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Leader of Land and Freedom 1876 1879. Populist organization “Land and Freedom” (1876): program, tactics and revolutionary activities. Split of “Land and Freedom”

Organization.

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At the turn of the 1850s-1860s, a number of student circles operated in the largest cities of Russia. They were under the ideological influence of “The Bell” by Herzen and Ogarev and were engaged in the propaganda of liberation ideas. Some societies were disclosed by the authorities, so information about them was preserved: the Kharkov-Kiev secret society, the Perm-Kazan secret society, the Kazan students library, the Argyropulo-Zaichnevsky circle that spun off from the latter.

The first composition 1861-1864.

The inspirers of the society were Herzen and Chernyshevsky. The participants set their goal to prepare a peasant revolution. Program documents were created under the influence of the ideas of Herzen and Ogarev. One of the most important demands put forward by members of the organization was the convening of a classless people's assembly.
The first Executive Committee of the organization included 6 of its organizers (N. N. Obruchev, S. S. Rymarenko, brothers N. A. and A. A. Serno-Solovyovich, A. A. Sleptsov, V. S. Kurochkin). “Land and Freedom” was an association of circles located in 13-14 cities. The largest circles were Moscow (Yu. M. Mosolov, N. M. Shatilov) and St. Petersburg (N. I. Utin). Military organization“Land and Freedom” was presented by the “Committee of Russian Officers in Poland” under the leadership of Second Lieutenant A. A. Potebnya. According to the data available to A. A. Sleptsov, the number of “Land and Freedom” was 3,000 people (the Moscow branch consisted of 400 members).

Second composition 1876-1879

The second composition of “Land and Freedom,” which was restored in 1876 as a populist organization, included such figures as A. D. Mikhailov, G. V. Plekhanov, D. A. Lizogub, later S. M. Kravchinsky, N. A Morozov, S. L. Perovskaya, L. A. Tikhomirov, N. S. Tyutchev. In total, the organization consisted of about 200 people. “Land and Freedom” relied on a wide circle of sympathizers in its activities.
The name “Land and Freedom” was given to the society at the end of 1878, with the appearance of a printed organ of the same name; former name: “Northern Revolutionary Populist Group”, “Society of Populists”.
The organization’s propaganda was based not on the old socialist principles, incomprehensible to the people, but on slogans emanating directly from the peasantry, that is, the demands of “land and freedom.” In its program, the program proclaimed the ideal of “anarchism and collectivism.” The specific requirements were the following:
- transfer of all land to peasants in equal shares
- introduction of full community self-government
- introduction of religious freedom
- granting nations the right to self-determination
The means of achieving these goals included organizational (propaganda, agitation among peasants and other classes and groups) and disorganization (individual terror against the most objectionable government officials and secret police agents). The organization had its own charter.
The organization consisted of a main circle (divided into seven special groups by type of activity) and local groups located in many major cities empires. “Land and Freedom” had its own printed organ with the same name. Agent “Land and Freedom” N.V. Kletochnikov was introduced into the Third Department. Landlords organized village settlements as a transition to “sedentary” propaganda. However, this action, as well as “going to the people,” ended in failure. After this, the populists concentrated all their efforts on political terror.
Landlords took part in several strikes in St. Petersburg in 1878-79. “Land and Freedom” influenced the development of the student movement. She organized or supported demonstrations in St. Petersburg, including the Kazan demonstration on December 6 (18), 1876, to which “Land and Freedom” first openly declared its existence. The Kazan demonstration was the first political demonstration in Russia with the participation of advanced workers. The demonstration was organized and carried out by the land populists and members of workers’ circles associated with them on Kazanskaya Square in St. Petersburg. About 400 people gathered in the square. G. V. Plekhanov delivered a passionate revolutionary speech to those gathered. The young worker Ya. S. Potapov unfurled a red banner with the words “Land and Freedom.” The demonstrators resisted the police. 31 demonstrators were arrested, 5 of whom were sentenced to 10-15 years of hard labor, 10 were sentenced to exile in Siberia, and three workers, including Y. Potapov, were sentenced to imprisonment for 5 years in a monastery. The Kazan demonstration marked the beginning of the conscious participation of the Russian working class in the social movement.

The Lipetsk Congress of members of the populist organization “Land and Freedom” took place in June 1879 in Lipetsk. Convened in an atmosphere of heightened disagreement among the revolutionary populists on the issue of the future direction of the organization's activities. A. D. Mikhailov, A. A. Kvyatkovsky, L. A. Tikhomirov, N. A. Morozov, A. I. Barannikov, M. N. Oshanina, A. I. Zhelyabov, N. I. Kolodkevich, G. D. Goldenberg, S. G. Shiryaev, M. F. Frolenko. The congress decided to include in the Land and Freedom program recognition of the need political struggle with autocracy as a primary and independent task. Participants in the Lipetsk Congress declared themselves the Executive Committee of the Social Revolutionary Party and adopted a charter based on centralism, discipline and secrecy. The Executive Committee, in the event of the agreement of the general congress of “landers” in Voronezh with new program had to take upon himself the implementation of terror.
Voronezh Congress of members of the populist organization “Land and Freedom,” convened in June 1879 in Voronezh in connection with disagreements among the revolutionary populists on the issue of the future direction of activity. About 20 people took part, including G.V. Plekhanov, A.D. Mikhailov, A.I. Zhelyabov, V.N. Figner, S.L. Perovskaya, N.A. Morozov, M.F. Frolenko, O. V. Aptekman. Supporters of the “politics” of political struggle and terror (Zhelyabov, Mikhailov, Morozov, etc.) came to the congress as a united group, which was finally organized at the Lipetsk Congress (June 1879). Plekhanov’s supporters (“villagers”) took a conciliatory position, considering the main task to be work among the peasants: they did not, in essence, object to terror. Plekhanov, who proved the danger of being carried away by terror for the prospects of working among the people, formally resigned from Land and Freedom and left the congress.
The resolutions of the congress were of a compromise nature: along with activities, the people also recognized the need for political terror.
The organization existed until 1879, after which it collapsed. The terrorist wing formed a new organization “Narodnaya Volya”, and the wing that remained faithful to purely populist tendencies - society

