1 kcal / min.); | 150 kcal/hour. 172 j/sec. | 150-200 172-232 | 200-300 232-293 | over 300 over 293 | ||||
| by pulse rate (rest - 60-70 bpm; safety limit - 140-150 bpm) | 75-100 | 100-125 | 125-150 | 150-175 | ||||
| by oxygen consumption (rest - 0.2 l / min.) | up to 0.5 l/min. | up to 0.8 l/min. | up to 1.5 l/min. | over 1.5 l/min. | ||||
Labor intensity criteria
| signs | I - relaxed | II - a little tense | IV - very tense |
| 1. Attention, the number of simultaneously observed objects; duration of concentrated observation (as a percentage of the duration of the work shift) | up to 5 up to 25 | 6-10 26-50 | over 25 over 75 |
| 2. Tension of analyzer functions: Vision. Dimensions of the object, mm, with the distance of the object to the worker's eyes up to 1 m Hearing | more than 5 mm | 1-5 mm | less than 0.3 mm |
| No interference | There are interferences against which speech is heard: | ||
| up to 2.5 m | up to 1.5 m | ||
| 3. Density of signals (messages) per hour: simple complex | Up to 60 up to 15 | 61-150 16-40 | over 400 over 60 |
| 4. The amount of RAM. Must be kept in memory Memory load (by number of process parameters) | up to 2 items less than 2 hours | up to 2 items over 2 hours | more than 5 items more than 5 hours |
| up to 50 | up to 100 | over 200 | |
| 5. Intelligent voltage | No need to make independent decisions | Work according to simple instructions | Heuristic (creative) activity |
| 6. Monotonicity: repeatability (per hour) number of elements in the operation duration per second. Time of active actions as a percentage of the duration of the shift (activity ratio) | more than 10 more than 100 10-20% 0.5-0.3 | 181-300 10-6 100-45 20-50% 0,2-0,3 | more than 600 3-1 19-1 more than 80% less than 0.2 more than 0.8 |
| 7. Emotional stress | Work according to an individual plan | Work on an individual schedule | Responsibility for the safety of others, personal risk |
Emotional stress. In real working conditions, the degree of emotional stress is a significant factor determining the success and reliability of the activity. Gradations of emotional tension are evaluated according to production criteria that create the prerequisites for the emergence of unfavorable emotional states. These factors will be: 1. Temporary factors (work according to an individual plan, work according to an exact schedule, work under time pressure). 2. Motivational significance of violations in the process of activity (emergency situations, work associated with personal risk, with responsibility for the safety of others).
Intellectual stress. The magnitude of the intellectual voltage cannot be accurately categorized. The factors that determine it can be: work related to the need to develop algorithms for activities of varying complexity; work related to decision-making at various levels; work related to the need for the participation of a non-standard, creative component of the activity.
The monotony of work. Monotonous types of labor include those that are characterized by the following features: 1) a high frequency of repetition of labor actions; 2) a short time cycle for performing operations; 3) low-element quantitative composition of the operation; 4) structural uniformity of labor activities; 5) simplicity of labor actions. These criteria refer mainly to works where the energy factor plays a leading role, i.e., work with a pronounced physical component. Those works where the information factor predominates, i.e., the tension of sensory mechanisms and certain mental functions is required, are considered monotonous if they: 1) are associated with long-term passive observation; 2) have a lack of influx of sensory information; 3) have limited exposure to production signals and stimuli.
Memory. The load on memory is due, firstly, to the necessary amount of information to be remembered; Secondly, from the duration of storage of the necessary information in the process of activity.
Labor shift. According to the degree of intensity of the labor regime, four categories are distinguished: 1) Work in the morning shift is the most optimal. 2) Evening shift. Household load is superimposed on work, activity is worse in the evening. 3) Alternation of shift work: morning, evening, night. 4) Round the clock work. Three-shift and round-the-clock work is the most tiring and not physiological.
Labor intensity criteria are given in Table. 2.
Literature
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3. Grimak L.P. Communication with yourself. - M., 1991
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14. The human factor / Ed. G. Salvendi. - M., 1990.
Questions for self-examination
1. What are the main physiological characteristics of labor activity.
2. Describe the physiological basis of labor processes.
Andrey Orlov
It is impossible not to notice a person who has ever rowed in a crowd. In physiological terms, he is almost perfect: tall, broad shoulders, harmoniously developed muscles.
It is impossible not to notice a person who has ever rowed in a crowd. In physiological terms, he is almost perfect: tall, broad shoulders, harmoniously developed muscles. True, to achieve such beauty is very difficult. Rowing is one of the most difficult sports, here the athlete is subjected to long, intense and cyclically repeated loads. And all this can radically change both his body and soul.
How is the heart of a rower different from the heart of an ordinary person and why do kayakers need yoga and weightlifting so much?
