The social status of the psychologist. Status of social psychology. Communication as an information process. Communication barriers

Pregnancy tests are a magic wand that can make you happy or upset. These tests detect the presence of hCG (Human Chorionic Gonadotropin) in the urine, which clearly indicates the presence of a fetus. Pregnancy tests became widely available in 1978, although at first such a test had an accuracy of 80% and was done within 2 hours.

Before the invention of this marvelous device, the most reliable test was simply to wait and see. But even then people wanted to know as soon as possible about a possible pregnancy.

How did they determine pregnancy before 1978?

1. WHEAT AND BARLEY TEST

One of the first, if not the very first, pregnancy test was a test from Ancient Egypt. In 1350 BC a woman urinated on the seeds of wheat and barley for several days in a row, and if wheat germinated, it was believed that there would be a girl, and if barley, then a boy. If nothing sprouted, then there was no pregnancy. The most interesting thing about this test was that it actually works. In 1963, a laboratory experiment proved that in 70 percent of cases, the urine of a pregnant woman could cause seeds to germinate, while the urine of non-pregnant women and men had no effect on the seeds. The ancient Egyptians appear to have had a valid pregnancy test with at least 70% accuracy.

2. ONION TEST

While the ancient Egyptians urinated on seeds, the ancient Greeks seem to have had less understanding of anatomy. From the famous records of Hippocrates, it became known that the Greeks used an onion for dough. The woman inserted the bulb directly into her vagina at night. If her breath smelled of onions the next morning, the Greeks believed she was not pregnant. According to the idea of ​​the Greeks, if a woman is not pregnant, then the uterus is open and the smell of onions penetrated higher through the body.

In the modern world, there was a comical incident when one young man, after drinking, inserted an onion into the vagina of his sleeping girlfriend. In the morning, the girl woke up with pain and went to the hospital, she thought that he had vaginal cancer, but the doctors "delighted" her;)

3. BEER TEST

Another ancient Egyptian papyrus tells of a beer pregnancy test. The girl was wrapped in a large piece of cloth soaked in beer. So it was left for several hours. If the girl was throwing up from the smell, then she was pregnant. This assumption is associated with toxicosis in the early stages of pregnancy.

4. TEST WITH KEY

In a compendium of medical knowledge written at the end of the 15th century, there is an unusual way of determining pregnancy. In order to understand whether a girl is pregnant, you need to ask her to pee in a container. After throwing a rusty key there. If after 2-3 days the rust is gone from the key, then the girl is pregnant.

5. THE "WRITING PROPHETS" TEST

In the 16th century, so-called "Pissing Prophets" were popular in Europe. These so-called experts claimed that they could determine if a woman was indeed pregnant by the color and characteristics of her urine. Some of them mixed urine with wine and watched. But you yourself understand that it was more like divination on urine.

6. LOOK INTO MY EYES

One sixteenth-century physician, Jacques Guillemeu, claimed that a woman's eyes could tell if she was pregnant. Jacques, the author of a large and popular treatise on ophthalmology, stated that in the second month of pregnancy, the eyes of a pregnant woman change. A pregnant woman is characterized by deep-set eyes with small pupils, drooping eyelids and swollen veins at the corners of the eyes. Of course, this is at the level of fortune-telling, but during pregnancy, the vision of a pregnant woman can really suffer.

7. I SAW A SIGN

At the very beginning of pregnancy, around the sixth to eighth week, the cervix, labia, and vagina may have a bluish or purplish-red tint due to blood flow to this area. It was on this that the French doctor based himself in 1836. This later became known as the "Chadwick mark", after James Chadwick began to popularize his theory. But apparently, this is not a clear indicator of pregnancy.

8. RABBIT TEST

In addition to observing the female genital organs, Chadwick invented the "rabbit test", which was used until the 20th century. This method is based on the use of human urine in rabbits. Even then, by the composition of the urine of animals, people learned to determine pregnancy, rabbits were especially successful.

This method is based on the introduction of a small amount of woman's urine into the animal. The animal died in any case, but if the girl was pregnant, then after the injection, changes began in the rabbit's body as at conception. But death was inevitable.

9. FROG TEST

Although it worked on the same principle as the rabbit test, it was superior in that the frog survived. In the late 1940s, scientists determined that when the urine of a pregnant woman was injected into a live toad or frog, the unfortunate amphibians began to produce eggs and produced them within 24 hours.

But these animal experiments ended with the advent of the pregnancy test in 1978, which women still use today.

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Are you looking for this? Perhaps this is what you could not find for so long?

