The system of socially significant qualities of a person is an individual. Socially significant properties and qualities. What is included in the "registry" of the most significant social qualities of a person

property of the brain as a highly organized matter, manifested in the reflection of the objective world in the human brain. P. exists as an activity of the brain, the product of which is a mental reflection. It is objective in its content, but it also has subjective features due to the fact that external influences are refracted through the totality of the subject's internal properties. Animals also possess P., but only man possesses its highest form - consciousness. The specificity of human P. is associated with the social nature of a person, his work and speech, and is manifested in the activity of both cognitive and practical, transforming the external world of human activity. P. is the object of study of a special science - psychology, is realized in mental processes, properties and states of a person and manifests itself in various forms of mental reflection. Mental processes are the most important form of reflective activity of the brain. There are three types of such processes: 1) cognitive, which give us the opportunity to know the world and ourselves (sensation, perception, representation, memory, thinking, etc.), these processes differ from each other in varying degrees of completeness and depth of reflection of reality; 2) emotional, in which we express our attitude to the surrounding reality and to ourselves in the form of various experiences of pleasure or displeasure; 3) volitional, through which we regulate our actions, deeds, attitude to the world (desires, aspirations, intentions, decisions, etc.). Mental properties include needs, interests, inclinations and beliefs, abilities, temperament and character. These properties are the most stable personality traits that characterize each individual person. Mental states are temporary combinations of mental processes and properties, characteristics of the body, experienced by a person in a peculiar way in a given period of time and influencing his activity and behavior.

PSYCHE

Greek psychikos - pertaining to the soul, mental properties). The property of highly organized matter, the brain, which is a special form of active reflection by the subject of objective reality. P. arises as a result of the interaction of highly organized living beings with the surrounding reality. Mental reflection is generated by the activity of the subject, it mediates it and performs the function of orientation, management of it. Thanks to P., human activity and behavior are constantly subject to self-regulation. P. determines the activity of a person, during which the adequacy of the reflection of reality is checked. P. of a person is characterized by the emergence of consciousness as the leading level of regulation of activity and the formation of personality, which is the source of the highest manifestations of activity of P. It distinguishes between conscious and unconscious forms of activity (conscious and unconscious).

Syn.: mental activity.

Psyche

Word formation. Comes from the Greek. psychikos - sincere.

Specificity. The activity of reflection is manifested primarily in the search for and testing of future actions in terms of ideal images.

PSYCHE

1. The ancient Greeks imagined the psyche as the soul or the very essence of life. 2. A more traditional meaning is limited to the inner world of a person. Although both of these values ​​reflect a kind of dualism, the value 2 is less problematic and is generally accepted. 3. See self, psychic (1 OR 3).

PSYCHE

from the Greek psyche - soul) - the highest form of the relationship of living beings with the objective world, expressed in their ability to realize their impulses and act on the basis of information about it. At the human level, P. acquires a qualitatively new character, due to the fact that its biological nature is transformed by socio-cultural factors, due to which an internal plan of life activity arises - consciousness, and the individual becomes a personality. Knowledge of P. has changed over the centuries, reflecting advances in research into bodily functions and in the understanding of human dependence on the social environment. This knowledge, comprehended in various ideological contexts, served as the subject of discussions, since it touched upon fundamental philosophical questions about the place of man in the universe, about the material and spiritual foundations of his being. For centuries, P. was denoted by the term "soul", the interpretation of which, in turn, reflected differences in the explanation of the driving forces, the inner plan and the meaning of human behavior. Along with the understanding of the soul ascending to Aristotle as a form of existence of a living body, a direction has developed that represents it in the form of an incorporeal essence, the history and fate of which, according to various religious beliefs, depend on extraterrestrial principles. The essential features of P. are: a) P. is a subjective, always simplified and incomplete image of the objective world; b) P. - brain function; c) P. - the highest form of reflection; d) P. is the product of a long evolution of forms of reflection. P. is the central link that plays a key role in the emergence and development of conflicts of all types and types.

Psyche

The ability of the subject to actively reflect reality, which performs a regulatory function in his behavior. The main components of P. are sensation, perception, memory, feelings, and thinking.

psyche

a property of highly organized matter, a product of the activity of the brain, expressed in the reflection of objective reality and the objectification of what is reflected in behavior and activity. P. is the main category and subject of psychology.

PSYCHE

a property of highly organized living beings existing in various forms and a product of their vital activity, providing their orientation and activity. An essential property of the living. The interaction of living beings with the outside world is realized through processes, acts, mental states that are qualitatively different from physiological, but inseparable from them.

The psyche is a systemic property of highly organized matter, which consists in the active reflection of the objective world by the subject, in the construction of a picture of the world inalienable from him and self-regulation of behavior and activity on its basis. The psyche provides an effective adaptation to the environment.

Reflection of the psychic world is always accomplished in vigorous activity. In the psyche, events of the past, present and possible future are presented and ordered. In man, the events of the past appear in the data of experience, in the representations of memory; the present - in the totality of images, experiences, mental acts; possible future - in motives, intentions, goals, as well as in fantasies, dreams, dreams, etc. The human psyche is both conscious and unconscious; but also unconscious - qualitatively different from the psyche of animals. The main difference between the human psyche and the animal psyche lies precisely in the conscious purposefulness of mental manifestations. Consciousness is its essential characteristic.

Thanks to the active and anticipatory reflection by the sense organs and the brain of external objects in the form of the psyche, it becomes possible to perform actions that are adequate to the properties of these objects, and thereby the survival of the organism, its search and supra-situational activity. So the defining features are:

1) a reflection that gives an image of the environment where living beings act;

2) their orientation in this environment;

3) satisfaction of the need for contacts with her. And these contacts, on the principle of feedback, control the correctness of the reflection.

In man, the control instance is social practice. Thanks to the feedback connection, the result of the action is compared with the image, the appearance of which is ahead of this result, anticipating it as a kind of model of reality. Thus, the psyche acts as a single cyclic system that has a history and is reflex in type. Here, reflexivity means the primacy of the objective conditions of the organism's life and the secondary nature of their reproduction in the psyche, the natural transition of the perceiving components of the system to the executive ones, the expediency of motor effects and their "reverse" influence on the image. The activity of the psyche is manifested:

1) when displaying reality, because it involves the transformation of physical and chemical stimuli acting on the nervous apparatus into images of objects;

2) in the sphere of motives that give energy and swiftness to behavior;

3) when executing a program of behavior, including the search and selection of options.

Deepening into the phylogenetic history of the psyche leads to the question of its objective criteria. That is, one that allows you to determine whether a given organism has a psyche. Modern theories do not descend in search of the psyche below the animal world. But the criteria they propose lead to different localization of the "threshold" of the psychic. Here are some of them: the ability to search behavior, the ability to "flexibly" adapt to the environment, the ability to "play" the action in the internal plan, etc. The very variety of theories suggests that they are rather debatable hypotheses than developed theories.