Like most sports, rowing develops all muscle groups. Since not only arms, but also the torso, and legs, and even the neck are involved in the movements, the rower's body receives favorable conditions for harmonious development. But, of course, the muscles of the shoulder girdle and arms, as well as the latissimus dorsi, triceps, pectoralis major, deltoid and trapezius muscles receive a special load. All this determines the characteristic appearance of the athlete: he has powerful shoulders. Such a structure of the figure cannot be avoided by the female part of the kayak community. An ordinary man, being next to an Olympic champion in rowing, has every chance to feel thin and frail.
The pronounced development of the muscles of the shoulder girdle can also give unpleasant effects. For example, due to constant high loads, rowers often suffer from arthrosis of the joint between the scapula and collarbone. Such health problems sometimes lead to a premature end to a career.
locomotive firebox
To understand what a kayaker's metabolism is, you need to remember that rowing is a long, fairly intense, cyclically repeated load, most of which is taken up by several key muscle groups. Muscles need a continuous, uninterrupted supply of energy and oxygen, and this requires an ideally developed cardiovascular system from the athlete. The heart of a rower is no different from the heart of any other athlete, but the muscles have their own characteristics. They are adapted for aerobic work - that is, long-term, requiring great endurance. Completely different muscles are needed, for example, for a sprinter who needs to squeeze the maximum in half a minute. In rowing, the muscular system must work so as not to get tired over a long distance. To do this, she needs a constant replenishment of energy reserves with blood. The kayaker's muscle is something like a wide-open locomotive firebox. The composition will run along the rails only if coal is continuously thrown into the furnace.
Sisyphean labor
Rowing is as ancient an invention as the wheel. For the first time, rowing as a sport discipline began to be cultivated in England in the 18th century. In Russia, the founder of this sport is the St. Petersburg River Yacht Club, which was the first to start holding competitions on boats, folk and academic courts, and, of course, kayaks. But, oddly enough, until recently there was no serious theoretical base and a strict scientific approach to training a high-class kayaker. They are being created just now.
In Soviet times, one principle was applied: the longest and most intense training. It was believed that the heavier they are, the better the result. But in a muscle that is constantly exposed to such influences, the fibers that can absorb oxygen are simply burned. It can be compared to a firebox, the door of which is almost closed - only a small gap is left. As a result, the athletes formed a completely different type of muscle that is needed for rowing.
New approaches
It is now clear that completely different methods must be applied to achieve Olympic-level results. There is no point in overloading the cardiovascular system. Surprisingly, the heart of any healthy person can be prepared for the competition with moderate-intensity training.
Kayaking brings up amazing determination and amazing endurance in its wards. He teaches the athlete to work hard and desperately, thinking first of all about the process, and not about the result. And of course, a coach plays a huge role in rowing, who guides and points out mistakes.
After the athlete achieves that the heart is well supplied with oxygen to the muscles, it is time for him to go to the gym. Now you need to increase the necessary volume of the muscles of the back, abdomen, arms - the very ones that will pull the oar. This is achieved by strength exercises of maximum intensity, which are performed in the form of so-called supersets - 30 seconds for each exercise. The result is muscles of large volume, however, capable only of anaerobic loads, the most intense, but short-term. They work as if "in debt", without oxygen. The next task is to rebuild the resulting muscle fibers and create muscles that can be fueled by oxygen in order to function for a long time and smoothly. To do this, you need to take up the paddle again and start training with gradually increasing speeds. In the process, anaerobic fibers will gradually be replaced by aerobic fibers so necessary for the kayaker.
Rowing and others
However, let's go back to the times when kayakers were thoughtlessly exhausted by incessant training. How could their effectiveness be increased? There is only one way: to add to these loads others that can affect the development of muscles and aerobic capacity. For the first, weightlifting was ideal, which consists of short-term and very intense loads, indispensable for building muscle mass. Perhaps these are not exactly the same muscles that are involved in rowing, but, in any case, the same muscle groups - the back, arms and abdomen. True, with excessive weightlifting zeal, it is quite easy to harm the spine.
But what about the formation of "correct" fibers? This is where yoga comes in very handy. Firstly, flexibility exercises make the muscle noticeably more resistant to super-intensive effects that burn it. Secondly, the yogi's body is much more intuitive, able to unconsciously control the intensity of the workout. Previously, this was only possible for especially gifted athletes who regulated the load thanks to natural sensitivity. Such people got a chance to become champions.
One of the contradictions of scientific and technological progress is that, along with huge positive results, modern production, widely equipped with complex technical systems, makes increased demands on a person. They force a person to work at the limit of his psychological capabilities, and often in extremely difficult working conditions. At the same time, a person is responsible for the effective functioning of large control systems, and a mistake made can lead to very serious consequences.
The main physiological characteristics of labor activity
An important pattern of social development was the division of labor into two forms: mental labor and physical labor. From this point of view, the work takes into account either the specific weight of the muscle load, or the specific weight of one of the components of the nervous load - the mental one. Labor is classified as physical with the predominance of the muscular component, as mental - with the predominance of the mental component.
