Relationship of emotions with cognitive processes. Emotions, consciousness and connection of emotions and cognitive processes. Psychoanalytic concept of affect and motivation

Despite the fact that McDougal in his theory pointed out the close relationship between emotions and volitional activity, and his and Freud's work laid the foundation for studying the relationship between emotions, motivation and behavior, one of the most serious problems of psychology is that most theories of personality, Theories of behavior and theories of emotion have little to do with each other. Quite characteristic is the fact that the authors of many personality theories do not even mention the problem of emotions. As a rule, they use one or another concept related to motivation, but at the same time they rarely consider private emotions as motivational variables. Emotion researchers also, as a rule, analyze only one or several components of the emotional process - its neurophysiological, expressive or phenomenological component. At the same time, with rare exceptions, they almost do not correlate their data with data from personality theories and data from behavioral theories. Below is a brief overview of some approaches to the study of emotions, each of which is correlated with data from studies of other functions of the body or the personality as a whole; here is material that will help us define emotion and understand its essence.

Psychoanalytic concept of affect and motivation

It is difficult to give a precise definition of affect within the framework of classical psychoanalytic theory. The complexity is caused by the fact that 3. Freud and his followers interpreted this term extremely broadly, loading it with more and more diverse meanings as the theory developed. Thus, in his early works 3. Freud writes that affect, or emotion, is the only motivating force of mental life, and in his later works he already speaks of affects as intrapsychic factors that awaken the fantasies and desires of the individual.

Concluding the review of psychoanalytic and other data, Rapaport comes to the following conclusion. Only one of the theories explaining the mechanisms of the emergence of emotions does not contradict empirical data. Its essence is as follows: a perceptual image perceived from the outside serves as the initiator of an unconscious process during which the instinctive energy unconscious of the individual is mobilized; if this energy cannot find a legal application for itself (in the case when the instinctive demands are in conflict), it spills out through other channels in the form of involuntary activity; different types of such activity - "emotional expression" and "emotional experience" - can be manifested simultaneously, alternately or independently of each other; the open manifestation of instinctive attraction is tabooed by culture, and therefore a person is characterized by constant emotional discharges of varying intensity; as a result, the mental life of a person is saturated not only with the "pure" emotions described in textbooks, such as rage, fear, etc., but also with a wide range of other emotions, from the most intense to moderate ones.

In psychoanalytic literature, three aspects of affect are considered - the energy component of instinctive attraction ("charge" of affect), the process of "discharge" and the perception of the final discharge (sensation, or feeling of emotion).

Holt resolutely rejected the theory of instinctive drives and put forward his own, quite convincing, concept of affect and motivation. He emphasizes the importance of external stimulation and perceptual-cognitive processes, but at the same time recognizes the importance of phenomena associated with the expression and experience of emotions.<...>

Both Holt and a number of other authors draw attention to the fact that empirical data do not allow us to consider instinctive attraction as some kind of psychic energy or instinctive motive power. According to Holt, despite the fact that sexual attraction, aggression, fear and other affective phenomena can be considered as biologically determined, innate (although observed in a wide variety of modifications) reactions, they are activated only as a result of an individual's awareness of external pressure - that is, under the influence of significant aspects of the environment that can best be defined in terms of social conventions and prescriptions.<...>

The work of Helen Lewis on the role of shame and guilt in personality development, in psychopathology and psychotherapy is based on the theory of psychoanalysis, on research in experimental psychology and personality-oriented psychotherapy. In her most famous work, Shame, Guilt and Neuroses, she addresses the eternal problem of distinguishing between shame and guilt, considering these two emotions as independent and important factors of motivation.<...>

In the course of Lewis' research, it is shown that the fear or expectation of shame acts as a restraining motive in the behavior of the individual and as a force contributing to the formation of self-identity. On the other hand, Lewis sees shame as an emotional state that, in its extreme manifestations, can cause mental disorders and personality problems, and in this sense is the opposite of a sense of personal autonomy. She found that in the semi-addicted patient, the emotion of shame generates inward hostility towards himself.

In his work, Lewis reveals the positive meaning of the emotion of shame, showing how important it is for maintaining a person's self-esteem, self-esteem and emotional connections. Her differences in the expression of shame and guilt reinforce her idea that shame, as an affective state of the superego, plays a role in the development of depression and hysteria, while guilt causes obsessional disorders and paranoia. In addition, Lewis hypothesizes that there may be significant gender differences in the emotional sphere, suggesting that women, unlike men, are more likely to experience the emotion of shame and that is why they are more prone to depression and hysteria.

Measuring approach: arousal, activation and scaling of emotions

Spencer was one of the first to consider emotions (feelings) as a measurable part of consciousness. Wundt, developing this tradition, proposed to describe the emotional (sensual) sphere of consciousness, evaluating it using three dimensions: pleasure - displeasure, relaxation - tension and calmness - excitement. Subsequently, these criteria were used by Woodworth and Schlosberg in a number of studies of emotional expression.

Emotions as an organismic excitation.

Duffy, based on the concepts of Spencer and Wundt, believes that all behavior can be explained in terms of a single phenomenon - organismic arousal, a concept that has an obvious similarity with Wundt's dimension of relaxation - tension. Duffy argues that behavior is variable only along two vectors, which she calls directionality and intensity. Behavioral orientation is defined by Duffy in terms of response selectivity, expectancy-based selectivity, target orientation of the organism, and the relationship between perceived stimuli. The individual either submits to the situation or avoids it, depending on its meaning - motivating or threatening.