Not today, and not even yesterday, people began to hurt their souls. Sick minds (blissful and insane) were often helped to survive by compassionate people, shelters, monasteries, almshouses, and hospitals. But not at all times and always helped mentally ill people. In the Middle Ages in Western Europe there were persecutions of witches and sorcerers, among whom there could be thousands of insane people. They were burned at the stake and disposed of.
In 1547 in London, from the dormitory of the religious brotherhood "Our Lord from Bethlehem", the Bethlem Royal Hospital arose - the first insane asylum (Bedlam).
Only during the Great French Revolution in 1798, Philippe Pinel, who was appointed head physician of the Salpêtrière hospital, ordered the mentally ill to be removed from the chains.
In Russia, the writer A.P. Chekhov in the story "Ward No. 6" describes the psychiatric department of a hospital with obligatory sauerkraut in the wing, an orderly and abandoned patients.
“There is a small outbuilding in the hospital yard ... and a gray hospital fence with nails. These nails, pointing upwards, and the fence, and the outbuilding itself have that special dull, accursed look that we have only in hospital and prison buildings. And the outhouse itself has that special dull, accursed look that we only have in hospitals and prison buildings. If you are not afraid of getting burned by nettles, then let's go along the narrow path leading to the outbuilding and see what is happening inside. Having opened the first door, we enter the vestibule. Here, against the walls and near the stove, whole mountains of hospital rubbish are piled up. Mattresses, old tattered dressing gowns, pantaloons, shirts with blue stripes, useless, worn-out shoes - all this rags are piled up, crumpled, tangled, rotting and emitting a suffocating smell.
On the rubbish, always with a pipe in his mouth, lies the watchman Nikita, an old retired soldier with red stripes. He has a stern, exhausted face, drooping eyebrows, giving the face the expression of a steppe sheep dog, and a red nose; he is short, lean and wiry in appearance, but his posture is impressive and his fists are hefty. He belongs to the number of those simple-hearted, positive, diligent and stupid people who love order more than anything in the world and are therefore convinced that they must be beaten. He hits in the face, in the chest, in the back, in anything, and I am sure that without this there would be no order here.
Next, you enter a large, spacious room that occupies the entire outbuilding, except for the entrance hall. The walls here are smeared with dirty blue paint, the ceiling is smoky, as in a chicken hut - it is clear that stoves smoke here in winter and it can be carbon monoxide. The windows from the inside are disfigured by iron bars. Paul is gray and splintery. It stinks of sauerkraut, wick, bugs and ammonia, and this stink at first gives you the impression that you are entering a menagerie. There are beds in the room, bolted to the floor. People sit and lie on them in blue hospital gowns and old-fashioned caps. This is crazy. There are five of them in all. Only one of noble rank, the rest are all philistines.
What does a psychologist need to know about a person's mental status?
It is impossible to approach the basics of psychological counseling without knowing about the client - his ordinary life, his usual social circle in society, with friends and relatives. The psychologist needs to tune his soul to a wave of understanding with the client, which, in general, is very difficult to know and understand.
Studying and then describing the psychological status of the client, the first thing we, psychologists, pay attention to is his appearance, his clothes, movements, facial expressions and various manifestations of mental processes experienced by a person. Many signs will tell you how much it corresponds to the physical, psychological and mental status of a given person (age of a person, his following fashion or neglecting it).
Not only clothing, but also its use, the manner of dressing, walking, gesticulating can be an illustrative example of its connection with character traits.
When looking at a client, the psychologist first of all pays attention to the eyes. The eyes are the mirror of the soul.

Status (lat. status - state, position) is an abstract multi-valued term, in a general sense, denoting a set of stable values ​​of the parameters of an object or subject.

What is the mental status of a person and how to describe it to a psychologist?

Mental status - a description of the state of the human psyche, including its intellectual, emotional and physiological capabilities. The mental status is descriptive and informative in nature with the reliability of the psychological (psychopathological) "portrait" and from the standpoint of clinical information (i.e. assessment)