Among these hypotheses, one of the most recognized (in domestic psychology) belongs to A.N. Leontiev. As an objective criterion of the psyche, she proposes the ability of organisms to respond to abiotic (biologically neutral) influences. Responding to them is useful because they are in stable connection with biologically significant objects and, therefore, are their potential signals. The reflection of abiotic properties turns out to be inextricably linked with a qualitatively different form of activity of beings - behavior. Prior to that, vital activity was reduced to the assimilation of food, excretion, growth, reproduction, etc. Now there is an activity "inserted" between the actual situation and the vital act - metabolism. The meaning of this activity is to provide a biological result where conditions do not allow it to be realized directly. Two fundamental concepts are associated with the proposed criterion: irritability and sensitivity. At the same time, sensitivity implies the subjective aspect of reflection; the assumption that it first appears together with the reaction to abiotic stimuli is a very important hypothesis that required experimental verification. According to the psychoanalysis of Z. Freud, the psyche consists of three instances - conscious, preconscious and unconscious - and a system of their interaction. The division of the psyche into the conscious and the unconscious is the basic premise of psychoanalysis, and only it makes it possible to understand and investigate the frequently observed and very important pathological processes in mental life. So, the psyche is wider than consciousness. The mental life of a person is determined by his inclinations, the main of which is the sexual inclination.

According to R. Assagioli, there are such components of the psyche:

1) the highest self - a kind of "inner god";

2) conscious self - I am a point of clear awareness;

3) field of consciousness - analyzed feelings, thoughts, impulses;

4) the unconscious higher, or superconsciousness - higher feelings and abilities, intuition, inspiration;

5) the unconscious middle-likeness of the Freudian preconscious - thoughts and feelings, which can be easily realized;

6) the lower unconscious - instinctive urges, passions, primitive desires, etc.

An important role is also played by the concept of subpersonalities - as if relatively independent, more or less developed "small" personalities within a person; they may correspond to the roles a person plays in life.

PSYCHE

This term, and what it stands for, is the hackneyed result of the union of philosophy and psychology. At some deep level, we love and cherish him dearly and see great potential in him, but because of our own inadequacy, we continuously abuse him by grossly resorting to unnecessary speculation. There are two conflicting tendencies in the use of the term: the tendency to view the mind as a metaphysical explanatory phenomenon, separate from mechanistic systems, and the tendency to view it as a convenient biological metaphor representing manifestations of as yet ununderstood neurophysiological processes in the brain. The following patterns of usage of the term are the most important and common, and can be seen as the main conflict. 1. Mind as a set of hypothetical mental processes and actions that can serve as explanatory techniques for psychological data. In recent years, this model of the use of the term has become dominant. Here, the mental components are hypothetical because they have an explanation within the appropriate theoretical framework. What is interesting is the reluctance, even the refusal, of those who take this position to speculate about the neuropsychological structures to which this might be related. Attention usually focuses on the effectiveness of a hypothetical model of consciousness in explaining, rather than simply describing, the observation of empirical research. This meaning is most often used by those working in the field of artificial intelligence, modern cognitive psychologists and some schools of thought, such as functionalism (3). 2. The psyche as a set of conscious and unconscious mental experiences of the organism of the individual (usually, although not always, of the human organism). In fact, this usage is an attempt to avoid the aforementioned metaphysical problem, but it creates second-order problems of the same type due to confusion about how to characterize consciousness. Often even adherents of the behaviorist approach thus "open for themselves a back door" to reasoning about the psyche, but they invariably replace consciousness with behavior and actions. 3. Mind as a set of processes. This is perhaps the next most common view. The argument here is that some of the processes usually considered under the headings of perception and cognition together make up the psyche. There is no real attempt to define here, the processes are only enumerated and attempts are made to understand them. Strip the value 1 from the theory and get the value 3. 4. Mind as equivalent to the brain. This position, which goes back to William James, must ultimately be true. The main hindrance here is, of course, that we know very little about the functions of the brain. As a result, it is more a matter of faith than a true philosophical position. 5. Mind as a suddenly appearing property. The arguments here are the same as in emergentism: when a biological system reaches a point of sufficient complexity and organized structure, a psyche (or consciousness) emerges. 6. Mind as a list of synonyms. For example, psyche, soul, self, etc. Nothing is achieved by such usage, and here various problems connected with the definitions of terms are mixed up. 7. Mind as intelligence. In fact, this is only a colloquial model for the use of this term. 8. Mind as a characteristic or trait. Also used in a non-professional manner, as in phrases like: "artist's psyche" or "Northern European psyche". See matter and spirit, the problem.

Psyche

from the Greek psychikos - mental), the highest form of the relationship of living beings with the objective world, expressed in their ability to realize their impulses and act on the basis of information about it, mediated by the active reflection of signs of objective reality. The activity of reflection is manifested primarily in the search for and testing of future actions in terms of ideal images. At the human level, P. acquires a qualitatively new character, due to the fact that its biological nature is transformed by sociocultural factors, due to which an internal plan of life activity arises - consciousness, and the individual becomes a personality. Knowledge about P. has changed over the centuries, reflecting advances in research on the function of the organism (as its bodily substrate) and in understanding the dependence of a person on the social environment of his activity. This knowledge, comprehended in various ideological contexts, served as the subject of heated discussions, since it touched upon fundamental philosophical questions about the place of man in the universe, about the material and spiritual foundations of his being. For many centuries P. was denoted by the term "soul", the interpretation of which, in turn, reflected differences in the explanation of the driving forces, the inner plan and the meaning of human behavior. Along with the understanding of the soul as a form of existence of a living body, ascending to Aristotle, a direction has developed that represents it in the form of an incorporeal essence, the history and fate of which, according to various religious beliefs, depend on extraterrestrial principles. Studied psychology.

Chapter 1. Introduction to Psychology

2. The concept of the psyche

Traditionally, the concept of the psyche is defined as a property of living highly organized matter, which consists in capabilities to reflect by their states the surrounding objective world in its connections and relations.

Any joint labor of people presupposes a division of labor, when different members of the collective activity perform different operations; some operations immediately lead to a biologically useful result, other operations do not give such a result, but act only as a condition for its achievement, i.e. these are intermediate operations. But within the framework of individual activity, this result becomes an independent goal, and a person understands the connection between the intermediate result and the final motive, i.e. understands meaning actions. meaning, according to A.N. Leontiev, and is a reflection of the relationship between the purpose of the action and the motive.

Table 2.

Activity is an active interaction of a person with the environment, in which he achieves a consciously set goal that arose as a result of the appearance of a certain need, motive in him (Fig. 1.5).

Motives and goals may not coincide. Why a person acts in a certain way is often not the same as what he acts for. When we are dealing with activity in which there is no conscious goal, then there is no activity in the human sense of the word, but impulsive behavior takes place, which is directly controlled by needs and emotions.

Under behavior in psychology, it is customary to understand the external manifestations of a person's mental activity.

Fig.1.5 Activity structure

Behaviors include:

1. certain movements and gestures (for example, bowing, nodding, clasping hands),
2. external manifestations of physiological processes associated with the state, activity, communication of people (for example, posture, facial expressions, looks, reddening of the face, trembling, etc.),
3. actions that have a certain meaning, and finally
4. actions that have social significance and are associated with norms of behavior.

An act is an action, performing which a person realizes its significance for other people, i.e. his social meaning.