The second characteristic of behavior - intensity - Duffy defines as a consequence of the general excitability of the body or as the mobilization of energy, and considers the measure of intensity "the amount of energy released from the tissues of the body." According to Duffy, emotion is just a point or a collection of points on the arousal scale.<.">

Neural activation, emotion and behavior.

Lindsley put forward his own - activation - theory of emotions and behavior. Too broad and difficult to measure the concept of organismic excitation put forward by Duffy, he replaced the concept of activation, which he defined as neuronal excitation of the reticular formation of the brain stem with concomitant changes in the electroencephalographic parameters of the cortex. His interpretation of emotion presupposes the existence of a prior emotional stimulus, either external and conditional or internal and unconditional. Such stimuli excite impulses that activate the brainstem, which in turn sends impulses to the thalamus and the cerebral cortex. A hypothetical activating mechanism transforms these impulses into behavior characterized by "emotional arousal" and into EEG indicators characterized by low amplitude, high frequency, and asynchrony.

When impulses arise due to a decrease in emotional stimulation and directly affect the thalamus, synchronized, high-amplitude, low-frequency EEG complexes arise. Lindsley predicts that under these conditions, behavior opposite to that observed in "emotional arousal" should be found, that is, "emotional apathy."<...>

Scaling of emotional expression.

Since 1872, after the publication of Darwin's famous work "The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals", such a complex area of ​​emotions as expressive facial expressions has been considered by many scientists as an independent discipline. Some of these authors made invaluable contributions to the analysis and understanding of expression, but often failed to integrate their important discoveries into the psychology of personality and behavior.

The study of facial expressions, which is the main topic of our interest, began with Woodworth, when he proposed the first truly effective system for classifying facial expressions of individual emotions. He showed that the whole variety of expressive facial expressions can be categorized using a linear scale, suggesting the following six steps: 1) love, joy, happiness; 2) surprise; 3) fear, suffering; 4) anger, determination; 5) disgust: 6) contempt.

Schlosberg, using the Woodworth classification scheme when analyzing photographs of people with different facial expressions, suggested that they can be most adequately described if the Woodworth scale is represented as a circle with two axes: pleasure - displeasure and acceptance - rejection. Schlossberg later added a third dimension, sleep-tension, and thus came very close to accepting and empirically validating the three dimensions of feeling first proposed by Wundt in 1896.<...>

Cognitive theories of emotion and personality

Cognitive theories of emotion and personality include at least two broad classes of theories. These are the so-called theories of "I", or theories of self-consciousness, and theories that fall into the primary cause or component of emotion are copying processes. The central and predominant concept of all theories of "I" is the concept of self-concept. The self-concept is a holistic, integrated phenomenon, consisting of the individual's perception and knowledge of himself, and it is he who is given great explanatory value in the theories of "I". Within the framework of these theories, behavior is considered as a function of perception and especially self-perception of the individual.

Theories of "I", feeling and emotion.

The deeper a person's perception or knowledge of himself, the more they are connected with the core of his personality, with his self, the more they include feelings, emotions. The threat of the self-concept causes fear in a person, forces him to defend himself, while the confirmation and approval of the self-concept causes joy and interest in a person.

Self theories constantly emphasize the importance of analyzing the "sense content" (as opposed to the strictly semantic content) of verbal expressions, which is considered especially important in the work of the psychotherapist. A psychotherapist who helps a person in solving psychological problems must be able to see emotion behind the patient's statements. This principle is used by many areas of modern psychotherapy in the psychology of personal growth (for example, in psychological training groups, meeting groups, in gestalt therapy).

Emotion as a function of cognitive processes.

Some modern theories consider emotion mainly as a reaction or a set of reactions caused by cognitive processes. Such a view of the nature of emotions, which is very characteristic of representatives of Western culture, is obviously generated by those ideas about human nature that have their roots in Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas, Diderot, Kant and other philosophers. These representations are as follows: a) man, first of all and to the greatest extent, is a rational being; b) the rational principle is useful, beneficial for a person, the emotional one harms and hinders him; c) the mind (cognitive processes) should serve as a factor in controlling and replacing emotions,

The most developed of the theories of emotions and personality, built within the framework of the above tradition, is Arnold's theory. According to this theory, emotion arises as a result of the impact of a certain sequence of events described in terms of perception and evaluation.

The term "perception" Arnold interprets as "elementary understanding". In this case, to "perceive" an object means, in a certain sense, to "understand" it, regardless of how it affects the perceiver. In order for the image presented in the mind to receive an emotional coloring, the object must be evaluated from the point of view of its influence on the perceiver. Emotion thus is not an assessment, although it can carry it in itself as an integral, necessary component. More specifically, an emotion is an unconscious attraction to or rejection of an object, resulting from the assessment of the object as good or bad for the individual.

Evaluation itself is an unmediated, instantaneous, intuitive act, unrelated to reflection. It occurs immediately after the perception of the object, acts as the final link in the perceptual process and can be considered as a separate process only reflexively. These three acts, perception - evaluation - emotion, are so closely intertwined that our everyday experience cannot be called objective knowledge; it is always knowledge - acceptance or knowledge - rejection. Intuitive assessment of the situation gives rise to a tendency to action, which is experienced as an emotion and is expressed by various somatic changes and which can cause expressive or behavioral reactions. Emotion can give a residual, or prolonged, effect. Action tendencies caused by emotion have an organizing influence on the process of further perception of the assessment; emotions "fascinate and captivate us." In addition, intuitive evaluation and emotional response tend to be constant, so that an object or situation, evaluated and emotionally reacted in a certain way, evokes the same evaluation and emotion every time. Moreover, the assessment of the object and the emotional response to it tend to be generalized - they are transferred to the entire class of objects.