Description of mental status.
1. Conversation in the office
2. Determination of a clear or clouded consciousness (if necessary, differentiation of these states). If there is no doubt about the presence of a clear (not clouded) consciousness, this section can be omitted.
1. Appearance: neat, well-groomed, careless, make-up, corresponds (does not correspond) to age, features of clothing and more.
2. Behavior: calm, fussy, excitement (describe his character), gait, posture (free, natural, unnatural, artsy (describe), forced, ridiculous, monotonous), other features of motor skills.
3. Features of contact: active (passive), productive (unproductive - describe how it manifests itself), interested, benevolent, hostile, oppositional, spiteful, "negativistic", formal, and so on.
4. The nature of the statements (the main part of the "composition" of the mental status, from which the assessment of the leading and obligatory sign and symptom follows).
1. In the mental status, emphasis is placed on the client's attitude to his experiences. Therefore, it is appropriate to use such expressions as “reports”, “believes”, “convinced”, “asserts”, “declares”, “assumes” and others. Thus, the client's assessment of previous events, experiences, sensations now, at the present time should be reflected.
2. It is necessary to begin the description of real experiences of a knowledgeable (that is, belonging to a certain group) syndrome, which led to an appeal to a psychologist (client's request).
For example: mood disorders (low, high), hallucinatory phenomena, delusional experiences (content), psychomotor agitation (stupor), pathological sensations, memory impairment, and so on.
4. The description of the leading symptom and syndrome should be exhaustive, that is, using not only the data of the client's subjective self-report, but also including clarifications and additions identified during the conversation.
5. For maximum objectification and accuracy of the description, it is recommended to use quotations (direct speech of the client), which should be brief and reflect only those features of the speech (and word formation) of the client that reflect his condition and cannot be replaced by another adequate (corresponding) speech turnover.
For example: neologisms, paraphasias, figurative comparisons, specific and characteristic expressions and turns, and more. Quotations should not be abused in cases where the presentation in one's own words does not affect the informative significance of these statements.
An exception is the citation of longer examples of speech in cases of violation of its purposefulness, logical and grammatical structure (slipping, diversity, reasoning)
For example: incoherence (confusion) of speech in clients with upset consciousness, ataxias (incoherence of thinking) in schizoids, incoherence of speech in clients with psychomotor agitation and clients with various forms of dementia, and so on.
6. Description of the client's attitude to the existing situation - as hostile, oppositional, spiteful (describe), forced, unacceptable.
7. Description of additional hidden features, that is, naturally occurring within a certain cluster, but which may be absent.
For example: low self-esteem, suicidal thoughts in depressive syndrome.
7. Description of optional symptoms depending on pathoplastic facts (“soil”).
For example: pronounced somatovegetative disorders in depressive (subdepressive) syndrome, as well as phobias, senestopathy, obsessions in the structure of the same syndrome.
8. Emotional reactions:
1. The client's reaction to his experiences, the psychologist's clarifying questions, comments, attempts at correction, and so on.
2. Other emotional reactions (except for describing the manifestations of an affective disorder as the leading psychopathology of the syndrome).
1. Facial expressions (facial reactions): lively, rich, poor, monotonous, expressive, "frozen", monotonous, pretentious (mannered), grimacing, mask-like, hypomimia, amimia (loss of the ability to express with gestures and facial expressions), etc.
2. Voice: quiet, loud, monotonous, modulated, expressive and so on.
3. Vegetative manifestations: hyperemia, pallor, increased respiration, pulse rate, hyperhidrosis, etc.
4. Change in emotional response at the mention of relatives, psychotraumatic situations, and other emotional factors.
5. Adequacy (correspondence) of emotional reactions to the content of the conversation and the nature of painful experiences.
For example: the absence of manifestations of fear, anxiety when the patient is currently experiencing verbal hallucinations of a threatening and frightening nature.
6. Observance by the client of distance and tact (in conversation).
9. Speech: literate, primitive, rich, poor, logically harmonious (illogical and paralogical), purposeful (with violation of purposefulness), grammatically harmonious (agrammatic), connected (incoherent), consistent (inconsistent), detailed, "inhibited" (slowed down ), accelerated in pace, verbose, "speech pressure", sudden stops in speech, silence, and so on. Give the most striking examples of speech (quotes).
5. It is not necessary to note disorders that the client currently does not have, although in some cases this can be reflected in order to prove that the psychologist was actively trying to identify other (possibly hidden, dissimulated) symptoms, as well as symptoms that the client does not consider a manifestation of a mental disorder, and therefore does not actively report them.
At the same time, one should not write in a generalized way: for example, “without productive symptoms.” Most often, the absence of delusions and hallucinations is meant, while other productive symptoms (for example, affective disorders) are not taken into account.
In this case, it is better to specifically note what exactly the psychologist failed to identify (disorders in the perception of hallucinations, delusions).
For example: "delusions and hallucinations cannot be detected (or not detected)."
Or: “no memory impairment was detected.”
Or: "memory within the age norm"
Or: “intelligence corresponds to the education and lifestyle received”
6. Criticism to one's state - active (passive), complete (incomplete, partial), formal. Criticism to individual manifestations of signs of inadequacy of one's own state or lack of criticism to one's inadequate state to "changes in one's personality" as a whole.
It should be remembered that in a detailed description of such phenomena as "delusion" and the qualification of the syndrome as "delusional", it is inappropriate to note the absence of criticism (to delusion), since the lack of criticism is one of the leading symptoms of a delusional disorder.
7. The dynamics of the mental state during the conversation - an increase in fatigue, an improvement in contact (deterioration), an increase in suspicion, isolation, confusion, the appearance of delayed, slow, monosyllabic answers, spitefulness, aggressiveness, or, on the contrary, greater interest, trust, goodwill, friendliness.

John Sommers-Flanagan, Rita Sommers-Flanagan in the book "Clinical Interviewing" prescribed a study of the mental status of the client.
;"Mental status examination is a method of systematizing and evaluating clinical observations regarding the client's mental status and condition. The main purpose of mental status examination is to diagnose actual cognitive processes. However, in recent years, mental status examination has become more extensive, some clinicians also include psychosocial history , clarification of personal history, therapy planning and diagnostic impressions.<..>Any person who intends to work in the field of mental health must be able to communicate competently professionally with other professionals through mental status examination reports" [pp. 334-335].
knowledge about the actual mental functioning of the client" (p. 335-337).

Main categories of mental status:
1. Appearance.
2. Behavior, or psychomotor activity.
3. Attitudes towards the interviewer.
4. Affect and mood.
5. Speech and thinking.
6. Perceptual disorders.
7. Orientation and consciousness.
8. Memory and intellectual abilities.
9. Reliability, reasonableness and understanding by the client of their problems.
......
During the study of the mental status of the observation, systematize in such a way as to develop a hypothesis about the actual mental functioning of the client on their basis.
Individual and cultural factors
The study of mental status can be complicated by distortions caused by the cultural susceptibility of the psychologist-interviewer. A client's cultural background can be a determining factor in their mental status.
Sometimes certain beliefs associated with a culture, especially religious beliefs, seem like insanity (or misconceptions) from other cultures. The same applies to beliefs and behaviors related to physical illness, entertainment, wedding rituals, and family customs. The interviewer must take into account the influence of individual and cultural factors. For example, these may be differences in culturally appropriate expressions of sadness, stress, humiliation, or the consequences of traumatic experiences. In addition, representatives of national and cultural minorities who have recently found themselves in a new cultural environment may express confusion, fear and distrust. In addition, in extreme or stressful situations, people with disabilities can demonstrate disorientation.