The main characteristic of activity is its objectivity. By object is meant not just a natural object, but a cultural object in which a certain socially developed way of acting with it is fixed. And this method is reproduced whenever objective activity is carried out. Another characteristic of activity is its social, socio-historical nature. A person cannot independently discover forms of activity with objects. This is done with the help of other people who demonstrate patterns of activity and include a person in a joint activity. The transition from activity divided between people and performed in an external (material) form to individual (internal) activity constitutes the main line of internalization, during which psychological neoplasms (knowledge, skills, capabilities, motives, attitudes, etc.).

Activities are always indirect. Tools, material objects, signs, symbols (internalized, internal means) and communication with other people act as means. Carrying out any act of activity, we realize in it a certain attitude towards other people, even if they are really and not present at the time of the activity.

Human activity is always purposeful, subject to the goal as a consciously presented planned result, the achievement of which it serves. The goal directs the activity and corrects its course.

Activity is not a set of reactions, but a system of actions cemented into a single whole by the motive that motivates it.
A motive is something for the sake of which an activity is carried out, it determines meaning what the person does. Basic knowledge about activities, motives, skills are presented in diagrams.

Finally, the activity is always productive, i.e. its result is transformations both in the external world and in the person himself, his knowledge, motives, abilities, etc. Depending on what changes play the main role or have the largest share, different types of activity are distinguished (labor, cognitive, communicative, etc.).

Human activity has a complex hierarchical structure. It consists of several levels: the upper level is the level of special activities, then the level of actions, the next is the level of operations, and finally, the lowest is the level of psychophysiological functions.

Action is the basic unit of activity analysis. Action is a process aimed at achieving a goal.

Action includes as a necessary component an act of consciousness in the form of setting a goal, and at the same time, action is at the same time an act of behavior, realized through external actions in inseparable unity with consciousness. Through actions, a person shows his activity, trying to achieve his goal, taking into account external conditions.

The action has a structure similar to the activity: the goal is the motive, the method is the result. There are actions: sensory (actions to perceive an object), motor (motor actions), volitional, mental, mnemonic (memory actions), external object (actions aimed at changing the state or properties of objects in the external world) and mental (actions performed during inner plane of consciousness). The following components of action are distinguished: sensory (sensory), central (mental) and motor (motor) (Fig. 1.6).

Rice. 1.6 Action components and their function

Any action is a complex system consisting of several parts: indicative (managing), executive (working) and control and corrective. The indicative part of the action provides a reflection of the set of objective conditions necessary for the successful implementation of this action. The executive part performs the specified transformations in the action object. The control part tracks the progress of the action, compares the results obtained with the given samples and, if necessary, provides correction of both the indicative and executive parts of the action.

An operation is a specific way of performing an action. The nature of the operations used depends on the conditions in which the action is performed and the experience of the person. Operations are usually little or not realized at all by a person, i.e. this is the level of automatic skills.

Speaking about the fact that a person performs some kind of activity, one should not forget that a person is an organism with a highly organized nervous system, developed sensory organs, a complex musculoskeletal system, psychophysiological functions, which are both prerequisites and means of activity.

For example, when a person sets himself the goal of memorizing something, he can use different actions and memorization techniques, but this activity relies on the existing mnemonic psychophysiological function: none of the memorization actions would lead to the desired result if the person did not have a mnemonic function. Psychophysiological functions constitute the organic foundation of the processes of activity.

sensorimotor processes- these are the processes in which the connection between perception and movement is carried out. In these processes, four mental acts are distinguished:

1. sensory moment of reaction - the process of perception;
2. the central moment of the reaction - more or less complex processes associated with the processing of the perceived, sometimes the difference, recognition, evaluation and choice;
3. motor moment of reaction - processes that determine the beginning and course of movement;
4. sensory corrections of movement (feedback).

Ideomotor processes connect the idea of ​​movement with the execution of movement. The problem of the image and its role in the regulation of motor acts is the central problem in the psychology of correct human movements.

Emotional-motor processes- these are processes that connect the performance of movements with emotions, feelings, mental states experienced by a person.

Interiorization- this is the process of transition from external, material action to internal, ideal action.
exteriorization is the process of transforming an internal mental action into an external action.

The main activities that ensure the existence of a person and the formation of him as a person are communication, play, learning and work.

It has already been noted that our needs push us to action, to activity. A need is a state of need experienced by a person for something. The states of an organism's objective need for something that lies outside it and constitutes a necessary condition for its normal functioning are called needs. Hunger, thirst, or the need for oxygen are the primary needs, the satisfaction of which is vital for all living beings. Any disturbance in the balance of sugar, water, oxygen, or any other component necessary for the body automatically leads to the appearance of a corresponding need and to the emergence of a biological impulse that, as it were, pushes a person to its satisfaction. The primal drive thus generated sets off a series of coordinated actions aimed at restoring balance.

Maintaining a balance in which the body does not experience any needs is called homeostasis. From here homeostatic behavior- this is a behavior that is aimed at eliminating motivation by satisfying the need that caused it. Often human behavior is caused by the perception of certain external objects, the action of some external stimuli. perception certain external objects plays the role of a stimulus, which can be as strong and significant as the internal impulse itself. The need to move, to receive new information, new stimuli (cognitive need), new emotions allows the body to maintain an optimal level of activation, which allows it to function most efficiently. This need for stimuli varies depending on the physiological and mental state of the person.

The need for social contacts, communication with people is one of the leading ones in a person, only with the course of life it changes its forms.

People are constantly busy with something, and in most cases they decide what they will do. To make a choice, people resort to the process of thinking. Motivation can be viewed as a “selection mechanism” for some form of behavior. This mechanism, if necessary, responds to external stimuli, but most often it chooses the option that at the moment best suits the physiological state, emotions, a memory or a thought that came to mind, or an unconscious attraction, or innate features. The choice of our immediate actions is also guided by our goals and plans for the future. The more important these goals are to the naga, the more powerfully they guide our choices.

Thus, there is a hierarchy of different needs from the most primitive to the most refined. The hierarchical pyramid of needs was developed by an igvest psychologist Maslow: from innate physiological needs (need for food, drink, sex, pursuit avoid pain, parental instinct, the need to explore the world, etc.) - to the needs for security, then to the needs for affection, love, then to the needs for respect, approval, recognition, competence, then to cognitive and aesthetic needs (in order , beauty, justice, symmetry) - and, finally, the need to understand the meaning of one's life, self-improvement, self-development, self-realization.

But one and the same need can be satisfied with the help of different objects, with the help of different actions, i.e. in various ways objectified. In the process of objectifying a need, two important features of a need are revealed: 1) initially there is a fairly wide range of items that can satisfy a given need; 2) there is a quick fixation of the need on the first object that satisfied it. In the act of objectification, a motive is born as an object of need.

A motive is an objectified need, it is a need for a given object that prompts a person to take action. One and the same motive can be satisfied by a set of different actions, and on the other hand, the same action can be motivated by different motives. Motives give rise to actions, i.e. lead to goals. These are motives. But there are also unconscious motives that can manifest themselves in the form of emotions and personal meanings. emotions arise only about such events or results of actions that are associated with motives. The leading main motive determines the personal meaning- the experience of increased subjective significance of an object or event that finds itself in the field of action of the leading motive.