Other cognitive theories of emotion.

Schechter and his colleagues suggested that emotions arise based on physiological arousal and a cognitive assessment of the situation that caused this arousal. A certain event or situation causes physiological arousal, and the individual needs to evaluate the content of the arousal, that is, the situation that caused it. The type or quality of emotion experienced by an individual does not depend on the sensation that arises from physiological arousal, but on how the individual evaluates the situation. Evaluation ("by memory or feeling") of a situation allows a person to define arousal as joy or anger, fear or disgust, or any other emotion appropriate to the situation. According to Schechter, the same physiological arousal can be experienced both as joy and anger (and like any other emotion), depending on the interpretation of the situation.<...>

The main contribution of cognitive theories to the study of emotions is the description of emotional-specific cognitive processes - a special kind of inference that causes a specific emotion. They also deepened our understanding of the relationship between emotions and cognitive processes.<...>

Emotions as a result of biological processes. Emotional patterns as personality traits

Plutchik viewed emotions as a means of adaptation that played an important role in survival at all evolutionary levels. Below are the basic prototypes of adaptive behavior and their corresponding emotions (affective-cognitive structures).

Protypical adaptive complex	Primary emotion
1. Incorporation - absorption of food and water	Adoption
2. Rejection - rejection reaction, excretion, vomiting	Disgust
3. Destruction - removing obstacles to satisfaction
4. Defense - initially in response to pain or the threat of pain
5. Reproductive behavior - reactions accompanying sexual behavior
6. Deprivation - the loss of an object that brings pleasure
7. Orientation - reaction to contact with a new, unfamiliar object
8. Exploration - more or less erratic, voluntary activity aimed at exploring the environment	Hope or curiosity

Plutchik defines emotion as a complex somatic reaction associated with a specific adaptive biological process common to all living organisms. Primary emotion, according to Plutchik, is limited in time and is initiated by an external stimulus. Each primary emotion and each secondary emotion (which means a combination of two or more primary emotions) corresponds to a certain physiological and expressive-behavioral complex. According to Plutchik, the constant blocking of adequate motor reactions in conflict or frustrating situations causes chronic muscle tension, which can serve as an indicator of poor adaptation; he cites a number of experimental data to confirm this thesis.<...>

Cognitive-affective approach

According to Singer, the close relationship between affect and cognitive processes is based on the child's attempts to adapt to a new and constantly changing environment. Singer, like Tomkins and Izard, believes that the novelty of the environment activates the emotion of interest, which in turn reinforces the child's exploratory activity. Environmental awareness and successful adjustment reduce arousal levels and activate the emotion of joy, while a large amount of complex material that is not available for assimilation can cause fear, sadness or fear.<...>

SUMMARY

Psychology has relatively recently turned to a serious study of the problem of emotions. There are a variety of opinions regarding emotions - some scientists argue that emotions have nothing to do with behavior, but there is also an opposite approach, the one that is embodied in this book. We believe that emotions constitute the primary motivational system of a person.

Emotions appeared in humans in the process of evolution. It can be assumed that the origins of some human emotions must be sought in the simplest physiological drives, such as hunger, and in primary adaptive mechanisms, such as the approach-withdrawal response. Each emotion performed certain adaptive functions in the process of human evolution. Darwin's thesis that the modes of expression of basic emotions are innate and universal has been repeatedly validated by cross-cultural and developmental research.

A reflex is an automatic response to a stimulus that occurs without cognitive evaluation of the stimulus. The instinct is a more complex form of behavior, it is usually awakened under the influence of hormonal changes in the body and implements the program inherent in the genes of the animal. For animals, reflexes and instincts are much more important than for humans, whose motivational system is based on emotions.

A comprehensive definition of the phenomenon of emotion should include physiological, expressive and empirical components. Emotion arises as a result of neurophysiological processes, which in turn can be caused by both internal and external factors. When an emotion arises in response to a mental image, symbol, representation, then we can talk about a formed connection between thought and feeling, or about an affective-cognitive structure. Affective-cognitive structures can be a combination of drive and cognitive processes or a combination of drive, emotion and cognitive processes.

Vivid and expressive emotional states have long attracted the attention of scientists, artists and laymen, but the science of emotions should study not only these extremely short experiences. There are persistent individual differences in the frequency and intensity of different people experiencing certain emotions, and these differences can be studied and described in terms of<эмоциональная черта>And<эмоциональный порог>.

For reasons of convenience, we divide emotions into positive and negative based on their sensory or experiential characteristics. However, it must be remembered that any emotion (for example, joy, fear) can be both positive and negative - depending on how much it helps or hinders the adaptation of the individual in a particular situation.

The influence of emotions on a person is generalized, but each emotion affects him in his own way. The experience of emotion changes the level of electrical activity of the brain, dictates which muscles of the face and body should be tense or relaxed, controls the endocrine, circulatory and respiratory systems of the body. Emotions can cloud the perception of the world around us or color it with bright colors, turn the train of thought towards creativity or melancholy, make movements light and smooth or, conversely, clumsy.

Depending on the individual height of the emotional threshold, some children more often, while others less often experience and show one or another emotion, and this largely determines their relationship with people around them. On the other hand, the reaction of others to the emotional manifestations of the child directly affects the formation of his emotional style and the formation of certain personality traits.