LAND AND WILL (populist organization)
“LAND AND WILL”, a revolutionary populist organization of the 1870s, founded in St. Petersburg in 1876. Name since 1878. Organizers: M. A. Nathanson, (cm. NATANSON Mark Andreevich) A. D. Mikhailov (cm. MIKHAILOV Alexander Dmitrievich), A. D. Oboleshev, G. V. Plekhanov (cm. PLEKHANOV Georgy Valentinovich) and etc. Governing body- “Administration”; composition: group of “villagers”, “working group”, “disorganization group”; branches: Kyiv, Odessa, Kharkov, etc. Program: peasant revolution, nationalization of land, replacement of the state with a federation of communities. Activities: settlements among the “people”, revolutionary propaganda among workers and intelligentsia. She published the newspaper “Land and Freedom”. (cm. LAND AND FREEDOM (illegal newspaper)) Disagreements between supporters and opponents of the political struggle led to a split (1879) into the “People's Will” (cm. PEOPLE'S WILL) and “Black redistribution”. (cm. )
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"LAND AND WILL" secret society revolutionaries-populists (1876-79).
The emergence and composition of “Land and Freedom”
The society arose in St. Petersburg as a result of the unification of St. Petersburg residents with the Kharkov-Rostov circle. The name “Land and Freedom” received in 1878, initially it was called the “Society of Populists” and the “Northern Revolutionary Populist Group”. Founders and leaders of the organization - M. A. Natanson (cm. NATANSON Mark Andreevich), A. D. Mikhailov (cm. MIKHAILOV Alexander Dmitrievich), O. V. Aptekman (cm. APTEKMAN Osip Vasilievich), G. V. Plekhanov (cm. PLEKHANOV Georgy Valentinovich), A. D. Oboleshev, V. A. Osinsky (cm. OSINSKY Valerian Andreevich), A. A. Kvyatkovsky (cm. KVIATKOVSKY Alexander Alexandrovich), M. R. Popov (cm. POPOV Mikhail Rodionovich) and etc.
In 1878, former “Chaikovites” joined “Land and Freedom” (cm. CHAIKOVTSY) S. M. Stepnyak-Kravchinsky (cm. STEPNYAK-KRAVCHINSKY Sergei Mikhailovich), D. A. Klements (cm. KLEMENTS Dmitry Alexandrovich), N. A. Morozov (cm. MOROZOV Nikolai Alexandrovich), S. L. Perovskaya (cm. PEROVSKAYA Sofya Lvovna), L. A. Tikhomirov (cm. TIKHOMIROV Lev Alexandrovich), M. F. Frolenko (cm. FROLENKO Mikhail Fedorovich). In 1877, the organization included about 60 people, and about 150 more revolutionaries joined it. Printed organs - the social revolutionary review “Land and Freedom” (Petersburg, No. 1-5, October 1878 - April 1879) and its appendix - “Leaflet “Land and Freedom” (Petersburg, No. 1-6, March-June 1879 ).
The emergence of the society was the result of a revision by the populist revolutionaries of their organizational and tactical principles after the failure of “going to the people” (cm. WALKING TO THE PEOPLE).
Goals and program
The purpose of the organization was “to carry out a popular uprising in the near future.” The landowners moved from abstract propaganda of socialist ideas to putting forward demands that are “really feasible in the near future.” These demands were expressed in the slogan “Land and Freedom.” From “flying” propaganda, the landowners moved to “settlements” among the people in order to get closer to the peasantry. Settlements were organized in the Volga region (center - Saratov province), Don region and some other provinces.
The Zemlyovoltsy created a working group and carried out propaganda among industrial workers in St. Petersburg, Kharkov and Rostov. They held the first demonstration in the history of Russia on December 6, 1876 at the Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg, at which Plekhanov gave a speech and a banner with the slogan “Land and Freedom” was unfurled.
Terror
The program of the Land Volyas included actions aimed at “disorganizing” the government, i.e. terror. Terror did not initially occupy a leading place in their activities; it was considered only as a weapon of self-defense and revenge. However, under the influence of disappointment in propaganda activities that do not bring visible results, as well as repression by the authorities, some of the landowners actually turn to terror, gradually entering the path of political struggle. Osinsky Circle - D. A. Lizoguba (cm. LIZOGUB Dmitry Andreevich), operating in Kyiv and Odessa, organized in 1878 - early 1879 the murders of police agent A. G. Nikonov, gendarme officer G. E. Geiking, Kharkov Governor-General D. N. Kropotkin; since March 1878, on proclamations regarding assassination attempts, a seal appears with the image of a revolver, dagger and ax and the signature “Executive Committee of the Social Revolutionary Party”; the terrorist struggle, having begun in the south, spreads to the capital; August 4, 1878 Stepnyak-Kravchinsky killed the chief of gendarmes, General N.V. Mezentsev (cm. MEZENTSOV Nikolay Vladimirovich) On March 13, an attempt was made on the life of his successor, General A.R. Drenteln.
Split of “Land and Freedom”
In “Land and Freedom,” sharp disagreements arise over the use of new tactics, which actually marked the transition from anarchism to political struggle. “The piece of Land and Freedom, edited by N. A. Morozov, essentially becomes an organ of terrorists. The assassination attempt of A.K. Solovyov caused acute controversy (cm. SOLOVIEV Alexander Konstantinovich) to Alexander II (cm. ALEXANDER II Nikolaevich) April 2, 1879; Some members of the organization protested against the preparation of a terrorist attack, believing that it would ruin the cause of propaganda.
In May 1879, terrorists created the “Freedom or Death” group, without coordinating their actions with the “villagers,” that is, with supporters of propaganda (Aptekman, Plekhanov). On June 15, on the eve of the general congress of landowners, “politicians” gather in Lipetsk to develop additions to the organization’s program and a common position; Some supporters of the political struggle who were not members of Land and Freedom were invited to the Lipetsk congress, including A. I. Zhelyabov (cm. ZHELYABOV Andrey Ivanovich). At the congress in Voronezh on June 19-21, 1879, the landowners tried to resolve contradictions and maintain the unity of the organization.
However, the compromise turned out to be fragile, and on August 15, 1879, “Land and Freedom” ceased to exist, dividing into a faction of “politicians” (Mikhailov, Tikhomirov, Kvyatkovsky, etc.), who adopted the name “People’s Will” (cm. PEOPLE'S WILL), and the “populists” faction (Plekhanov, Popov, Aptekman, etc.), who took the name “Black Redistribution” (cm. BLACK REDEL (populist organization)).