The set of actions that are caused by one motive is called a special type of activity (game, educational or labor).

TEST QUESTIONS

1. What is the subject of psychology as a science?
2. List and give a brief description of the main views on the psyche and its role.
3. What are the main functions and manifestations of the psyche?
4. How is the development of forms of behavior and reflective function interconnected in the process of evolution? Is it related to the development of the nervous system?
5. Why can't the complex behavior of ants be called labor? What are the characteristic features of labor that have played an important role in the development of human consciousness?
6. What circles of influence of nature on the psyche exist?
7. What research methods are used in psychology?
8. What is the relationship between the psyche and the body, between the psyche and the brain?

LITERATURE

1. Hegel. Encyclopedia of Philosophical Sciences. T. 3. M., Thought, 1977
2. Vygotsky L.S. The history of the development of higher mental functions. Sobr. op. T. 3. M., Pedagogy, 1983
3. Leontiev A.N. Problems of the development of the psyche. M., 1987
4. Godefroy J. What is psychology. In 2 vol. M., Mir, 1992
5. Yarvilekto T. Brain and psyche. M., Progress, 1992
6. Platonov K.K. Entertaining psychology. M., 1990
, M., 1997
7. Shibutani T.Social Psychology. Rostov n/a, 1998
8. Romanov V.V.legal psychology. M., 1998
9. Methods of research in psychology: quasi-experiment. M., 1998
10. Chufarovsky Yu.V.legal psychology. M., 1998