Human behavior is based on emotions, they activate and organize the perception, thinking and aspirations of a person. Emotions have a direct impact on perceptual processes, filter the information that a person receives with the help of the senses, and actively interfere in the process of its subsequent processing.

FOR FURTHER READING

Forgas J. P., Bower O. N. Mood effects on personality - perception judgments. - Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1987, 53(1), 53-60.

Influence of emotions on perception (formation of impressions) and memory.

Izard S. E. The structure and functions of emotions: Implications of cognition, motivation and personality. - In: 1. S. Cohen (Ed.). The G. Stanley Hall Lecture Series. - Washington, D.C., American Psychological Association, 1989, Vol. 9, 35-73.

Consideration of the constituent components of emotions and a brief overview of their functions.

Malatesta C. Z. The role of emotions in the development and organization of personality. - In: R. Thompson (Ed.). Socio-emotional Development. - Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 1990.1-56.

The role of emotions for personality and its development.

Plutchik R. Emotion in the context of evolution. - In: Emotion: A psychoevolutionary synthesis. - NewYork, Harper & Row, 1980, 119-127.

The evolution of emotions and their role in adaptation.

Emotions are a special class of mental processes and states associated with instincts, needs and motives, reflecting in the form of direct experience (satisfaction, joy, fear, etc.) the significance of phenomena and situations affecting the individual for the implementation of his life. This definition is incomplete, since it does not reflect a number of essential characteristics of emotions and their difference from cognitive processes, namely: a) the connection of emotions with the unconscious sphere is not reflected, b) their relation to the activity (and not life activity) of a person, c) the specificity of their occurrence), d) patterns of their functioning, etc.

Recognizing the essential difference between cognitive and emotional mental phenomena, it would be wrong to assert their complete autonomy, independence from each other. The position of L.S. is known. Vygotsky about the unity of “affect and intellect”, as well as the opinion that “without human emotions there can be no human cognition”. However, this unity does not mean identity. Emotional and cognitive processes closely interact, but they are not identical - and this is the essence of the problem.

Isolation of experience as a form of manifestation of emotions as opposed to an image in the cognitive sphere emphasizes the difference between cognitive and emotional processes, defining them as forms of mental reflection emphasizes their connection, unity. Emotional processes affect the cognitive activity of a person, regulating its direction, dosing information. Experienced emotions and feelings leave their imprint on our intellectual abilities.

Cognitive and emotional systems together provide orientation in the environment. Compared to cognitive, emotional information is less structured. Emotions are a kind of stimulator of associations from different, sometimes unrelated areas of experience, which contributes to the rapid enrichment of the initial information. This is a system of "quick response" to any changes in the external environment that are important from the point of view of the need sphere.

The founder of the theory of installation D.N. Uznadze emphasized that emotional states and cognitive processes have mental contents that are irreducible to each other. Cognitive processes are characterized by an objective and maximally dissected reflection of the surrounding reality. Emotional states, on the contrary, have a diffuse, holistic character, representing the state of the subject. They contribute to a clear reflection of the objective situation and the concentration of consciousness on it.

S.L. Rubinshtein notes on this issue that emotional states are characterized by several phenomenological features: first, unlike cognitive processes, they express modifications of the subject's internal state and its relation to the object; secondly, they differ in polarity.

Within the framework of the neuropsychological approach, E.D. Chomsky summarized the main differences between emotional states and cognitive processes as higher mental functions.

1. Higher cognitive mental functions are various types of mental activity aimed at solving certain psychological problems, i.e. to get a certain result. Emotional states initiate and accompany the solution of cognitive tasks, reflecting the success or failure of their implementation in relation to one or another need. Their “appointment” is the regulation and evaluation of actions and situations.

2. Higher cognitive mental functions are largely conscious and subject to the most perfect form of control - voluntary control. Emotional phenomena are less conscious and less manageable.

3. Emotional states are characterized by sign and modality; other phenomena are qualitatively specific for the cognitive sphere, for example, the sensation of color.

4. Emotional states are closely related to need-motivational processes, being their "internal mirrors". Cognitive processes are less driven by needs, with the exception of gnostic needs, being primarily "mechanisms of knowledge".

5. Emotional states are closely related to various physiological processes (vegetative, hormonal, etc.), cognitive processes are to a lesser extent, while they interact with the work of physiological systems in a different way.

6. Emotional phenomena are included as an obligatory component in the personality structure. Cognitive processes determine the structure of the personality to a lesser extent: their particular violations are compatible with the safety of the personality as such.

Thus, the theoretical concepts of various authors show that mental states and cognitive processes have specific characteristics and, therefore, are relatively independent classes of mental phenomena.

Along with the problem of the specificity of these mental phenomena, no less important is the problem of their unity. At the time of the “cognitive revolution”, emotional states were considered only as factors that are a source of error and are subject to control during experiments. At the end of the last century, emotions began to return to the study of cognitive processes, for example, the idea is expressed of the saturation of cognitive representations (of which he includes perceptions and representations) with emotional experiences.

Currently, more and more scientists focus on the close relationship between the two categories. Models are being developed showing that the final assessment of the situation is the result of a complex interaction of cognitive processes and emotional states. The effect of “emotional framing of decision-making processes” was found, according to which states (regret, irritation, satisfaction, etc.) are caused by “frame effects”, since they depend on whether the result is perceived in the form of gain or loss.