encyclopedic Dictionary. 2009 .

See what “LAND AND WILL (populist organization)” is in other dictionaries:
Earth and Will- a secret revolutionary society that arose in Russia in 1861 and existed until 1864, from 1876 to 1879 it was restored as a populist organization.

Second composition 1876-1879

The second composition of “Land and Freedom,” which was restored in 1876 as a populist organization, included such figures as A. D. Mikhailov, G. V. Plekhanov, D. A. Lizogub, later S. M. Kravchinsky, N. A. Morozov, S. L. Perovskaya, L. A. Tikhomirov, N. S. Tyutchev. In total, the organization consisted of about 200 people. “Land and Freedom” relied on a wide circle of sympathizers in its activities.

The name “Land and Freedom” was given to the society at the end of 1878, with the appearance of a printed organ of the same name; former name: “Northern Revolutionary Populist Group”, “Society of Populists”.

The organization’s propaganda was based not on the old socialist principles, incomprehensible to the people, but on slogans emanating directly from the peasantry, that is, the demands of “land and freedom.” In their program they proclaimed “anarchy and collectivism” as the goal of their activities. The specific requirements were the following:

§ transfer of all land to peasants

§ introduction of full community self-government

§ introduction of freedom of religion

§ granting nations the right to self-determination

The means of achieving these goals included organizational (propaganda, agitation among peasants and other classes and groups) and disorganization (individual terror against the most objectionable government officials and secret police agents). The organization had its own charter.

The organization consisted of a main circle (divided into seven special groups by type of activity) and local groups located in many large cities of the empire. “Land and Freedom” had its own printed organ with the same name. Agent of “Land and Freedom” N.V. Kletochnikov was introduced into the Third Department. Landlords organized village settlements as a transition to “sedentary” propaganda. However, this action, as well as “going to the people,” ended in failure. After this, the populists concentrated all their efforts on political terror.

Landlords took part in several strikes in St. Petersburg in 1878-79. "Land and Freedom". influenced the development of the student movement. She organized or supported demonstrations in St. Petersburg, including the Kazan demonstration of 1876, which was called “Land and Freedom”. for the first time openly declared its existence. Kazan demonstration of 1876, the first political demonstration in Russia with the participation of advanced workers. Caused by the growth of the strike movement in the country. It took place on December 6 on the square of the Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg. Organized and carried out by the land populists and members of workers’ circles associated with them. About 400 people gathered in the square. G. V. Plekhanov delivered a passionate revolutionary speech to those gathered. Young worker Ya. Potapov unfurled a red flag. The demonstrators resisted the police. 31 demonstrators were arrested, 5 of whom were sentenced to 10-15 years of hard labor, 10 were sentenced to exile in Siberia, and three workers, including Y. Potapov, were sentenced to imprisonment for 5 years in a monastery. The Kazan demonstration of 1876 marked the beginning of the conscious participation of Russians. working class in the social movement.