from the Greek ??????? - spiritual) - a property of highly organized matter that arises on a certain. stages of development of life and is a special form of reflection. Animals have an elementary form of P., subject to biological. laws. The highest form of P. - consciousness - is inherent only in man, is a product of socio-historical. development and subject to social laws. Directly for a person, subjectively, P. appears in the form of phenomena accessible to self-observation - sensations, perceptions, ideas, thoughts, feelings, etc. Objective expressions of P. are discovered by observing other people, their various actions, speech, facial expressions, etc. Through P., a person cognizes, displays the world and orients himself in it - regulates his activity. Idealistic psychology sees in P. a manifestation of a special spiritual substance independent of matter and subordinating it to itself and cannot solve the so-called. psychophysical problem, explain P.'s connection with the body. This problem remained insoluble for the metaphysical. materialism, which ignored qualities. originality of P. Dialectic. materialism considers P. as one of the forms of reflection resulting from specific. interactions of highly organized living systems with their environment. P. is the subject of a multilateral scientific. study. Establishing a connection between various aspects of its analysis is a very difficult discussion problem. As the most general approach to solving this problem, we can propose a distinction between two closely related, but significantly different aspects - epistemological and concrete scientific. In epistemological P.'s aspect is considered from t. sp. its relation to the reality reflected in it. If we have in mind the highest (and at the same time the most studied in science) - human. form P., then epistemological. aspect of its analysis is directly related to the main question of philosophy, and here the concept of P. in its own way. sense is identified with the concepts of consciousness, thought, mind, idea, spirit, etc. From this t. sp. P. acts as a secondary, derivative of matter. Gnoseological analysis, by its very nature, requires consideration of P. and matter as mutually opposite, since the subject of this analysis is precisely the relationship of being and consciousness. However, such a contrast is justified only within the limits of DOS. question of philosophy. “Beyond these limits, to operate with the opposition of matter and spirit, physical and mental, as with an absolute opposite, would be a huge mistake” (V. I., Soch., vol. 14, p. 233). Thus, in epistemological aspect of P. acts as an intangible, as an ideal, image. The basis of the ideal is the interaction of material objects, in which one of the influencing objects, as it were, leaves an imprint on the other, due to which it becomes possible to judge the structure of another by the change in the structure of one object, and the modification of the structure itself can be considered as a copy, an image of the object, having an impact. The condition for the appearance of an image is not only the nature of the object that has affected, but also its own. the nature of the object in which this effect is imprinted. In order for a print to be perceived as a copy, it must be "freed" from its carrier, otherwise it will be visible not the imprint of one object in another, but the object itself - the carrier of the imprint. Such a liberation is possible only in abstraction, accessible only to a person who decides to know. task (it is this separation that distinguishes abstraction from simple substantive division). Thus, the ideal is philosophy. a category opposite in its meaning to the material, characterizing the products of the mental. human activity and filled with meaning only in the epistemological. analysis. Outside the epistemological aspect, thinking is considered, as it is customary to say, from the side of its material basis, as a material process of interaction between a person and the environment, during which a person forms material structures that represent his P., which are the product and condition of this process. Specific the organ that embodies such structures in humans is the brain. This aspect of P.'s consideration is no longer epistemological, but concretely scientific. The positions of the classics of Marxism-Leninism that to recognize thought as material, to identify thought with matter means to make a concession to idealism, and that it is impossible to separate thinking from matter, which thinks, is dialectical-materialistic. characteristic of the mental, taken in both aspects of his study. The classics of Marxism-Leninism explored the concept of P. primarily in relation to the theory of knowledge of dialectical. materialism, therefore they Ch. arr. considered epistemological. aspect P. Concrete-scientific. approach was outlined by them only in principle, in terms of its general philosophies. interpretations, based on the scientific achievements achieved by that time. knowledge. Lenin noted that insufficient data had yet been collected for a concrete solution of the question of the emergence of the ability to sense: “... it remains to investigate and investigate how matter, allegedly not feeling at all, is connected with matter composed of the same atoms (or electrons) and at the same time possessing a clearly expressed faculty of sensation. Materialism clearly poses the still unresolved question and thereby pushes it towards resolution, pushes it to further experimental research "(ibid., p. 34). Concrete scientific analysis of P. is the task of psychology, physiology, biophysics, biochemistry, and in recent years in to a certain extent, and cybernetics. Common to all these sciences is the desire to understand P. as a specific means in which and through which the processes of life are realized. By now, the physiological analysis of P. has turned out to be relatively more advanced. aspect of the analysis of P. for a long time was hampered by the pressure of the centuries-old traditions of idealism, as well as the influence of mechanism. Idealism completely reduced P. to the ideal and thereby in fact denied its objectively real existence. Under these conditions, concrete scientific analysis could only study the physiological activity of the brain , the laws of which are allegedly the laws of image formation, but the direct correlation of the image as a reflection of reality with the physiological activity of the brain necessary for for the appearance of such an image is unlawful. Physiological analysis, of course, is a necessary part of the concrete-scientific. P.'s analysis, without it the mechanisms of the process of reflection cannot be understood. But the physiological the analysis does not cover all the most beings. parties P. Between epistemological. and physiological. P.'s analysis is the missing link - actually psychological. analysis. Psychological P.'s analysis is aimed at revealing the structure and functions of P. as a product specific to a highly developed living system and the conditions for its interaction with the outside world. The features of such an interaction appear in a general form, first of all, as features of the way the living system is oriented relative to the environment. In all prepsychic In the forms of interaction, the orientation of one body relative to another is carried out either directly. contact of bodies - components of the interaction system, or through force fields formed in the interaction or inherent in one of the bodies. Orientation of highly developed living systems in relation to the environment acts as a qualitatively unique, special form of mediated relationship. This form is characterized by the use of information carriers, the construction of dynamic. models of reality (environment and internal states of a living system) based on the processing of this information. Such models, mediating the relationship of a living system to the environment, are its main. means of orientation in the environment. It is on this basis that a specific approach to the favorable and a distance from the destructive, which is absent in inanimate nature, is carried out. This form of orientation is psychic. the form. The emergence of P. finds expression in the fact of singling out a subject, on the one hand, and an object, on the other, and the system of interaction of these formations is characterized by a qualitatively new type of connection - signal connections (it should be borne in mind that in In this case, we are not talking about actual signals as such, which, of course, may not be identical to psychic models, but specifically about a special type of connection). They require the subject to have sensitivity - a special form of irritability, the ability to feel. Specifically, this ability arises when not only those connections that provide direct communication become significant for an individual. satisfaction of the need for metabolism, but also those by means of which it correlates with other, at first glance, neutral influences; it is on the basis of connections of the second type that the individual orients himself in the environment. Thus, the subject in the psychological. sense, it is an individual capable of signal interaction with his environment. To the same extent that the subject is not identical with the organism, the object is not identical with the environment. Objects are objects or phenomena expressed in those of their saints, with which the individual - as a subject - enters into a signal interaction. A person under full anesthesia remains an organism, but ceases to be a subject: he continues to interact with the environment only as an organism, on the basis of appropriate connections; objects do not exist for him in this situation, the interaction of the subject with the object is "turned off". Signal interaction with the environment is carried out not only by a person, but also by any animal; there are hints of such an interaction even in plants, especially in the so-called. predator plants. Therefore, the concept of "subject" is broader than the concept of "man". Man, on the other hand, is distinguished from other representatives of the animal world by the fact that he is not simply a subject, but a cognizing subject. In the course of the evolution of living beings, on the basis of the constant differentiation and integration of the organism, inextricably linked with the peculiarities of the development of the ways of interaction between the subject and the object, a special was formed. the organ of P. In higher animals and humans, such an organ is the cerebral cortex (for more details on the evolution of P. on the basis of general biological evolution, see the articles Life, Anthropogenesis, Zoopsychology). An individual, acting as a subject, is a component of the subject-object system. At the same time, it remains an organism, that is, a system interacting physiologically with the environment. But the physiological laws cannot be extended to the processes of interaction between the subject and the object, and, therefore, the structure of P. cannot be attributed to the physiological. phenomena. Mental in its relation to the physiological acts as a structural set of relatively simple physiological. reactions occurring in a regular sequence. Each department physiological the reaction is built according to the laws of physiology, but the complex of these reactions, in its structure, is built according to the laws of psychology. Mental develops in the bowels of physiological. phenomena as a derivative of them. However, the primacy of the physiological over the mental is not absolute; as it develops, the interaction of the subject with the object has a significant physiological inverse effect: human P. is the highest form of P. development. It arose in connection with the emergence of a special form of control characteristic of social interaction. The decisive role in the development of human P. belongs to the most specific way for a person to interact with others - work. The real conditions for human development. P. were various forms of social communication, DOS. the means of implementation of which is speech. Thus, the transition to human P. is associated with the emergence of a special - social form of interaction. Psych. systems subject - object at the level of the animal world were components of only biological. interactions, a cut by means of the mechanism of natures. selection and directed "from above" mental. the development of animals, determining the features of their way of communication with the environment. The animal does not transform the environment purposefully, it only adapts to it. The changes introduced by the animal into the environment appear to him as being on a par with all other changes that occur in the environment, regardless of his activity. The result of an action in relation to environmental factors does not acquire that specificity. meanings that are found in humans: the animal does not single out among the influences of the environment what is the product of its own. actions. The formation of social interaction fundamentally changes the ways of development of P. This primarily affects the transformation of the way the subject connects with the surrounding reality: a person, like animals, adapts to the environment, but he is characterized by something else - the subordination of nature to himself, i.e. purposeful, conscious environment transformation. With a psychological On the other hand, such a transformation is possible due to the fact that among the influences exerted on a person by the environment, he singles out those that are the result of his own. activity: the product of a person's action acquires special significance for him. This causes Ch. a feature of human P. is the possibility of intentionally foreseeing events and planning one's actions. The transition to P. of a person is associated with the restructuring of the organ of P. - the brain, and above all with the appearance of a second signaling system - signaling reality with a word (IP Pavlov). The leading form of mental interaction is thinking (understood here in a concrete scientific aspect). It manifests itself in situations where, in order to solve a problem, it is necessary to find a new, previously unknown to the subject, way of changing the surrounding conditions to meet needs. Elementary forms of thinking are also characteristic of animals; however, their thinking proceeds only on the external plane and depends entirely on the immediate. conditions of a given situation, the course of solving the problem is devoid of a plan, a program of action. Dynamic models of this level capture the interaction of the subject and the object in a fused form: actions are not separated from objects, both are given undifferentiated. Similar models also take place in humans with unconscious adaptation to the environment; these are the primary dynamics. models, with t. sp. epistemological acting as proper images. However specific. a feature of a person is the ability to build secondary, iconic models of reality. They are based on a specific human. speech thinking, a cut stands out from practice as theoretical. activity. Thanks to the development of the second signaling system, thinking is transferred to the internal. the plan of action, the course of solving the problem is directed by the plan, the program of action is built. The object in this case can be not only real objects, but also the psychic objects themselves. models. Primary models are differentiated and on their basis secondary, symbolic ones are formed, already dismemberment representing the interaction of the subject with the object, that is, separating the relationship of the subject to the object from the relationship of the objects themselves. The very activity of the subject becomes one of the objects of cognition. In epistemological aspect, these models act as concepts, judgments, conclusions, reflecting the patterns of movement of objects; their department sides, St. Islands (often inaccessible to direct perception), beings. connections and dependencies. Being objectified (for example, in language), the products of thinking cease to be the result of the activity of only separate. individual, and become objects of action of other people, forming societies. knowledge, social-historical. an experience. In the individual development of modern. person P. is formed in the process of mastering this experience, mastering the historically established forms and methods of activity. Under the dominance of biological laws of achievement phylogenetic. development of animals are fixed in the form of changes in their biological. organizations. Anthropogenesis is divided into a number of stages, in which biological. patterns increasingly gave way to social ones. The appearance of a person in his own. sense is associated with the establishment of the complete domination of social laws. Modern a person already has all the morphological. and physiological. St. you, necessary for its boundless society.-historical. development, in Krom biological. the organization of man is not exposed to beings. changes, and the results of development are no longer fixed biological. apparatus, but specifically social means. Centre. process that characterizes the psychic. The development of a child is the process of assimilation of the achievements of the development of previous generations of people. Biologically inherited features are only a necessary condition for this assimilation. Such a process takes place in the interaction of the child with objects and phenomena created by society, in objective and verbal communication with people around him, in joint activities with them. In this process, the human being itself is formed. abilities, forms of behavior, personality traits. Creatures. shifts in understanding concrete-scientific. aspects of cybernetics occurred in connection with the development of cybernetics. The design of modern tech. systems that are increasingly modeling specific human functions, put forward the task of a broader and more comprehensive study of mental. processes. At the same time, on the one hand, the data obtained in the study of P. are used for the needs of cybernetics, on the other hand, the means and methods of cybernetics are used to study the mental. processes. Lit.: Marx K., Economic-Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844, Marx K. and Engels F., From early works, M., 1956; his own, Introduction (From the economy, manuscripts of 1857-1858), Marx K. and Engels F., Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 12; F. Engels, Dialectics of Nature, ibid., vol. 20; V. I. Lenin, Materialism and empirio-criticism, Soch., 4th ed., vol. 14; his own, Philosophical Notebooks, ibid., vol. 38; Ubinshtein S. L., Fundamentals of General Psychology, M., 1946; his, Genesis and consciousness, M., 1957; his, Principles and ways of development of psychology, M., 1959; Leontiev A. N., Problems of development of P., 2nd ed., M., 1965; Spirkin A. G., Origin of consciousness, M., 1960; Ponomarev Ya. ?., Psychology of creative thinking, M., 1960. See also lit. at Art. Psychology. I. Ponomarev. Moscow.