To characterize and evaluate the physiological cost of work, the terms "severity" and "labor intensity" are used. Both terms are covered by a single concept of "functional stress of the body at work." Functional stress is determined both by the nature of the workload and by the working environment. When working, the body is presented with two types of load: muscular and nervous. Therefore, the functional stress of the body during work should, depending on the type of load, be characterized either as the severity or as the intensity of labor. Labor intensity is the functional state of the body when working with a predominance of muscle load. The severity of labor is the involvement of the musculoskeletal system and energy supply functions in the labor process.
The assessment of the severity of labor is given on the basis of energy consumption during work. This is explained by the fact that energy costs reflect well the dynamic load on the musculoskeletal system and ensure the performance of vegetative functions under this load - respiration, blood circulation. However, static work has relatively little effect on the level of energy consumption. Therefore, indicators such as the weight of the load being held (the force of holding the load), the nature of the working posture, the stationarity or non-stationarity of the workplace are also used. Labor intensity is the functional state of the body when working with a predominance of nervous load. In physiological terms, human labor activity can be characterized in two ways: first, by the type of labor and the functional stress it causes (the qualitative side); secondly, according to the degree of this functional tension (quantitative side).
Classification and types of labor activity
I. Forms of labor that require significant muscle activity.
This group includes professions of heavy and medium physical labor. Examples are the professions of a digger, a loader, a blacksmith, a bricklayer, and agricultural professions. All these works are characterized by increased energy costs of the order of 4000–7000 kcal/day. or in units of work - 200-300 thousand kgm per shift. An essential negative feature of physical labor is its social inefficiency. To achieve any performance that justifies itself, a high, non-optimal strain of the physical forces of a person is required. Another drawback in the physiological plan is that physical labor always develops the muscular system one-sidedly, and often causes muscle hypertrophy.
II. Forms of mechanized labor.
The group includes numerous professions in all industries. Energy costs in these groups are 3000–4000 kcal/day, and mechanical work can be up to 100 thousand km per shift. A distinctive feature of mechanized labor, in addition to reducing the muscle component in work, is the development of speed and accuracy of movements. The program of actions becomes more complicated, which is associated with two circumstances: the maintenance of mechanisms requires knowledge of their design; before the execution of the work, it is planned, calculated according to the drawings. Therefore, professions of mechanized labor require the accumulation of special knowledge and motor skills.
III. Forms of labor associated with semi-automatic and automatic production.
These are forms of labor associated with the further mechanization of the production process. In semi-automatic production, a person is completely switched off from the processing process. Its task is to feed the material for processing into the machine, start the mechanism, and remove the finished product. The main feature of these works is monotony. No high qualification required. Almost all the work is addressed to the motor apparatus, which requires, first of all, the speed and accuracy of movements. Automation dramatically changes the role of a person in the labor process. It ceases to complement the mechanism, which now performs not only the main, but also auxiliary functions. The worker controls the machinery. Its job is to keep things running smoothly. The main feature of the action in all cases is the readiness for action and the urgency of reactions associated with it.
IV. Forms of group work.
A typical type of group work is conveyors. The basis of labor productivity on the assembly line is the automation of motor skills, leading to a minimum of time for their implementation. The group form of labor is inconceivable without synchronization of the work of its participants, which determine the cycle of the conveyor, i.e., the time interval provided to the worker to perform the next operation. The smaller the interval, the more monotonous the work. The most significant feature that characterizes the operation of the conveyor is monotony.
v. Forms of work associated with remote control.
Remote control of production arises on the basis of mechanization and automation. From a physiological point of view, there are two main forms of remote control of the production process. In some cases, control panels require frequent human actions, and in others - rare ones. At the same time, workers have different functional states. In the first case, the uninterrupted attention of the worker receives a discharge in numerous movements or speech-motor acts. In the second case, the worker is mainly in a state of readiness for action, but his reactions are few.
VI. Forms of intellectual labor.
There are two forms of intellectual (mental) labor: 1) Professions employed in the sphere of material production, but not directly related to the objects of labor. These are the professions of an engineer, designer, programmer. 2) Professions related to scientific work, professions of applied knowledge (teachers, doctors), professions in the field of literature, art (actors, painters, writers).
The sphere of material production to a greater extent requires the application of forces in terms of technization and organization. Among the professions of an engineering profile, two types can be distinguished: one is associated with the design and forecasting of the production process (designers); the task of the second is the implementation of operational functions (operators, technicians, dispatchers, accountants, statisticians). Intellectual labor with little muscle activity is the most energy efficient. Daily costs are 2400–2800 kcal/day. (i.e., they exceed the main metabolism by only 600-1000 kcal.). These savings are due to reduced physical activity and are not positive. Brain activity is deprived of support from the muscles, which can lead to negative consequences (various cardiovascular diseases, diseases of the musculoskeletal system). The main features of intellectual work are the complexity and variability of the action program. The more signals of different content and meaning are received by the employee, the more difficult it is to choose the right action, the more stressful the work.