Lipetsk congress of members of the populist organization “Land and Freedom”. Took place in June 1879 in Lipetsk. Convened in an atmosphere of heightened disagreement among the revolutionary populists on the issue of the future direction of the organization's activities. A. D. Mikhailov, A. A. Kvyatkovsky, L. A. Tikhomirov, N. A. Morozov, A. I. Barannikov, M. N. Oshanina, A. I. Zhelyabov, N. I. Kolodkevich, G. D. Goldenberg, S. G. Shiryaev, M. F. Frolenko. The congress decided to include in the “Land and Freedom” program recognition of the need for a political struggle against autocracy as a priority and independent task. Participants in the Lipetsk Congress declared themselves the Executive Committee of the Social Revolutionary Party and adopted a charter based on centralism, discipline and secrecy. The Executive Committee, if the general congress of the “landers” in Voronezh agreed with the new program, was supposed to take upon itself the implementation of terror.

Voronezh Congress of Members of the Populist Organization "Land and Freedom", convened in June 1879 in Voronezh in connection with disagreements among the revolutionary populists on the issue of the future direction of activity. About 20 people took part, including G. V. Plekhanov, A. D. Mikhailov, A. I. Zhelyabov, V. N. Figner, S. L. Perovskaya, N. A. Morozov, M. F. Frolenko, O. V. Aptekman. Supporters of the “politics” of political struggle and terror (Zhelyabov, Mikhailov, Morozov, etc.) came to the congress as a united group, which was finally organized at the Lipetsk Congress (June 1879). Plekhanov’s supporters (“villagers”) took a conciliatory position, considering the main task to be work among the peasants: they did not, in essence, object to terror. Plekhanov, who proved the danger of being carried away by terror for the prospects of working among the people, formally resigned from Land and Freedom and left the congress.

The resolutions of the congress were of a compromise nature: along with activities, the people also recognized the need for political terror.

The organization existed until 1879, after which it disbanded. The terrorist wing formed a new organization, “Narodnaya Volya,” and the wing that remained faithful to purely populist tendencies was the “Black Redistribution” society. After the split of Land and Freedom at the Voronezh Congress, the Executive Committee of the Lipetsk Congress laid the foundation for a new organization, Narodnaya Volya.
The inspirers of the society were Herzen and Chernyshevsky. The participants set their goal to prepare a peasant revolution. Among the organizers were N. N. Obruchev, S. S. Rymarenko, I. I. Shamshin and others. Program documents were created under the influence of the ideas of Herzen and Ogarev. One of the most important demands put forward by members of the organization was the convening of a classless people's assembly.
The first Executive Committee of the organization included 6 of its organizers (N. N. Obruchev, S. S. Rymarenko, brothers N. A. and A. A. Serno-Solovyovich, A. A. Sleptsov, V. S. Kurochkin). Land and Freedom was an association of circles located in 13-14 cities. The largest circles were Moscow (Yu. M. Mosolov, N. M. Shatilov) and St. Petersburg (N. I. Utin). The military organization of Land and Freedom was represented by the “Committee of Russian Officers in Poland” under the leadership of Second Lieutenant A. A. Potebnya. According to the data available to A. A. Sleptsov, the number of “Land and Freedom” was 3,000 people (the Moscow branch consisted of 400 members).
In the summer of 1862, the tsarist authorities dealt a serious blow to the organization, arresting its leaders - Chernyshevsky and Serno-Solovyevich, as well as the radical journalist D. I. Pisarev, associated with revolutionaries. In 1863, due to the expiration of the charter, members of the organization expected a powerful peasant uprising, which they wanted to organize in cooperation with Polish revolutionaries. However, the Polish underground was forced to organize an uprising earlier than promised, and hopes for a peasant revolt did not materialize. Moreover, liberals for the most part refused to support the revolutionary camp, believing in the progressiveness of the reforms that had begun in the country. Under the influence of all these factors, “Land and Freedom” was forced to self-liquidate at the beginning of 1864.
2. Second composition 1876-1879
The second composition of "Land and Freedom", restored in 1876 as a populist organization, included such figures as A. D. Mikhailov, G. V. Plekhanov, D. A. Lizogub, later S. M. Kravchinsky, N. A Morozov, S. L. Perovskaya, L. A. Tikhomirov, N. S. Tyutchev. In total, the organization consisted of about 200 people. “Land and Freedom” relied on a wide circle of sympathizers in its activities.
Voronezh congress of members of the populist organization "Land and Freedom", convened in June 1879 in Voronezh in connection with disagreements among the revolutionary populists on the issue of the future direction of activity. About 20 people took part, including G. V. Plekhanov, A. D. Mikhailov, A. I. Zhelyabov, V. N. Figner, S. L. Perovskaya, N. A. Morozov, M. F. Frolenko, O. V. Aptekman. Supporters of the “politics” of political struggle and terror (Zhelyabov, Mikhailov, Morozov, etc.) came to the congress as a united group, which was finally organized at the Lipetsk Congress (June 1879). Plekhanov’s supporters (“villagers”) took a conciliatory position, considering the main task to be work among the peasants: they did not, in essence, object to terror. Plekhanov, who proved the danger of being carried away by terror for the prospects of working among the people, formally resigned from Land and Freedom and left the congress.
The resolutions of the congress were of a compromise nature: along with the activities, the people also recognized the need for political terror.
The organization existed until 1879, after which it disbanded. The terrorist wing formed a new organization, “Narodnaya Volya,” and the wing that remained faithful to purely populist tendencies was the “Black Redistribution” society. After the split of "Land and Freedom" at the Voronezh Congress, the Executive Committee of the Lipetsk Congress laid the foundation for a new organization "