The concept of the psyche

1. General concept of the psyche. Formation of the human psyche. Ideal (mental) image as a subjective model of objective reality

There is an opinion that the mental activity of a person is a manifestation of the work of his brain. Under the psyche, the name of which comes from the Greek word "psyche", which translated into Russian means soul, they understand a special property of the functioning of the brain. In the last century, the followers of Marxism believed that "the mental, consciousness, is the highest product of matter (i.e. physical), is a function of a particularly complex piece of matter, the human brain." In humans, consciousness manifests itself in the awareness of the world around us and our actions.

In physiology and psychology, there are at least two dozen interpretations of the term "consciousness":

-“a special inner feeling of a person”;

-“the sum of the representations available to the person”;

-"master of mental function";

-"inner glow", etc.

Academician I.P. Pavlov wrote about this: “consciousness seems to me to be the nervous activity of a certain part of the cerebral hemispheres, at a given moment, under given conditions, possessing a known optimal (probably it will be average) excitability.” But perhaps the most concise and clear definitions of what consciousness is are given by well-known clinicians S.S. Korsakov and V.M. Bakhterev. According to Korsakov, consciousness is the totality of knowledge about something or someone. Bekhterev wrote: "Consciousness is our accountable activity."

However, as numerous life observations and laboratory research data show, there is no reason to reduce the human psyche only to consciousness. In addition to consciousness, in human behavior, in his creativity, unconscious activity also plays an important role.

In the legal literature, the definition of the subject of psychology is more often reduced to the following: it is either the science of the psyche, or the mental life of a person, or the science of the psyche and behavior. However, all difficulties begin when the question of what the psyche is is raised.

At present, hardly anyone doubts that the psyche of animals and humans is a function of their brain. The question, however, is what is the nature of this function, expressed in the language of the working brain, and how to consistently correlate this function with what is described in the language of psychology as sensation, perception, memory, feeling, etc.

Psyche (Greek "psychik ó s "related to the soul, mental properties) - a subjective, signal, socially conditioned reflection of the real in ideal images, on the basis of which an active interaction of a person with the environment is carried out. The psyche performs the function of orientation and regulation of activity.

The psyche arose and was formed as the ability of living organisms to actively interact with the outside world on the basis of neurophysiological coding of vital influences and ways of interacting with them, as the ability of organisms to adapt to the environment.

In the process of evolution, the mental mechanisms of adaptation of organisms to the environment were continuously carried out and at the stage of a person turned into a powerful apparatus of his consciousness - a symbolic, conceptual modeling of reality.

The human psyche is not only a system of subjective images of reality, but also a specific reality itself - the inner world of a person, which has its own laws of formation and functioning.

In a person, mental reflection becomes ideal - it is mediated by historically formed ideas, concepts. The human psyche is socially conditioned by life experience, it is a personal-individual, subjective phenomenon.

The psyche provides a certain level of adequate reflection of the objective properties of reality and the effectiveness of behavioral actions, self-regulation of the individual based on an assessment of the results achieved by him. The psyche provides selective contacts of the subject with reality, depending on the system of his needs and recognition in the environment of what satisfies these needs. The psyche is a signal reflection of reality: the external signs of phenomena serve for a person as a signal of their meaning and meaning.

Having arisen at a certain stage of biological evolution, the psyche becomes a factor in the development of the vital activity of organisms. At the level of a person, it acquires a special form - a form of consciousness generated by the social way of human existence. However, consciousness does not exhaust its essence of the human psyche. along with consciousness, a person also has biologically formed mental structures and a vast sphere of automatisms acquired in vivo - the sphere of the subconscious.

The main phenomena of the psyche are the mental processes of the formation of ideal (mental) images and the processes of mental regulation of activity.

Basic theoretical principles of psychology:

.Recognition of the determinism of mental phenomena as material reality;

.Genetic approach to mental phenomena, their study in development;

.The study of the human psyche in the relationship of biological and social factors;

.Recognition of the inextricable relationship between the psyche and activity.

A scientific understanding of the human psyche is possible only with a holistic consideration of the totality of mental phenomena. Absolutization of individual aspects of the psyche leads to erroneous concepts and theories.

All living organisms interact with their environment to survive. To do this, it must be reflected. Reflection is a universal property of matter.

In the broad sense of the word, reflection is an interaction between objects, as a result of which the features of one object are reproduced in the features of another. The more complex the organized matter, the more perfect the forms of reflection. In inanimate nature, there is only a physical form of reflection. The emergence of living matter is a new way of existence of matter. A living organism is distinguished by a special type of reflection - irritability. Irritability - the property of living organisms (plants and animals) to respond with changes in their state to biologically beneficial or harmful effects; biological (physiological) form of reflection by living organisms of the environment.

With the evolutionary development, animal organisms began to react not only to biologically significant stimuli, but also to those stimuli that are indifferent in themselves, biologically insignificant (external signs of objects), but acquired a signal value. This form of reflection is called sensitivity. It is psychic, i.e. signal - adaptive, reflection of reality.

In order to correctly understand the process of mental development, it is necessary to reveal its main content. It can be said in the most general form that the essence of mental development lies in the development of ever new forms of cognitive and actual reflection of reality; the transition to a higher level is always expressed in an expanding possibility of cognitive and actual penetration into reality. This penetration into external objective being is inextricably linked, as with its reverse side, with the development of the internal mental plan of activity. This is the first essential general trend of mental development.

Every organism, being a certain whole, stands out from the surroundings, and at the same time every one is connected with the surroundings. Moving on to higher forms of reflection - from sensory differentiation of the energy of some external stimulus to the perception of an object or situation and from it to thinking, knowing being in its connections and relationships, the individual is more and more isolated from the immediate environment and is more deeply connected with an ever wider sphere of reality. .

In the course of the development of the psyche, as the transition to its higher levels progresses, it is not the separation of the subject from the environment due to its connection with it and not the connection due to isolation, but both connection and isolation. The steps of mental development are the steps of both selection and connection, always presented in each act of the individual in an internally contradictory unity.