According to V. D. Shadrikov, the separation of processes and states corresponds to the global-analytical stage of the study of the psyche. On the basis of a systematic approach, it is necessary to proceed to the synthesis of accumulated knowledge. In his concept of the inner world of a person, the author gives a leading place to emotional states. Concerning the question of the relationship between cognitive processes and states, the author writes that emotional states determine the productive side of mental processes. They not only activate cognitive processes, but also create their emotional background, emotional coloring. Therefore, when characterizing cognitive processes, we can talk about emotional perception, emotional memory, emotional thinking. However, according to the author, this aspect of mental processes has not been sufficiently developed.

The idea that the emotional and cognitive spheres of the psyche are inextricably linked and should be studied in unity was first formulated in Russian psychology by S. L. Rubinshtein and L. S. Vygotsky.

The question of "the unity of intellect and affect" was considered by L. S. Vygotsky as central in the theory of the child's mental development. This unity is found in the dynamic interconnection and mutual influence of these aspects of the psyche at all stages of mental development. The way to deal with this "vital" issue is to consider the affective and intellectual spheres as a single dynamic system of meaning. These ideas were further developed in the experimental work of OK Tikhomirov and his students.

From the standpoint of the theory of activity, the interaction of cognitive processes and emotional states was considered in the context of objective practical activity. Since cognitive processes respond to certain needs and motives, they experience the regulatory influence of emotional states. The close relationship between cognitive processes and emotional states expresses, according to A. N. Leontiev, the partiality of the subject, his activity, the belonging of sensory reflection to the active subject.

The partiality of the consciousness of the subject is expressed in the selectivity of attention, in the emotional coloring of cognitive processes. At the same time, emotions perform the function of internal signals and reflect the relationship between motives and success (or the possibility of successful implementation) of the corresponding activity of the subject. They are a direct sensual reflection of these relations, an experience, arising before a rational assessment by the subject of his activity.

According to S. L. Rubinshtein, mental processes and states should not be opposed, the dynamics of states and the laws to which they obey are inseparable from the dynamics of mental processes. The holistic act of reflection by the subject of this or that object should serve as a true unit of the mental. The "product" of reflection always has in its composition the unity of two opposite components - "knowledge and attitudes, intellectual and emotional, of which one or the other may be predominant."

Therefore, just as states can subordinate cognitive processes (for example, a person understands only what he “feels”), so cognitive processes can cause various emotional states. The author notes that the existence of intellectual states of surprise, curiosity, doubt, confidence is an example of the interpenetration of the intellectual and emotional spheres.

The idea of ​​the unity of states and processes, as well as the dynamic nature of their relationship, along with L. S. Vygotsky, S. L. Rubinshtein, is also expressed by many other researchers. For example, A. V. Petrovsky notes that in the context of the psyche, individual mental processes and states act as a unity, forming integral systems of activity that implement the mutual transitions of “objective” and “subjective”, thereby acting as a dynamic system. A similar opinion is expressed by J. Piaget, according to which behavior implies the existence of two interrelated aspects: energy (or affective) and cognitive (or structural). The affective aspect provides exchanges with the environment, which are structured by cognitive processes that determine the relationship between the subject and the object. The affective and cognitive spheres are thus inseparable, while remaining distinct at the same time.

The dialectical unity of the two categories is noted by I. I. Chesnokova. According to the author, the state is a way of organizing mental processes in a certain period of time. On the other hand, the course of deployment of the mental processes themselves, directly related to the conditions of activity, produces new mental states that begin to interact with the background state.

K. Izard, considering the relationship between cognitive processes and emotional states, notes that emotional states are often associated with mental images, forming affective-cognitive structures, and the emotional component provides a motivational charge for the structure. As an example, the author cites a state of happiness in which a person perceives the world through "rose-colored glasses", while the emotional state organizes and directs the mental activity of the individual. The theoretical analysis of the relationship between cognitive processes and emotional states leads the author to the following conclusion: how a state can activate a cognitive process and influence its course, and vice versa. Consequently, the relationship between cognitive processes (perception, imagination, memory, thinking) and emotional states "... can be characterized as dynamic and reciprocal."

The relationship between cognitive processes and mental states is most clearly manifested in altered states. Ch. Tart in the definition of "altered state of consciousness" indicates that one of its most important categorical features is a change in the quality of mental processes. It is the change in the quality of cognitive processes that is the criterion for altered states, although the individual also feels quantitative changes, for example, an increase or decrease in the number of visual images, greater or lesser clarity of images, etc. Numerous studies cited by Ch. Tart show the effect of these states on qualitative and quantitative characteristics of cognitive processes: perception of time, selectivity and volume of attention, logical thinking, etc.

Let us note one more aspect of the relationship between states and processes, related to the concept of dominant component of states. Based on this criterion, N.D. Levitov classified mental states into three groups: cognitive, volitional and emotional. With the dominance of any component, the state itself can be considered as a dependent component.

The relationship between mental states and cognitive processes is complex, contradictory, interdependent. Each component of the psyche has a particular, concrete expression in the mental state. However, if any component dominates, the state can be considered as part of it. Therefore, it makes sense to single out a whole group of mental states, the common characteristic of which will be the dominance of one of the cognitive processes. For example, against the background of all other manifestations of the psyche, the process of thinking or imagination can get the predominant value. In this case, mental states should be considered as states of reflection, dreams, reverie. In particular, on the basis of dominance, a group of gnostic mental states is distinguished: curiosity, surprise, bewilderment, doubt, puzzlement, daydreaming, etc.