Essay
“Land and Freedom” of the 70s. XIX century
Content
1. Introduction …………………………………………………… ……………………… .3
2. Main part
3.Conclusion ……………………………………………… ……………………… ...23
4. List of used literature.……………………………………… ..25
Introduction
In the 60s XIX century The era of Great Reforms began. Change - inevitable, necessary, long-awaited, frightening - was perceived differently by people. Some rejected them, others treated what was happening in the country with caution and distrust, others - especially young people - rushed things, passionately dreaming that tomorrow an era of freedom, equality, and brotherhood would begin in Russia. Revolutionary sentiments spread extremely throughout the country. That is why I chose as the object of my research the activities of the first major revolutionary organization “Land and Freedom” in the 70s. XIX century In my opinion, this topic is relevant, because its study allows us to understand further events in the history of the Russian state.
The goal of my work was to study the activities of “Land and Freedom”, to highlight the main tasks of the organization and ways to implement them. Determine how these objectives were achieved and find the reason for the collapse of “Land and Freedom”. Also, using the example of this revolutionary society, draw a conclusion about the mood of society in the 70s of the 19th century.
In my research, I relied on such sources as “The History of Russia from the beginning of the 18th to the end of the 19th century” by A. N. Sakharov and “The Course of the History of Russia in the 19th Century” by A. A. Kornilov, which most fully reflect the events that took place in the 70s. s of the 19th century. Thanks to the literature used, I was able to imagine the participation of “Land and Freedom” in these events, as well as identify the influence of the organization on society. Also, A.A. Kornilov most fully gives an idea of the goals set by the “Land and Freedom” society, which are not in the “History of Russia from the beginning of the 18th to the end of the 19th century.” To study the “Lands and Freedom” program, I used Internet resources where the archives of “Lands and Freedom” were presented.
will." These documents helped to form a clearer opinion about the organization.
Main part.
Reasons for the rise of the social movement
In the second half of the 50s of the XIX century. (preparation period peasant reform) in the socio-political life of Russia there has been a certain convergence of different ideological trends. The whole society understood the need to renew the country. It pushed and stimulated the government's transformative activities that had begun. However, the implementation of the reform and its results caused an intensification of the ideological and political struggle, an even greater division of society
The main reason for the rise of the social movement is the preservation of the old socio-political system and, first of all, the autocratic system with its police apparatus, the privileged position of the nobility, and the lack of democratic freedoms. An equally significant reason is the unresolved agrarian-peasant issue, which remained central in the public life of the country. A special reason was the diversity and severity of social contradictions. To the previous social contradictions (between peasants and landowners), new ones were added, caused by the development of capitalism, between workers and entrepreneurs, the liberal bourgeoisie and the conservative nobility, between the autocracy and the peoples that were part of Russian Empire. The half-hearted reforms of the 60-70s and fluctuations in government policy (either measures towards liberalization, or increased repression) also intensified the social movement.
A distinctive feature of the social life of Russia in the second half of the 19th century. there was political inertia of the broad masses. The peasant unrest that broke out after 1861 quickly faded away, and the labor movement was in its infancy. The people retained tsarist illusions. The bourgeoisie also showed political inertia. This provided the basis for the triumph of militant conservatism and determined an extremely narrow social basis for the activities of revolutionaries.
The emergence of populism. Education of “Land and Freedom” (1876-1879)
At the turn of the 50s and 60s, the type of “nihilist” that was captured by Turgenev in the image of Bazarov spread among young people. Rejecting noble prejudices and official ideology, the “nihilist” studied science, became a doctor, engineer, agronomist and brought concrete benefits to people without big words and pompous declarations. Many young people then flocked to universities.
In the fall of 1861, the government introduced tuition fees and banned student gatherings. Then, for the first time, there was unrest in universities. Many students were expelled. Their dreams of becoming “nihilists” and repeating Bazarov’s feat collapsed. Herzen then wrote in “The Bell”: “But where can you go, young men, from whom science has been locked?.. Shall I tell you where?.. To the people! to the people! - This is your place, exiles of science..."
In subsequent years, student unrest occurred more and more often, and again the “exiles of science” were looking for their place in life. Many went to the people voluntarily, others were expelled by the police. When they first encountered the peasantry, they were shocked by its poverty, darkness and lack of rights. The image of the “nihilist” faded and faded into the background, and in the minds of democratic youth (from the nobles and commoners) the ideas of “returning the debt to the people” and selfless service to them began to take root. The “Penitent Nobleman” was a prominent figure in the late 60s and early 70s. Boys and girls became rural teachers, doctors, and paramedics. And sometimes they completely disappeared into the people, like Prince V.V. Vyazemsky, who became a village blacksmith.
Populism developed into a powerful movement with its own ideology, at the origins of which were Herzen and Chernyshevsky. It was from them that populism borrowed its most noble features: defense of interests common people, above all the peasantry, deep democracy.
In Herzen and Chernyshevsky, the populists adopted a negative attitude towards the bourgeois system and faith in a socialist utopia. This gave rise to certain contradictions. Acting in the interests of the people, they sought to eliminate those remnants of serfdom that prevented the people from living. But the elimination of these remnants (for example, landowners' latifundia or peasant lawlessness) was supposed to open up space for the development of capitalist relations in the countryside. This means that the populists unwittingly acted in favor of what they denied. But they believed that Russia, relying on its communal traditions, would be able to “leap” over the period of the bourgeois system - straight into a “reasonably structured” socialist society.