Appearance
Observations are based mainly on physical characteristics and some demographic data.
Physical characteristics of clients include aspects such as cleanliness, clothing, pupillary dilation/contraction, facial expression, perspiration, make-up, tattoos, earrings and piercings, height, weight and build. The interviewer must carefully observe not only the appearance of clients, but also the peculiarities of their physical reaction to themselves or communication with him.
Gender, age, race and ethnicity may be relevant for interviews. “A client who looks older than his age may have a history of drug use, suffer from an organic mental disorder, or have physical illnesses. Appearance can also be an expression of his environment or the situation in which he finds himself.
Behavior and psychomotor activity
The interviewer must observe the client's behavior and record its features. Attention is paid to both excessive or insufficient activity, and the presence or absence of certain behaviors (for example, avoidance of eye contact (taking into account cultural influences), grimaces, excessive eye contact (gazing), unusual or repetitive gestures and body positions). Clients may not admit to certain thoughts or feelings (such as being paranoid or depressed). And their behavior will contradict their words (for example, a tense posture and a gaze, or slow psychomotor skills and a motionless face).
Excessive mobility may indicate anxiety, drug use, or the manic phase of bipolar disorder. Excessive slowness may indicate an organic dysfunction of the brain. catatonic schizophrenia or narcotic stupor Depression can manifest either through agitation or psychomotor retardation. Some paranoid clients sometimes look around warily, constantly looking around, constantly fearing an external threat. Constant brushing of imaginary fluff or dust from clothes is sometimes associated with delirium, drug or drug intoxication.
Attitudes towards the interviewer
Aggression: clients express aggression verbally, with gestures, facial expressions. Clients may cut short and respond aggressively to questions such as “How idiotic” or “Of course I'm angry. Can you stop teasing me?"
Indifference: The appearance and movements of clients indicate indifference, lack of interest in the interview. Clients may yawn, drum with fingers, be distracted by extraneous interference.
Hostility: Clients are caustic and indirectly display malevolence (eg, through sarcasm, eye rolling, sour expression).
Fawning: Clients may be obsequious, too active in seeking the interviewer's approval and support. They may try to present themselves in the best possible light or agree with everything the interviewer says. Clients may make too many gestures of agreement (nodding their heads too often), smiling, not looking up from looking at the interviewer's face.
Manipulation: Can use the interviewer's words to their advantage "He was dishonest, wasn't he?"
Tension: constant or almost constant contact, the client moves with his whole body to the psychologist and listens to him tensely. Clients may speak in a loud and tense voice.
Negativism: Clients resist literally everything the interviewer says. They may not agree with unconditionally correct paraphrasing, reflection of feelings, generalizations. They may refuse to answer questions or remain silent. This behavior is also called oppositional.
Impatience: Customers sit on the edge of their chairs. Unable to endure long pauses or slow speech by the interviewer. They can express a desire to get a recipe for solving their problems, show hostility and consistency.
Passivity: Clients show neither interest nor resistance. They can use the phrase "As you say." They can sit and wait. Until they are told what to do.
Suspiciousness: Clients may look suspiciously, cast suspicious glances, ask questions about what the interviewer is recording.
Seduction: Clients may seductively or provocatively touch or stroke themselves, move in close, and try to touch the interviewer.

Content of affect
Content of affect
First, you should determine what affective state you are observing from the client.
What is it - sadness, euphoria, anxiety, fear, anger, anxiety, fear, guilt or remorse, happiness or joy, sadness, surprise, irritation?
Indicators of an affective state can be facial expression, body position, movements and tone of voice of the client.
Range and duration
In some cases, the client's affective range may be too variable; in other cases, it may be quite limited.
As a general rule, obsessive-compulsive clients show a limited affective range, while manic and hysterical clients show an extremely wide range of emotions, moving from happiness to sadness and back quite quickly. This pattern is called the labile effect. Sometimes during interviews, clients show little or no affect, as if their emotional life has completely stopped (flattened affect). Signs of a flattened effect in clients are an inability to establish emotional contact with people (when taking antipsychotic drugs, schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease).
Adequacy
The adequacy of the affect is judged in the context of the content of the client's speech and the life situation in which he is. For example, a client talks about an undeniably tragic incident and at the same time giggles or demonstrates striking emotional indifference to their situation.
Depth or intensity
Some clients look deeply saddened, while others seem more superficial. Perhaps some clients may go out of their way to "keep a good face on a bad game." However, through careful observation of tone of voice, body position, facial expression, and ability to quickly move (or not move) to a new topic, the interviewer can get at least some idea of ​​the depth and intensity of the affect. Affect characteristics can be: euphoric. labile, inadequate in relation to the content of speech and life situation, superficial.

Mood
In the study of mental status, mood and affect are considered as two different concepts.
The client's mood should be ascertained through simple non-directive open-ended questions such as "How would you describe your mood?", "How are you feeling lately?" rather than closed directive questions like "Do you feel depressed?" When clients are asked about their condition, some of them begin to describe their physical condition or life situation. In this case, just listen to them and then ask: “What about emotions? How do you feel (in relation to your physical condition or life situation)?
It's a good idea to write down verbatim the customer's responses to your question about their mood. This makes it possible to compare the client's descriptions of his mood at different times and to compare with his description of his thoughts, since the latter can explain the dominant nature of the former.
Mood differs from affect in several characteristic features: it is, as a rule, more long-term; does not change as spontaneously as affect; creates an emotional background; It is characterized by the client himself, while the affect is clarified by the interviewer.
Figuratively speaking, mood is related to affect in the same way that climate is related to weather.