Thus, an analysis of the theoretical positions of various authors shows that cognitive processes and mental states differ in terms of dynamism, mental content, structure, functions, and neurophysiological foundations. On the other hand, they are considered by many researchers as interrelated mental phenomena.

When studying the relationship between mental states and cognitive processes, a number of difficulties arise, the solution of which determines the logic of empirical research. The most important question is conjunctivity two mental phenomena. Indeed, mental states and cognitive processes are traditionally considered as separate categories of mental phenomena, at the same time, most researchers consider cognitive processes as a component of mental states. This is due to the fact that cognitive processes, as a component of states, characterize the state as a whole, and methods for diagnosing cognitive processes are used to study states. For example, studies have shown that the most pronounced and significant signs of fatigue are impaired attention - the volume decreases, the functions of switching and distribution of attention suffer. Therefore, at the psychological level, this condition can be considered as a personality-cognitive syndrome.

At the same time, the degree of integration of each individual process into the structure of mental states can be different. This provision is shown in the empirical studies of A.O. Prokhorov, in which the state is considered as a functional system that integrates those processes and properties that are necessary for the effective performance of activities.

When studying the relations of the two categories, it is necessary to be guided by the principles of "interaction" and "non-disjunctivity of the mental". The last principle in the formulation of S.L. Rubinshtein reads as follows: “In psychology, they often talk about the unity of emotions, affect and intellect, believing that this overcomes an abstract point of view that divides psychology into separate elements or functions ... In reality, we need to talk not just about the unity of emotions and intellect in life personality, but about the unity of the emotional or affective and the intellectual within the emotions themselves, as well as within the intellect itself.

In accordance with these principles, not only mental states integrate cognitive processes, but vice versa. Thinking processes are an integrator of a certain set of emotional states that perform orienting and heuristic functions. The function of integration can also be performed by the cognitive processes of working memory, imagination and attention.

The implementation of these principles in practice is facilitated by a systematic approach that considers the system as a set of interacting components. Thus, cognitive processes and mental states, while remaining independent categories of mental phenomena, can at the same time be considered as a single interacting system.

The concept of "interaction" as a philosophical category denotes the processes of mutual influence of various objects on each other, their interdependence. In ontological terms, this concept is an attribute of objective reality along with its other inalienable properties: movement, space, time, reflection, structure, etc. "Interaction" defines the structural organization of any material system and reveals their properties.

The concept of "interaction" fixes the direct and reverse effects of things and phenomena on each other, direct and indirect relationships between objects, mutual exchanges of matter, energy and information. The concretization of the concept of interaction is carried out through the concepts of "change", "formation", "process", "development".

In mathematical statistics, “interaction” refers to the effect of the interdependence of two variables, for example, the difficulty of a task and the level of arousal often interact in such a way that increased arousal leads to an increase in the success of solving simple problems, but a decrease in the success of solving complex ones.

In psychology, "interaction" is seen as a process of mutual influence that generates mutual conditioning and interconnection, as well as an integrating factor that contributes to the formation of structures.

The essence of the category "interaction", as applied to general psychology, was most fully revealed in his works by S.L. Rubinshtein and Ya.A. Ponomarev. To define "interaction" they used the concept of "reflection" - a universal property of matter, which consists in the ability of objects to reproduce the structural characteristics and relationships of other objects. Interaction is a reflection of some phenomena by others.

The category of interaction is broader than the category of activity, since the latter cannot be carried out without close interaction of the subject with the environment. Even internal, mental, for example, mental activity occurs about something and is an interaction in the representation (in a figurative or conceptual form). That is why the concept of interaction is methodologically more correct than the concept of activity: it captures the inseparable connection between subject and object.

Interaction is always associated with overcoming uncertainty, therefore, in phylogenesis, mechanisms for decision-making, interpretation, reflection, planning, anticipation are formed, which allow transforming uncertainty into certainty or reducing the likelihood of uncertainty in the future. Overcoming uncertainty as an information-energy barrier leads to the development of biological and social systems, and the personality is considered as a product and means of overcoming uncertainty by the psyche and consciousness, since overcoming uncertainty when interacting with the situation is possible only on the basis of the "internal" certainty of the subject.

From the point of view of practical application, the question of interaction comes down to the controllability of a particular phenomenon, as well as the possibility of its purposeful change. The study of interaction or the disclosure of the regular conditionality of mental phenomena makes it possible subsequently to proceed to the search for ways of their formation, education and self-government.

Let us consider some approaches to the study of interaction.

Systems approach. The study of mental states as a polyfunctional, holistic, multilevel phenomenon requires an adequate methodological apparatus. These requirements are satisfied by the system approach, understood as "a group of methods by which a real object is described as a set of interacting components."

One of the varieties of the system approach is the system-analytical approach of Ya.A. Ponomarev. According to the researcher, "only an interacting system can be a true subject of scientific analysis."

From the standpoint of Ya. A. Ponomarev, the analysis of any interacting system in functional terms, regardless of its specific features, makes it possible to single out the categories "product" and "process". The first reflects the static, spatial side of the system. In the second - the dynamic, temporal side]. The functioning of interacting systems is carried out through mutual transitions of the process into a product and reorganization of the structures of the components through the differentiation and reintegration of their elements. The interaction products, arising as a result of the process, turn into the conditions of a new process, influencing the entire course of interaction in the opposite direction. Depending on the properties inherent in the components, a method of interaction is formed, on the basis of which the system can be attributed to one form or another. To differentiate qualitatively unique forms of interaction, Ya.A. Ponomarev identifies two criteria: organization structure interacting system (qualitative criterion) and latency period (quantitative criterion), which expresses the natural unit of time inherent in a particular form of interaction. Thus, time can be considered as a procedural aspect of interaction.