The populists did not give special significance struggle for the constitution and civil liberties. It was believed that social liberation would immediately solve all problems. If the populists participated in the struggle for civil liberties, it was because they hoped with their help to expand their propaganda in order to take power and introduce socialism. This was the shadow side of the ideology of populism.
Since the beginning of the 70s, several populist circles existed in St. Petersburg, headed by M.A. Nathanson, S.L. Perovskaya and N.V. Chaikovsky. In 1871, they united, and the members of the emerging underground society began to be called “Chaikovtsy”, after the name of one of the leaders. There was no strict hierarchical subordination; the work was based on the voluntary zeal of society members. Its branches arose in Moscow, Kazan and other cities. At the time of its heyday, this federation of circles numbered over 100 people.
In 1872, Prince Pyotr Alekseevich Kropotkin (1842-1921), a geographer and later an anarchist theorist, joined the St. Petersburg circle of “Chaikovites.” With his arrival, the ideas of Bakunism began to spread in the circle, and before the circle stood on the positions of Lavrism. The main business of the Chaikovites was propaganda among the workers. Attempts were made to organize work among the peasantry. At the beginning of 1874, the police tracked down and arrested many of the Tchaikovites. But this did not break the connection between those who remained free.
The arrests did not stop the “going to the people” planned by the “Chaikovites” for 1874. However, it was not even an organized event, but a spontaneous movement of radical youth. In the spring of 1874, hundreds of young men and women - both Lavrists and Bakunists - went “to the people” from St. Petersburg, Moscow, Saratov, and Samara. The former set off with the long-term goal of re-educating the people in a revolutionary spirit, the latter were impatient to rouse them to revolt. The revolutionaries dressed in peasant clothes, stocked up with false passports, and were hired as carpenters, loaders, and peddlers. The main backbone of the traveling propagandists were former students, but there were also many retired officers and officials, and there were landowners and even girls from aristocratic families.
The peasants responded vividly to conversations about land shortages and the burden of redemption payments. But the preaching of socialism was not successful. The words of the visiting “master” about how good it would be when all property was shared were met with ironic grins. The haste with which propaganda was carried out at that time did not allow the populists to draw sober conclusions about whether socialist teaching corresponded to popular views.
It was not possible to start an uprising anywhere. The police launched a real hunt for propagandists. 770 people were detained in 37 provinces. Those who managed to escape the police fled to the cities.
In 1876, the circles that survived the defeat began work to recreate the revolutionary underground. The main conclusion that the revolutionaries made was that without the creation of large centralized, but at the same time well-secret organizations, the fight against autocracy is impossible.
In 1876, returning from exile, M. Nathanson headed the so-called “Northern Revolutionary Populist Group”. In the fall of 1876, Nathanson’s group merged with a number of provincial circles and individual revolutionaries who had survived arrest. This was the actual beginning of the famous revolutionary society “Land and Freedom”. The second composition of “Land and Freedom” included such figures as A.D. Mikhailov, G.V. Plekhanov, D.A. Lizogub. Later S. M. Kravchinsky, N. A. Morozov, S. L. Perovskaya, L. A. Tikhomirov, N. S. Tyutchev joined it. In total, the organization consisted of about 200 people. “Land and Freedom” relied on a wide circle of sympathizers in its activities.
The name "Land and Freedom" was given to the society at the end of 1878, with the appearance of a printed organ of the same name; former names: “Northern Revolutionary Populist Group”, “Society of Populists”.
The organization’s propaganda was based not on the former socialist principles, incomprehensible to the people, but on slogans emanating directly from the peasantry, that is, the demands of “Land and Freedom.” “Land and Freedom” was built on the principles of centralism, although still weak. Its core was the “main circle”. Society was divided into several groups. The "village workers", the largest group, were sent to work among the peasants. Other groups were to carry out propaganda among workers and students.
The Administration became the executive body of the “Main Circle”. She was always in St. Petersburg and was in charge of the distribution of all the available forces of the organization and party equipment. The goal of the Society was to prepare an uprising under the slogan “Land and Freedom.”
One of the main underground workers involved in the organizational problems of “Land and Freedom” was Alexey Oboleshev. He led the resolution of issues related to the development and implementation of ciphers, as well as the creation of a network of secret correspondence. Oboleshev took part in the development of the organization's charter. It mentioned the possibility of using codes for communication, while stipulating that “... the codes and passwords that exist for communications between members of the main circle should not be known to anyone except the members of the main circle.” Without rejecting the possibility of encrypted correspondence, the charter recommended making maximum use of the possibilities of transmitting information during personal meetings. When transmitting the most important information, it was strictly forbidden to resort to correspondence, even encrypted. It follows from this that already at the initial stage of organizing their activities, the revolutionaries understood that their codes could be broken by the enemy. There was no longer any faith in the absolute strength of ciphers. Thus, from all the previous activities of various revolutionary organizations, the correct conclusions were drawn.
The ultimate political and economic ideal of the organization is anarchy and collectivism.
The demands of “Land and Freedom” boiled down to four main points:
1. Legal popular views recognize as unfair the order in which the land is in the possession of those who do not cultivate it. According to the popular concept, “God’s land” and every farmer has the right to land in the amount that he can cultivate with his own labor. Therefore, they (the landowners) must demand the transfer of all land into the hands of the rural working class and its equal distribution. (The landowners are convinced that two-thirds of Russia will own land on a communal basis).