Speech and thinking

From the point of view of the study of mental status, speech and thinking are closely related. The interviewer observes and diagnoses the client's thought processes, primarily through speech, non-verbal behavior, and body language.

Speech
Speech is characterized by categories such as tempo (i.e. speed of speech), loudness level, and volume.
The tempo and volume level can be:
High (fast pace, loud speech);
Medium (normal or ordinary);
Low (slow pace, quiet speech).
The client's speech is usually described as tense (high speed), loud, slow or stammering (low speed), or soft or inaudible.
If the client speaks freely, without coercion, it is easier for the interviewer to diagnose their speech and thinking. Speech that was not prompted by direct prompting or questions from the interviewer is reported as spontaneous. Spontaneous speech with the client is easier for the interviewer to work with and provides easy access to his internal thought processes. However, some clients avoid open conversation and can only briefly answer direct questions. Such clients are said to have "poor speech". Some clients are very slow to respond to questions. In this case, they speak of an increased or prolonged response latency. The characteristic features of speech may include: accent, high or low tone, defects in vocabulary. Speech disorders include dysarthria (impaired articulation of speech; manifested in difficulty in pronunciation, especially with vowels, bradyphasia [slow speech], discontinuity of speech), dysprosody (violation of the melody of speech, its rhythm and accents; manifested in mumbling, merging words, or, conversely, long pauses and gaps between syllables and words), erratic speech (fast, unstructured, unintelligible speech) and stuttering. All this may be associated with brain disorders or drug intoxication.

Thinking process
Observation and diagnosis of thinking usually includes two broad categories: the mental content of thoughts. Thought process refers to how clients express their thoughts (orderly, organized, logical). Can clients "talk to the point"? The client may experience "verbal vinaigrette", neologisms, blocking thoughts. , a sudden stop in speech or thinking (with a symptom of anxiety, schizophrenia or depression).