If we talk about the perception of a person, in their historical development, then here in specific forms the dependence of the image of reception on the mode of action appears in the form of a dependence of specifically human perception and its development on the development of social practice: transforming nature, generating the objective existence of humanized nature, social practice partly generates partly develops new forms of specifically human perception. Creating in art the beauty of forms, giving rise to speech and music, it, together with the being of their object, gives rise to human abilities and perceptions.

With the evolutionary development of animals, a special organ of the psyche is formed - the nervous system, which provides a reflection of the surrounding world and the regulation of behavior.

The initial form of mental reflection and regulation of behavior are instincts, a complex of innate reactions, the stimulus for which are certain biologically significant properties of the environment. This stage in the development of the psyche is also called the stage of elementary analysis.

With the development of the cerebral cortex, new, individually variable forms of behavior appeared, based on the figurative and conceptual reflection of the world around.

In highly organized animals, along with instincts, the ability to situational objective reflection of reality arises, the ability to reflect relationships, connections between the elements of a given situation, these animals acquire individual skills, are the most highly developed, and are even capable of individual intellectual actions.

A skill is a mastered action, characterized by the curtailment of conscious control over its implementation. There are perceptual, intellectual and motor skills. A skill is formed as a result of repeated repetition of an action - an exercise. The success of its formation is influenced by motivation, reinforcement, the method of explaining the content of the action, the formation of its indicative basis, the optimal dosage of exercises, and feedback. The neurophysiological basis for the formation of skills is a dynamic stereotype.

2. Consciousness is the human psyche as a categorical and value-oriented reflection of reality. The main signs of consciousness. The relationship of three levels of mental activity - the unconscious, subconscious and conscious

The concept of consciousness is one of the central philosophy and in all human sciences. In philosophy, it is used in a broad sense along with the concept of spirit and spiritual activity, firstly, as opposed to the concept of matter and being, and secondly, in relation to the entire sphere of superstructural phenomena, processes of cognition and creative creativity of people.

Like the concept of the psyche, the concept of consciousness has gone through a complex path of development, received different interpretations from different authors, in different schools.

In the history of Western science, the concept of consciousness has been associated with the concept and method of introspection. Beginning with Descartes, it was used as a synonym for mental, internally directly given experience, a synonym for those phenomena that are directly experienced and knowledge of which is directly given to the subject.

In view of the dominance of the identification of the psyche and awareness, starting with Leibniz, another point of view is outlined and is being developed, according to which consciousness is not identical to the mental and constitutes only a part, and the highest, of mental processes.

A person with consciousness, distinguishes himself from the surrounding world, his "I" from external things, and the property of things from themselves, is able to see himself located in a certain place in space and at a certain point in the time axis that connects the present, past and future, in a certain system relationships with other people, is able to establish adequate cause-and-effect relationships between the phenomena of the external world and between them and their own actions, gives an account of their thoughts, intentions, knows the characteristics of their individuality and personality, is able to plan their actions, anticipate results and evaluate their consequences , i.e. capable of performing deliberate arbitrary actions.

Numerous authors have repeatedly said that the human psyche is the highest level of the evolutionary development of the psyche. Of course, much of what characterizes the psyche of animals is inherent in the human psyche. But the most important feature of man is that he has consciousness. Consciousness is what distinguishes a person from an animal and has a decisive influence on his behavior, activities, on his life as a whole.

A special form of consciousness - self-consciousness allows a person to distinguish himself, his "I" from the environment, think about himself, his qualities, abilities, relate to himself, worry about himself. A person can try to understand himself, change himself, engage in self-development and self-education.

Studying the structure of individual consciousness, A.N. Leontiev singled out three of its components - the sensual fabric of consciousness, meaning and personal meaning.

The sensory fabric of consciousness “forms the sensory composition of concrete images of reality, actually perceived or emerging in memory. These images differ in their modality, sensual tone, degree of clarity, greater or lesser stability.

Meanings are the general content of words, diagrams, drawings, etc., which is understandable to all people who speak the same language, belong to the same culture, and have passed a similar historical path.

Personal meaning reflects the subjective significance of certain events, phenomena, actions, reality to the interests, needs, motives of a person. It "creates the partiality of human consciousness."

The development of human consciousness is inextricably linked with the beginning of social and labor activity in the development of labor activity, which has changed the real attitude of man to the environment, is the main and decisive fact from which all the differences between man and animal stem; all the specific features of the human psyche flow from it.

With the development of labor activity, man, influencing nature, changing it, adapting it to himself and dominating it, began to turn into a subject of history, separate himself from nature and realize his attitude to nature and to other people. Through his relationship to other people, man began to relate more and more consciously to himself, to his own activity; his activity itself became more and more conscious: directed in labor towards certain goals, towards the production of a certain product, towards a certain result, it was more and more systematically regulated in accordance with the goal set. Labor as an activity aimed at certain results - the production of a certain product - required foresight. Necessary for labor, it was formed in labor.

The purposefulness of the action, which is based on foresight and is carried out in accordance with the goal, characteristic of human labor activity, is the main manifestation of human consciousness, which radically distinguishes his activity from the unconscious, “instinctive” behavior of animals in its basis.

Thanks to the instrument of labor and speech, human consciousness began to develop as a product of social labor. On the one hand, the tool as socialized labor transmitted in a materialized form the experience accumulated by mankind from generation to generation, on the other hand, this transfer of social experience, this message was made through speech. For social labor, a social consciousness, materialized in speech, was necessary. Necessary for social labor, it developed in the process of social labor.

Human consciousness, as the highest form of development of the psyche, has the following essential features:

.Reflection of essential, most significant relationships in a given situation.

.Awareness of the goals of activity, anticipation of them in the system of universal concepts and ideas.

.Conditionality of individual consciousness by social forms of consciousness.

.Self-consciousness is a conceptual model of one's own personality and the construction of interactions with reality on this basis.

All essential aspects of consciousness function with the help of speech.

Human behavior is determined not only by his consciousness. The mental self-organization of the individual, his adaptation to the external environment is carried out by three relatively autonomous levels of mental regulation:

.Evolutionarily formed unconsciously - instinctive level;

.Subconsciously - subjective, emotionally impulsive level;

.Conscious, arbitrary, logical-semantic programs.

The behavior of a socialized personality is dominated by arbitrary, value-categorized programs. Two other lower levels of self-regulation in his behavior play a background role. In extreme conditions and in conditions of desocialization of the individual, these lower levels of self-regulation can go into an autonomous mode of functioning.

The unconscious level of mental activity is an innate instinctive reflex activity. here behavioral acts are regulated by unconscious biological mechanisms. They are aimed at meeting biological needs - the self-preservation of the organism and the species. This biologically determined program of human behavior is under the control of higher and later formed brain structures. Only in certain critical situations for the individual (state of affect) can this sphere of the human psyche go into the regime of autonomous self-regulation.

The subconscious level of mental activity is generalized, automated in the experience of a given individual, stereotypes of his behavior - skills, habits, intuition. In the subcortical system of the brain, the unconscious aspirations of the individual, his desires, passions, attitudes are formed. This is an involuntary sphere of personality, "a person's second nature", the "center" of individual behavioral clichés, unconscious behaviors of a given person.