Distinguish between "external" and "internal" interactions. External links involve the reorganization of component structures through internal links. The condition of any process of interaction is some imbalance in the system of components that has developed at the moment. It can be caused by both external influences and processes within the component. Any change in the state of one of the components leads to a change in the relationship between the components, acting as a reason for their interaction.

Described by Ya.A. Ponomarev, the features of interaction contain a tendency for the development of the system, since its equilibrium never remains static, but is preserved only in dynamics. The author defines the concept of "development" as follows: "Development is a way of existence of a system of interacting systems, associated with the restructuring of a particular system, with the formation of qualitatively new temporal and spatial structures."

Let us give the most general conditions necessary for interaction: firstly, what enters into interaction must refer to a certain structural level: biological, mental, physical, etc. (the law of similarity); secondly, interacting structures should not be identical, they should differ in some way in order for interaction to arise (the law of difference).

As a result of the fulfillment of these conditions, mutual influence, mutual exchange and the generation of an interaction product occur.

Synergistic approach. In synergetics, the concept of "interaction" plays a fundamental role, which is reflected in its definition as a science of interaction. The path to understanding complex systems lies in the discovery of the laws on the basis of which they are organized using their internal activity. The processes leading to the emergence of spatio-temporal structures are called "self-organization".

Currently, the ideas of synergetics are actively used in various fields of psychology. From the standpoint of synergetics, the problems of the inner world of a person, mental states, perception, social groups, etc. are studied. Synergetics can be seen as a possible new paradigm of psychological science.

One of the most important tasks of synergetics is the study of the relationship between being and becoming. The initial conditions embodied in the state of the system are associated with being, and the laws governing the temporal development of the system are associated with becoming. Being and becoming must be considered as two correlated aspects of reality. The main idea of ​​synergetics is that at the stage of formation, disequilibrium acts as a source of order. Disequilibrium is what generates “order out of chaos.

The synergetic worldview allows a new approach to the problem of effective management of the development of complex systems. Inefficient management of a cognitive or social system consists in imposing an unusual form of organization on the system. According to the new approach, it is necessary to focus on the own laws of evolution and self-organization of complex systems.

G. Haken was the first to introduce the term "synergetics" into scientific use. This circumstance is due to the fact that, unlike other researchers, G. Haken paid serious attention to the applications of his ideas in psychology and other humanities. In particular, when discussing the application of synergetics in the humanities, the author notes: “Such synergetic concepts as the order parameter and subordination are applicable to sciences that have not yet been mathematized, and to sciences that will never be mathematized, for example, to the theory of the development of science” .

Responding to criticism about the application of synergetics in psychology, the author notes that the principles of synergetics are used everywhere, it would be strange if they did not extend to the brain and its mental activity. The author expressed the initial position in the study of mental processes as follows: "The mental activity of the brain proceeds in accordance with the basic principles of self-organization."

According to G. Haken's approach, biological and social systems are very complex and it is impossible to offer a general "recipe" for their analysis. Therefore, it is necessary to use the main idea of ​​synergetics: “Look for qualitative changes on a macroscopic scale”.

G. Haken, within the framework of his approach, formulated the main questions of synergetics: What mechanisms give rise to new macroscopic structures? How to describe transitions from one state to another? To find answers to these questions, the author highlights the following features of synergetic systems and "tools" for their study.

1. Complex systems are designed to perform certain functions that can be performed only with the coordinated interaction of its constituent parts.

2. In all cases of interest for synergetics, the decisive role is played by the dynamics, so it is necessary to study the spatio-temporal evolution of the system.

3. Among the distinguishing properties of synergetic systems is their stochasticity, the temporal evolution of systems depends on causes that are not predictable with absolute accuracy.

4. An essential feature of synergetic systems is that they can be controlled by changing the external factors acting on them. These external factors are called "control parameters". By changing the control parameters, one can study the self-organization of the system.

5. The main tool for the study of dynamical systems is the "order parameters", which determine the behavior of the system components. The essence of the order parameter is that it is a form for the movement of matter, an indicator of cooperation and an abstract value.

The order parameter performs two functions, on the one hand, it subjugates the elements of the subsystem, on the other hand, the same elements maintain it unchanged.

The behavior of the order parameters can be illustrated in two ways: firstly, by an appropriate space-time model, and secondly, by using exact calculations.

The concept of non-equilibrium mental states. Within the framework of this approach, based on the ideas of synergetics, states are considered as functional structures that are formed as a result of the introduction of energy and information into the system and have a certain amount of energy.

According to A.O. Prokhorov, the category of "non-equilibrium states" includes a subset of the set of all states, the manifestations of which depend on the level of mental activity of the subject. These states are updated due to the personal significance of situations, their specific content and high information saturation. Non-equilibrium mental states arise as a reaction to various significant situations of life. The leading component of disequilibrium states is the emotional component. The most common function of non-equilibrium states is to ensure the process of self-organization of the system.

Relatively equilibrium states, states of increased and decreased mental activity are singled out. Disequilibrium states of different levels of intensity have specific qualities that are reflected in their structure, functions, and influence on other mental phenomena.

Non-equilibrium mental states have a number of specific characteristics: unstable system parameters are a small number of state characteristics that describe the macrostructure (modality, duration, intensity), they determine the behavior of the constituent parts of the system and the relationship between them; in the range from long-term states of low intensity to short-term states of high intensity, the coherence of their structure increases.