Thought content
Thought content refers to the meaning of the client's messages. If the thought process is how, then the content of thoughts is what.
Characteristics of the thought process
Speech blocking. Sudden interruption of speech in the middle of a sentence. At the same time, there are no explainable reasons why the client stopped talking, and the client himself cannot explain this. Blocking can mean approaching an extremely painful topic. It may also indicate an intervention in the mind of delusional ideas or disturbances in perception.
Detailed speech. Violation of speech, manifested by a slowdown in its pace, the phenomena of bradylogy (difficulty and slowdown in the flow of associative processes (thinking, speech)), excessive thoroughness, viscosity, stuck in circumstances that are insignificant in meaning. The purpose of the statement, the speech task is preserved, but the path to them slows down significantly (typical in epilepsy and in people with a highly developed intellect, among scientists). In the end, they express their thought, but they do it not as directly and clearly as it could be. A lengthy speech can also be a sign of resistance from the client or an expression of paranoid thinking (or it could simply mean that the professor was not prepared for the lecture)
phenotypic associations. A combination of words that are not related in meaning only on the basis of a similar sound, appear through meaningless alliteration or rhymes. For example: "I'm so nasty, cocky, brutal, obstetrical" or "When I think about my dad, paw, sap, cap, tap." Of course, this phenomenon is not always spoken of as psychopathology and may be encouraged by a particular situation or subculture, such as the Rappers).
Leap of ideas. The client does not dwell on the main idea or does not answer the question, is excessively agitated or hyper-energetic (in a manic or hypomanic state), or after taking an excessive dose of caffeine.
The weakening of the association. Lack or absence of logical connections between thoughts, phrases with their insignificant and abstract connection and events (with schizotypal personality disorders, schizophrenia). For example: “I love you. Bread gives life. Have I met you in church before? Incest is terrible." In this example, the client thinks of sympathy and love, then the love of God for people, expressed through the sacrifice of Christ, whose body is turned into bread in the sacrament of church communion, then the client thinks of the church and recalls the denunciation of the sin of incest during the sermon. The associations are rather weak, completely abstract.
Of course, in some people with non-standard, creative thinking, the weakening of associations is observed regularly.
Silence. Almost complete absence or limited self-expression (autism, catatonic schizophrenia).
Neologisms. Words invented by the client. Neologisms should be distinguished from reservations. They are created spontaneously in speech, i.e. are not a product of creative thinking. For example, we have heard from our clients such words as "dive" and "platypus". It is very important to find out from the client the meaning and origin of the word. It can be gleaned from songs, books, films and other sources (“musi-pusi”, “fuck”, etc.).
Perseverations. Involuntary repetition of a word, phrase, or action. Perseverations often indicate psychotic disorders and brain damage. A similar form of behavior is often shown by teenagers when they are denied their requests and desires; although normal teenagers are rather persistent - if they are properly motivated, they can consciously stop.
Distracted speech. There is no consistency in the logic of words and sentences. Clients are unable to follow the sequence of thoughts. This is the highest degree of thought disorder.
Thought contents include delusions, obsessions, suicidal or homicidal thoughts (an attraction to homicide, an obsession with the idea of ​​taking the life of another), phobias, or strong lasting emotions, especially guilt.
Delusions - deep delusions of the client, indicating a loss of contact with reality; they are not based on facts or real events. The interviewer should record delusional representations. You should not convince clients of the fallacy of their delusional ideas. Instead, you can ask questions that will help you better understand the delusion. For example: “How do you know that you really [describing a crazy idea]?
Delusional clients may suffer from persecutory delusions (paranoia), hypochondriacal delusions (believing they are suffering from a certain illness), delusions of self-blame, delusions of grandeur, and so on.
Obsessive states.
Obsessions are recurring and persistent ideas, thoughts, and images. Actual obsessions are always independent of the person's will and are usually perceived as meaningless or irrational even by those who experience them. If an individual loses control over certain thoughts, one can speak of an obsessive state (one client believed that he was “infested with bacilli and worms”, others performed meaningless rituals every day, or washed or checked something). Obsessive states are characterized primarily by a feeling of doubt and which do not prevent them from functioning normally at home or at work.
Perceptual disorders
Perception (from Latin perceptio) is a sensory knowledge of objects of the surrounding world, subjectively presented as a direct reflection of reality by our sense organs (vision, hearing, smell, touch) and as an already structured reaction of the nervous system to the environment, in the form of already established images or phenomena.
Perceptual disturbances include hallucinations and illusions. Hallucinations are false sensory impressions or perceptions that occur without appropriate external stimuli. Illusions are understood as false, distorted perceptions of real objects.
Orientation and consciousness
When examining mental status, it is usually diagnosed whether the client is oriented in the situation in which he is (ie, whether clients are aware of where they are, who they are, etc.).
When disoriented, the client may not be able to correctly answer one or more of these orientation questions. In disorientation, clients usually lose their sense of time first, then place, and finally identity. The orientation is restored in the reverse order (first the person, then the place, then the time).
Orientation questions may be perceived by clients with a normal orientation as offensive. The simplest questions about orientation can humiliate them. Therefore, the determination of the orientation of the client should be approached with delicacy.
The interviewer asks simple questions.
Personality
What is your name?
Where do you come from?
Where do you currently live?
What do you do in your free time?
You are working? If yes, then by whom?
Are you married(married)? What is the name of your spouse (your spouse)?
Do you have children?
A place
You have been through a lot in the last few days (hours). I wonder if you can describe where you are now (in what city, in what place)?
Can you name today's date? (If the client says that he remembers exactly, ask for at least a rough date, this will help establish the degree of orientation).
Do you remember what day of the week it is?
What month (year) is it?
How long have you been here?
Description of the state of consciousness:
clear;
tangled;
twilight;
Stuporous;
Unconscious;
comatose.
Memory and intellectual abilities
Memory
Memory is broadly understood as the ability to recall the past. I usually diagnose three types of memory: long-term, memory for recent events and short-term.
The possibility of confabulation of long-term memory means spontaneous falsification or distortion of memories. We've even found that some couples have serious disagreements if the husband's and wife's memories of key events do not match. It is clear that human memory is imperfect, and as time passes, the interpretation of events may change. This is especially true in situations where the client is forced to recall the past. The client may talk about some fragmentary memories, but when pressure is exerted on him to expand or clarify the details, confabulations may occur. In this case, it is useful to contact relatives, friends, acquaintances of the client (legal consent is required). In addition, friends and relatives may be insincere, or memories will also be changed.
Clients may directly admit memory problems (but this is not a fact). Clients with depression often exaggerate the degree of cognitive decline by complaining about abnormal brain activity.
The most common technique for diagnosing short-term memory is counting back from one hundred to seven (100, 93, 86, 79). In this case, anxiety should be taken into account. cultural environment and level of education of the client.
Clients are sometimes sensitive to the results of performing cognitive tests. Their reactions range from self-doubt to subterfuge and open acknowledgment of their anxiety.
Intellectual abilities
D. Wexler defined intelligence as "a general ability ... to act rationally, think rationally and effectively interact with one's environment."
Intelligence = is a combination of several particular abilities, and not the general ability to adapt, R. Sternberg and V. Wagner believe. They propose a theory of the triple hierarchy of intelligence:
Academic problem solving;
Practical intelligence;
Creative intelligence.
D. Goleman defined emotional intelligence as the ability of a person to recognize emotions, understand the intentions, motivations and desires of other people and their own, as well as the ability to manage their emotions and the emotions of other people in order to solve practical problems.
G. Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences states that there are seven or eight types of intelligence that manifest themselves in different areas.
Several methods are used to determine a client's intellectual ability during a mental status examination.
First, by the level of education of the client, the interviewer can judge his innate intelligence. At the same time, special emphasis is placed on academic intelligence.
Second, the client's ability to understand and use speech (vocabulary or word comprehension) is diagnosed. It has been proven that vocabulary characteristics can serve as the only reliable indicator of potential IQ.
Third, intelligence is judged by the client's responses to questions designed to evoke a store of knowledge.
Fourth, intelligence is judged by answers to questions designed to diagnose abstract thinking.
Fifth, questions designed to diagnose judgment are used to diagnose intellectual functioning.
Sixth, the level of intellectual abilities is established on the basis of the client's answers to questions about orientation, consciousness and memory.
Reliability, reasonableness and understanding by the client of their problems
Reliability
The reliability of the client depends on that. how much he can be trusted, whether the information he provides is trustworthy. A reliable informant is a client who tries to describe their personal history and current situation truthfully and accurately. Some clients are extremely unreliable, for one reason or another they distort, falsify or outright fabricate their personal history or current situation.
Reliability can be established from a number of externally observable factors. Clients who are able to pay close attention to detail and spontaneously develop interviewer questions. Conversely, clients who are evasive or resistive are more likely to be unreliable informants. In some cases, it will be clearly visible that clients deliberately hide or downplay certain parts of their personal history. In some cases, if unreliability is suspected, it is worth contacting relatives, employers or other persons who can confirm the client's information. If there is any doubt about the reliability of the personal history, then this should be noted in the client's mental status study report.
prudence
Reasonable people are able to make constructive and adaptive decisions that reflect positively on their lives. When examining a client's activities, relationships, and professional choices, one might ask, for example, whether he is involved in any illegal activity or whether he has relationships that can be considered harmful. Does the client like to “tickle his nerves”, engage in life-threatening activities. Of course, consistently engaging in illegal or life-threatening activities and maintaining destructive relationships will be evidence that the individual is not judicious in the choice of activities or relationships. The interviewer can judge certain patterns of client behavior by answering questions about their actions in hypothetical situations.
Understanding the client's problems
Clients with a high level of understanding of their problems may discuss possible emotional or psychosocial factors behind their symptoms. Clients with a low level of understanding of their problems, on the contrary, when they are pointed to possible psychosocial or emotional explanations for the reasons for their condition: in many cases they stubbornly deny the existence of any problems at all.
Interviewers use one of four descriptors to describe the extent to which a client understands their problems.
Missing. Clients who are credited with lack of understanding usually do not admit that they have a problem. They may blame other people for being accused of having psychosocial problems and being referred to a specialist or hospitalized.
Bad. Clients acknowledge minor problems or symptoms but rely solely on physical, medical, or situational factors to explain them. They do not want to accept the fact that the state of health can be determined by the emotional state. Such clients do not recognize any personal responsibility for their psychosocial problems or the specific role of non-physical factors in them. If they admit there is a problem, they usually see the solution only in medical or surgical treatment, or in isolation from those people who are supposedly responsible for this problem.
Partial. Clients who more often acknowledge the existence of a problem and the possible need for therapy than deny it have partial understanding. However, such a position may be replaced by misunderstanding and non-recognition of one's problem, and as a result, a premature termination of psychotherapy is possible.
Good. Clients readily admit that there is a problem that requires adequate psychotherapy” [p.334-372].
References: Sommer-Flanagan, John, Sommer-Flanagan, Rita. Clinical interview. Moscow: Williams Publishing House, 2006.