Processes that begin in the unconscious sphere can be continued in consciousness. Conversely, the conscious can be repressed into the subconscious sphere. The interaction of the conscious and the extraconscious can be carried out in concert - synergistic or antagonistic, contradictory, manifesting itself in a variety of incompatible actions of a person, intrapersonal conflict.

The presence of consciousness, subconsciousness and the sphere of the unconscious in the human psyche determines the relative independence of the following types of human reactions and actions:

.Unconsciously - instinctive, innate reactions;

.Impulsively - reactive, little conscious emotional reactions, habitually - automated subconscious actions;

.Consciously - volitional actions

3. Structure and functional organization of the nervous system. Typological features of higher nervous activity. Theory of functional systems P.K. Anokhin

The entire nervous system is divided into central and peripheral. The central nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord. Nerve fibers - the peripheral nervous system - diverge from them throughout the body. it connects the brain with the sense organs and with the executive organs - the muscles and glands.

Stimuli of the external environment (light, sound, smell, etc.) are converted by special sensitive cells (receptors) into nerve impulses - a series of electrical and chemical changes in the nerve fiber. Nerve impulses are transmitted along sensitive (afferent) nerve fibers to the spinal cord and brain. Here, the corresponding command impulses are generated, which are transmitted along the motor (efferent) nerve fibers to the executive organs (muscles, glands.) These executive organs are called effectors.

The main function of the nervous system is the integration of external influences with the corresponding adaptive response of the organism.

The structural unit of the nervous system is a nerve cell - a neuron. It consists of a cell body, a nucleus, branched processes - dendrites - along them nerve impulses go to the cell body - and one long process - an axon - along it a nerve impulse passes from the cell body to other cells or effectors.

The processes of two neighboring neurons are connected by a synapse.

The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord.

In humans, the cerebral cortex is especially developed - the organ of higher mental functions.

The main mechanism of nervous activity is a reflex, i.e. the reaction of the body to external or internal influences through the central nervous system. All reflexes are divided into conditional (adaptation to change) and unconditioned (congenital).

To what extent and in what way does a reliable reflection of the objective world manifest itself? How is this reflection individualized in various living beings and, finally, is everything that exists in the objective world reflected in each individual case, and if not everything, then what is the meaning of the reflected objective world in the specific behavior of each individual animal?

Interaction in inorganic nature is a primitive form of reflection. Indeed, interaction as a more general process is a phenomenon that is absolutely necessary in any form of matter motion.

The reflective process unfolds in such a way that the external object, through a continuous series of physical and physiological processes, is, as it were, assimilated by the organism, i.e. is reflected first in its structures, and then in consciousness. This order of development of reflection processes leads to the conclusion that this process is formed from stage to stage in accordance with the theory of information transfer. The theory of information used to explain the organism's reflective process states that the most important parameters of the external world that are significant for a given animal or person, despite numerous recodings, practically create an accurate reflection of reality, albeit in different codes. And consciousness itself is the most perfect form of coding the parameters of the external world, i.e. tool for creating an image of the external world.

At that moment, when the unknown ancestor of modern man for the first time quite clearly imagined the difference between the objectively observed movements of his organs and the internal experiences that give rise to these movements, at that moment, in essence, the first hypothesis about nervous activity was born. The first systematic observations of the features of human motor acts made it possible for ancient doctors to divide them into voluntary and involuntary movements.

The idea of ​​"arbitrary" and "involuntary" acts of Descartes was the only idea that distributes the functions of the human body. Descartes, in his physiological researches, first of all dealt with it, and she became the mother of the theory of the reflex. The historical mission fell to Descartes' lot - to break through the first breach in the strong wall of mystical and religious ideas that separated the researcher from real facts, and to give a scientific concept for the simplest first floor in nervous activity - the spinal cord.

The first Russian scientist who revolutionized the science of the brain and psyche was Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov.

Looking for support in the available stock of scientific knowledge, Sechenov, first of all, singled out the reflex mechanism discovered at the beginning of the 19th century. The concept of reflex appeared long before this discovery. One of its authors (as we know) was the famous mathematician and philosopher Descartes. Not only consciousness controls your behavior, but also some other mechanism, he argued. An external shock, setting in motion the nerves leading to the brain, transmits the excitation of these nerves from the brain to the muscles, just as a light beam is reflected from a surface. The term "reflex" means - reflection. These general considerations were confirmed when, with the help of an anatomical knife, they began to study the connections of nerves with the spinal cord. It turned out that by stimulating the nerve that goes to the spinal cord (centripetal nerve), you can automatically cause irritation of the centrifugal fiber that goes from the brain to the muscles, forcing it to work. This automatically working mechanism began to be called a reflex arc. The discovery of this law was a major achievement, which also received wide practical application in medicine (neurology).

The reflex was a law discovered on the spinal cord. The activity of the cerebral cortex is subject to a number of principles and laws. The main ones were first established by I.P. Pavlov. The foundations of modern neurophysiology are based on the fundamental provisions of the Pavlovian teaching.

Analytics is the synthetic principle of higher uneven activity. Orientation in the environment is associated with isolating its individual properties, aspects, features (analysis) and combining, linking these features with what is beneficial or harmful to the body (synthesis).

Analytics - the synthetic activity of the cerebral cortex is carried out by the interaction of excitation and inhibition, which are subject to the following laws:

.The law of irradiation of excitation, i.e. spread of excitation over a significant part of the cerebral cortex.

.The law of concentration of excitation, which states that excitation over time is concentrated in the place of its primary occurrence.

.The law of mutual induction of nervous processes. On the periphery of the focus of one nervous process, a process with the opposite sign always occurs.

If the process of excitation is concentrated in one area of ​​the cortex, then the process of inhibition inductively arises around it.

Inhibition can be external (unconditional) and internal. One of the types of internal (conditioned) inhibition is the extinction of the conditioned reflex, if it is not reinforced by an unconditioned stimulus (extinguishing inhibition).

Inhibition also occurs when the brain is overexcited. It protects nerve cells from exhaustion. This type of braking is called protective braking.

Also in the process of generalization (primary generalization of similar stimuli), differentiated inhibition occurs.

Consistency in the work of the cerebral cortex (dynamic stereotype), i.e. stable fixation of a certain sequence of reactions or a dynamic stereotype.

A dynamic stereotype is an expression of a special principle of the brain - systemicity. External stereotype - a fixed sequence of influences is reflected in the internal neuro-dynamic stereotype.

Breaking the habitual stereotype is always a heavy nervous tension. New conditions form a new stereotype

Pavlov found that the action of certain stimuli depends not only on their quality, but also on the typological features of higher nervous activity. Under the typological features of higher nervous activity, we mean the dynamics of the course of nervous processes in individual individuals. It is characterized by the following typological properties:

.The strength of nervous processes - the performance of nerve cells during excitation and inhibition;

.The balance of nervous processes - the ratio between the strength of the processes of excitation and inhibition, their balance or the predominance of one process over another;

.Mobility of nervous processes - the speed of change in the processes of excitation and inhibition.

Depending on the combination of these properties, 4 types of higher nervous activity are distinguished: live type, unrestrained type, calm type, weak (lowered) type.

Thus, a type of higher nervous activity is a certain combination of stable properties of excitation and inhibition, characteristic of the nervous activity of one or another individual.

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psyche reality unconscious person

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