2. As for the political ideal, they recognized that among the Russian people there is a desire for complete secular self-government, although regarding intercommunal and external relations It is unlikely that the same definite views exist among the people. In their opinion, each community union will determine for itself what share public functions he will give it to the government that each of them forms for itself. The duty of the landowners is only to try to reduce this share as much as possible.
3. In the religious field, religious tolerance and a general desire for religious freedom were noticed among the Russian people; therefore they must strive for complete freedom of confession.
4. The Russian Empire included areas and even nationalities that were ready to secede at the first opportunity, such as, for example, Little Russia, Poland, the Caucasus, etc. Therefore, the Land and Freedom society considered it its duty to promote the division of the Russian Empire into parts according to local wishes.
From the previous, two main general tasks follow, to which all the attention of the Russian social-revolutionary party should be directed:
1) help elements of discontent among the people to organize and merge with the existing popular organizations of a revolutionary nature at that time, and through agitation to increase the intensity of this discontent, and
2) weaken, loosen, i.e. to disorganize the power of the state, without which the success of no, even the most broad and well-conceived, plan of uprising will be ensured.
Hence these are the immediate practical tasks
A. Organizing part
a) A close and harmonious organization of ready-made revolutionaries who agree to act in the spirit of the “Land and Freedom” program, both from among the intelligentsia and from among the workers who were in direct contact with it.
b) Rapprochement and even merger with sects of a religious-revolutionary nature hostile to the government, such as, for example, runners, defaulters, stunda, etc.
c) Establishing the broadest and strongest possible connections in areas where discontent is most acute, and establishing durable settlements and dens among the peasant population of these areas.
d) Attracting bandits of bandits to your side from time to time, appearing in different places.
e) Establishing relations and connections in centers of concentration of industrial workers - factories and factories.
The activity of people who have taken up the implementation of these points should consist in the types of sharpening and generalization of popular aspirations, in agitation in the broadest sense of the word, starting with legal protest against local authorities and ending with an armed uprising, i.e. riot. In personal acquaintances with both workers and peasants (especially schismatics), agitators, of course, cannot deny the importance of the exchange of ideas and propaganda.
f) Propaganda and agitation in university centers among the intelligentsia, which at first was the main contingent for replenishing the ranks of the organization and partly a source of funds.
g) Establishing connections with liberals for the purpose of exploiting them for one’s benefit.
h) Propaganda of ideas and agitation through literature: publishing one’s own organ and distributing incendiary leaflets in as many quantities as possible.
B. Disorganization part
a) Establishing connections and your own organization in the troops, and mainly among the officers.
b) Bringing to your side persons serving in certain government agencies.
c) Systematic extermination of the most harmful or prominent persons from the government and in general people who maintain this or that hated order.
Charter
The full text of the charter can be read in Appendix 1. Here I tried to highlight the more characteristic features of this organization.
A. Basic principles of organization
§ 3. Each member unconditionally brings to the benefit of the organization all his forces, means, connections, likes and dislikes, and even his life.
§ 4. The agreement of each member with the general program of practical activities and the obligation to act in its spirit.
§ 6. Maintaining complete secrecy regarding all internal affairs of the organization.
§ 7. Subordination of the minority to the majority and the member of the circle.
§ 8. Since the organization has in mind the unification of all Russian revolutionary forces useful to the cause, then in all affairs of the organization, personal 3 likes and dislikes towards people are excluded as much as possible, as an indispensable condition for joint activity.
§ 9. The end justifies the means.
Note. Except in cases where the means used may undermine the authority of the organization (§ 14).
B. Immediate tasks of the main circle
§ 11. Recruitment to the organization is possible more revolutionary forces, means and connections.
§ 12. Control over the activities of all groups and each member individually.
Note Everyone's personal life is subject to general control as much as it may seem important in a given practical case.
B. Responsibilities and mutual relations members of the main circle
§ 14. Each member of the main circle is obliged by all means to maintain the honor and influence of both the entire organization and its individual members.
§ 16. Members of the main circle, with whom public property is connected or any important connections are connected, must take care of themselves and, if possible, not take part in dangerous enterprises.
§ 17. Each member of the main circle chooses his own type of activity or joins one or another group according to his own desire; in those cases when for a certain function there are no people willing to perform it out of their own desire, the circle can oblige anyone whom it chooses (by the majority) to take on this function.
§ 18. Each member of the main circle, who is in any group or in any specialty, if he wishes to leave this group or this specialty, must declare his intention to the main circle at least two months before the expiration of this he has no right to leave his place during the term.
Notes. It is clear that this is mandatory only in the case when the presence of one of the members of the main circle at a given place is necessary, and if a member intending to leave this place cannot be replaced by another immediately upon declaring his intention to the main circle or chatting about them, then such a member must be...
§ 19. Every member of the main circle has the right to freely leave it; but upon leaving, he is obliged to keep secret everything that he knows about the affairs and organization of the circle.
§ 20. If it is proven that a member who has left the circle is betraying circle secrets or chatting about them, then such a member must be ... [hereinafter “certainly killed” is crossed out]