Effect of psychology: acute pain caused by emotions, feelings lasts an average of 11.5 minutes. Further suffering is self-deception.

I explore and detail the temperature regime and amenities of the territorial waters of the home bath.

Cry into the vest at the family psychologist, so as not to laugh soon at the psychiatrist.

Love is an excuse and a reason to live, rejoicing in the sunrise and every day.

Best Status:
With lost love, the meaning of being has disappeared.

Daily moral trauma when I cross the threshold of the third school.

Psychological balance depends on eight lucky people whom I have to hug, or one loser who is destined by fate to get a hard chin with a fist.

When I stupidly try in vain to object to a woman, I remember the dentist. Always expensive - sometimes painful and unpleasant.

When the mirror makes funny faces, trying to object to you, it's time to think more about a visit to a psychotherapist.

Human souls are healed not only by the ministers of psychiatry: psychologists and psychiatrists. Sometimes heroin and cocaine dealers consider themselves the masters of souls.

The statistics are inexorable - men go to eternity earlier than women, because of the habit of ladies to be late, even on their last journey to the cemetery.

Someone considers alcohol to be a friend, sometimes a news service or a psychological emergency room.

Life must be lived in such a way that everyone upstairs would go nuts and say: “Come on, repeat it!”

Don't kill mosquitoes! They are your blood!

To give birth to an idea, it is not necessary to fuck brains!

If I want, it will come true.

In order not to step on the rake a second time, fix an ax on their handle)))

There are those who even Snickers will not help ...

Love is the most beautiful feeling in the world

I am a creative person: I want - I create, I want - I do

What year were you born in? In what month? What date? ... And what the hell?

I do not care what you think of me. I do not think about you at all!

[she loves to dream and talk about it out loud, she makes elephants out of very small flies. ]

Sometimes I look at this world and so want to yell: “aah, dudes! let's get out of here!"

A woman needs only one thing to be happy ... but every day a new one!

Only joint engagement in idiocy can indicate true spiritual and spiritual intimacy.

A woman is given a mind to hide her character ...

I fucking love to listen to lies, looking into the eyes ... Especially when I know the truth ...

I am a blonde - everything that is not purple is pink for me !!!

Take care of the men! They are suffering! Sometimes a lack of attention, sometimes too much, and most of the time SHIT!!!

There are a couple of mowers in our pockets, we are positive, there are many of us, we are crazy, drunk and immodest.

I must have gone crazy, I must have hit! When did it happen like this? And my merry laughter is gone! Love has come, unexpected love, but you are not next to me! ((

Good always triumphs over evil; It means whoever wins is the good one.

If a person is bitten by a vampire, he becomes a vampire. It seems that so many around were bitten by rams ...

Without you, the sausage in the house does not end ...

There are not as many people in prison as you are on the Internet.

I urge you to protect and appreciate

When you left me, I renamed you on the phone to NOBODY, it’s just a pity that you can’t do this with your heart ...

Get up bunny, it's time for you to take the exam! - Today I am a fish, I have no legs, and I will not go anywhere!!!

What nature is to blame for, cotton wool will always help ...

Never be afraid to do what you can't. Remember: The Ark was built by an amateur. Professionals built the Titanic

A cactus is a cucumber deeply disappointed in life.

Due to the disappearance of soap in the women's baths installed video cameras

Are you playing, dear? walk ... no one is holding you by the horns ...

I dream of becoming a boomerang: they throw you, and you throw them back in the face.

A cigarette takes 4 minutes. from life, 100 g of vodka takes 8 minutes, and a lesson at school takes 45 minutes.

Harm is a complex socio-psychological work for which no one pays, but you enjoy it ..

Departure does not mean rejection, it is also a way to save the experience, if you are smart enough to leave before it's too late ...

When they say to you: “Tell me, just be honest,” you begin to understand that now you will have to lie recklessly ...

What kind of idiotic craving to touch everything beautiful with your hands?

The best psychologist is a friend with a bottle of vodka!

The problem is not that I don't give a damn about you. The problem is, I still love him! ???

if you know the meaning of life, tell us, and we will laugh merrily!)

Family is when you guess by the sound who is sitting on the toilet.

The hardest thing in life is to figure out which bridge to cross and which one to burn!!!

Better remember me dashing than call me a sucker))) ???

They say that you need to throw a coin where you want to return. I will definitely shake out the whole wallet for you by the scruff of the neck

Status in contact is a responsible step in personal life!

Damn, you wait 5 days for the weekend ... and when they come, nothing better, how stupid you can’t find sleep all day! .

- Yesterday the GAI officer fined me. And most importantly, I found something to complain about: the pillowcase on the airbag is dirty.

Of course, happiness does not depend on the amount of money ... But it's better to cry in a limousine than on a bus!

You don’t have your brains - you can’t throw a shovel !!!

Love is tears at night

Either pay me a psychologist, or take me as I am..!!!

There are few fools in the world, but they are arranged so competently that they are found at every turn.

Always choose the most difficult path - on it you will not meet competitors.

Who told me it won't work?

Of course, I am the sun, but nothing shines for you here!

And only to us, only once, They will let us start all over again ...

As soon as you find your soul mate, other halves begin to wander around and make you doubt ...

We are strong girls! And we will take out the garbage, and the brain, if necessary!

On NG made a wish to see you this year. And now you came to my city, I was the happiest. But you flew away again and I'm lonely ... Be careful with your desires

It's bad to be a hedgehog, no one will stroke ..

Life, it's like a zebra: black stripe, white stripe, black, white, black, white ... and then a tail and a complete ass! ..

Trust is like a kidney. Once they beat it off and that's it - kapets !!!

Nature denied the woman physical strength, so the woman perfectly mastered the art of psychological violence))

Who, sitting at the computer, has time to listen to music, watch TV and eat? We are unique!

Cheat sheet on social psychology Cheldyshova Nadezhda Borisovna

23. Social status

23. Social status

Social status - the position occupied by an individual in the system of interpersonal relations that determine his duties, rights and privileges.

The status is a reflection of the hierarchical structure of the group and creates a vertical differentiation in it. The status characteristic of the subject depends not only on the subject himself, but also on the social group to which he belongs.

Social status characterizes a person's position in the social community, his position in the system of interpersonal relations and the rights, duties, powers and privileges that he receives due to his position.

The social status of a person is preserved as long as he lives in accordance with the established (conventional) rules and norms that govern the behavior of people in this category.

Levels of a person's status position:

1) personal status - the position of an individual in a small group (family, school class, student group, community of peers, etc.), which is determined by the individual qualities of the individual and depends on how the members of the small group evaluate and perceive it;

2) social group status is the position of an individual in society, which he occupies as a representative of a large social group (race, nation, gender, class, stratum, religion, profession, etc.). It depends on the position of the social group in the social stratification of society.

Types of social statuses:

1) congenital and ascribed status - acquired by a person automatically at birth and does not depend on the efforts and aspirations of a person (nationality, gender, race, membership in the royal family, etc., as well as statuses according to the kinship system - son, daughter, brother, sister.);

2) assigned, but not inborn statuses are acquired due to a combination of certain circumstances, and not according to the personal will of the individual, for example, due to marriage (mother-in-law, son-in-law, daughter-in-law, sister-in-law, etc.);

3) achieved status - acquired through the efforts of the person himself with the help of various social groups. Achieved statuses are divided into determined ones:

a) position (for example, director, manager);

b) titles (general, people's artist, honored teacher, etc.);

c) academic degree (doctor of science, professor);

d) professional affiliation (People's Artist of Russia or Honored Master of Sports);

4) the main statuses are fairly constant statuses (born, attributed, achieved, personal);

5) non-basic statuses due to a short-term situation (passer-by, patient, witness, spectator).

A person cannot be completely deprived of a social status or several statuses, in the case when he leaves one of them, he will necessarily find himself in another.

Each person has several statuses in relation to various groups (director (by position), husband (for wife), father (for children), son (for parents), etc.). These statuses are not equal. The main social status is usually a position in society, which is based on position and profession. Due to this status, the "value resources" of a person, such as wealth, prestige, power, are usually determined.

The initial status of an individual affects his assessment in society, forms a point of view on the world, which largely determines his future behavior. People with different initial social statuses have unequal conditions of socialization.

Social statuses are reflected in clothes, jargon, manners, as well as in attitudes, value orientations, and motives.

Social status can rise or fall, which implies an adequate change in behavior. If this does not happen, there is an intrapersonal conflict.