D. Expansion of the main circle.
§ 21. The acceptance of a new member into the main circle requires a very strict assessment of the individual. In addition to the requirement specified in the next §, it is necessary that the newly admitted member be known to the circle in terms of experience and practicality in business. Otherwise, he must spend some time on probation.
D. Composition of groups, their tasks and organization
§ 26. The number and nature of groups are determined by the general program of the circle.
§ 27. The tasks of the groups are to carry out parts of the general program of the circle and the enterprises that it provides for.
§ 29. The internal organization of each group may be unique; but members of the main circle who are part of local or special groups, keeping their participation in the main circle secret, try to create an organization of groups in the spirit and in the interests of the main circle.
Note. They explain their relationship to the main circle to group members as the relationship of two groups connected through them.
§ 50. It is mandatory for each member of the main circle to follow these regulations.
Activities of "Land and Freedom"
On December 6, 1876, “Land and Freedom” organized a demonstration in front of the Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg. It was conceived as a review of the revolutionary forces of the capital. They hoped to gather several thousand people, unfurl the red banner, make speeches and even march through the city. But only 300-400 people gathered. The police set janitors, clerks, and loaders on them, and the beating of the demonstrators began. About 20 people were arrested, others fled. Soon five were sent to hard labor, 10 people were exiled to a settlement. Such a harsh reprisal against participants in a peaceful demonstration caused bewilderment and murmurs in society. At this demonstration, 20-year-old Georgiy Plekhanov, the future founder of Russian Marxism, gave a speech and a red banner was unfurled. The red banner was raised by a teenager, weaver Yakov Potapov. Yakov Potapov was arrested immediately after the demonstration, tracked down by police agents. He was given a surprisingly mild sentence - 1 year of repentance in the monastery, however, future fate it clearly shows how matters stood with respect for the rule of law in tsarist Russia. Instead of a year, he served in a monastery in a practically prison regime for more than three years, and no one thought of releasing him. In the end, having learned about the murder of the king, he said, “There will be freedom for everyone” and slapped the abbot. For this he received a new sentence - lifelong exile to Siberia, and he was exiled to the most disastrous place of exile - to Yakutia. He died in 1919. For raising the red flag, for a few minutes of freedom and strength, the life of Yakov Potapov was irreparably broken...
After an unsuccessful demonstration, the populists again concentrated their efforts in the countryside. Having abandoned the “flying propaganda”, the landowners began to settle in groups in the most restless places: in the Volga region, Kuban and Don. It seemed to them that it was precisely where the traditions of the Cossack freemen and the legends about Razin and Pugachev were alive that it would be easiest to rouse the people to revolt.
“Settled” activity did not bring much success. The Zemlya Volyas failed to create the “revolutionary army” that they dreamed of. They lost heart, not realizing how naive their attempts to immediately rouse the people to revolt were. Populist settlements were tracked down by the police. The best forces died in the unequal struggle. By the fall of 1877, there were almost no populist settlements left in the village. A serious crisis was brewing in “Land and Freedom”.
The attempt to unleash “agrarian terror” in the countryside and to rouse the peasants into armed uprisings also did not yield results. In an atmosphere of collapse of hopes, mass political trials and brutal reprisals, the attitude of the landowners to the methods of achieving their immediate goals began to change. There was a growing belief in the need for terrorist methods to fight the government. The first terrorist acts were of the nature of self-defense or retaliation.
In the summer of 1877, St. Petersburg mayor F.F. Trepov, during a visit to the prison, noticed that one of the prisoners did not take off his hat when he appeared. It was Bogolyubov, a participant in the demonstration in front of the Kazan Cathedral, sentenced to hard labor. The enraged Trepov ordered him to be flogged. According to the law, Trepov could neither demand that the hat be taken off in front of him, nor punish with rods. But he was confident of his impunity.
On January 24, 1878, young populist Vera Zasulich came to see Trepov and shot him with a revolver. Trepov was seriously wounded, but survived. The public was unaware of the connection between the assassination attempt and the Bogolyubov incident. Conservative newspapers portrayed Trepov as a victim of call of duty.
The government, hoping to stir up sentiment against terror in society, sent Zasulich's case to a jury trial.
The trial took place on March 31, 1878. At first, the public mood was not in favor of the accused, but as the proceedings progressed, it changed dramatically. The jury found Zasulich not guilty, and the trial, chaired by A.F. Kony returned a verdict of not guilty. The audience gave a standing ovation. When leaving the hall, the police tried to arrest Zasulich in order to send her into administrative exile. But the youth fought her off, and that same evening she fled abroad.
Vera Ivanovna Zasulich (1849-1919), a prominent revolutionary and public figure, subsequently became a principled opponent of the death penalty and terror. She defended her opinion without fear of the wrath of the Bolsheviks who came to power. But then, in 1878, her shot had dual consequences. On the one hand, in the most dramatic form he drew public attention to the fact that the authorities are committing lawlessness at every step. But on the other hand, it shook the negative attitude of society towards terror. The extreme revolutionaries, who had long insisted on terror, decided that society was entirely sympathetic to such methods of struggle. The most significant terrorist act was "Z. and V." there was the murder of the chief of gendarmes N.V. Mezentsov (1878), stabbed to death on August 4 in the very center of St. Petersburg by landowner S. Kravchinsky. The killer disappeared without a trace.
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Leader of Land and Freedom 1876 1879. Populist organization “Land and Freedom” (1876): program, tactics and revolutionary activities. Split of “Land and Freedom”

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