Reflective, semantic and dynamic aspects of relations between states and cognitive processes

The selection of the reflexive side of the relations of the studied phenomena is necessary for the following reasons.

First, the inclusion of reflection in the relationship of states and cognitive processes corresponds to the provisions of the "cutting edge" of cognitive psychology - metacognitivism. According to this approach, there are special metacognitive processes that are not directly involved in the processing of information, but perform the function of its regulation. Reflection is a part of metacognitive processes and forms an inseparable whole with the basic processes of information processing. For example, in the concept of intelligence M.A. Cold intellectual reflection is included in the metacognitive experience, which is the psychological basis of the ability for intellectual self-regulation. In the context of the study of thinking V.V. Selivanov refers reflection to one of the main meaningful components of thinking - the metacognitive plan, "...manifested in the permanent reflection of the ways of acting with a cognizable object, methods of analyzing and generalizing the conditions and requirements of the task, understanding cognitions and meanings."

Secondly, the object of cognitive processes are not only the objects of the external world, but also their own processes, states and properties. In particular, mental states themselves become “information” that needs to be processed. The inner life of the individual, her inner world are extremely rich, they occupy the attention of a person no less, and often more than the events and circumstances of the surrounding world. All this is a strong determinant of mental state. The degree of awareness by the subject of his state is one of the most important characteristics of the mental state, it emphasizes the regulatory role of self-consciousness.

Thirdly, in the course of performing an activity, there is a “separation” of attention, one part of which is directed to the content of the activity, and the other to oneself. Here the efficiency and "wisdom" of the organization of the psyche is manifested, since the same cognitive system performs the functions of orientation in the external and internal environment. The author proposes to single out the levels of reflexive processes in accordance with the levels of the structure of the cognitive hierarchy. Mental states in this case become the object of a metacognitive process, one of the functions of which is orientation in the internal content of the psyche. It should be noted that at one time N.D. Levitov singled out the mental state of inner concentration, in which thoughts and experiences are in the focus of consciousness. The functional significance of this state lies in the management of attention and orientation in the internal content of one's own psyche. As established, the transfer of attention from the main activity to oneself is a necessary condition for the self-regulation of the psychophysiological state.

Fourth, today among the methods for diagnosing mental conditions the primary position is occupied by psychological methods that are addressed to the consciousness and self-consciousness of the subject, his inner experience and reflection. The significance of self-consciousness and reflection is confirmed by the attention of researchers to the concept of experience as the basic unit of mental states.

Thus, there are theoretical grounds for considering reflection as one of the leading factors in the relationship between states and cognitive processes.

At the same time, the reflexive aspect is the least studied area of ​​the relationship between states and processes. One of the first to pay attention to this problem was F.D. Gorbov in the framework of aviation and space psychology, studying mental states in conjunction with gnostic phenomena created in the process of self-reflection. According to the author, different mental states according to the degree of experience are determined by different conditions for the course of this process. The subject “finds himself” in an activity accompanied by introspection (reflection) and changes in the sense of himself, resulting in changes in the mental state. Thus, in every mental state there is a "mirror effect" and an "echo effect" in a latent form. The author notes the expediency of considering the system "I - the second I" as an important mechanism for the perception and management of one's own mental states. In the context of the reflexive regulation of mental activity, one can also single out the system “I am a controller” - “I am a performer”.

Research shows that self-awareness provides information that leads to a change in state. This is due to the fact that in significant situations, information about oneself is essential for the subject, thereby causing a change in state. This can be illustrated by the example of situational shyness, one of the factors of which is increased self-control.

Self-control is a rational reflection and assessment by the subject of his own actions on the basis of personally significant motives and attitudes. With increased self-control, which is a consequence of the constant focus of the subject on himself, a person constantly analyzes his behavior, evaluates himself negatively, takes care of the impression caused and, in general, gives a negative assessment of his own state. As a result, a state of shyness arises, which is determined not only by the external situation, but also by the processes of self-reflection.

In the psychological dictionary of V.P. Zinchenko and B.G. Meshcheryakov's reflection is understood as a thought process aimed at analyzing, understanding, self-awareness, including one's own actions, experience, states, attitudes towards oneself and others, etc. Conceptually, procedurally and functionally, reflection is associated with self-observation, introspection, self-consciousness.

In the psychological dictionary edited by A.V. Petrovsky's reflection is understood as a process of self-knowledge by the subject of internal mental acts and states. Reflection is not just knowledge or understanding of the subject of himself, but also finding out how others know and understand the "reflector", his personal characteristics, emotional reactions and cognitive representations.

YES. Leontiev connects reflection with the function of semantic regulation of life. The result of the reflexive elaboration of meanings is their transformation, described by the author as the effects of meaning awareness. The processes of restructuring semantic structures are the solution of the problem of meaning - determining the place of an object or situation in the context of the subject's life. The result is the verbalization of the original meaning, its embodiment in meaning. Thus, the awareness of meanings is carried out due to the directed reflection by the subject of his relations with the world.

A close definition of reflection is given by V. I. Slobodchikov and E. I. Isaev: “... This is such a specifically human ability that allows him to make his thoughts, emotional states, his actions and relationships, in general, himself the subject of special consideration (analysis and assessment) and practical transformation (up to self-sacrifice in the name of lofty goals and death “for one’s friend”)”. The authors characterize reflection as the ability to carry out value-semantic self-determination in relation to life in general.

The concept of reflection is of the same order with the concept of interpretation. Reflection is an explanation by a person to himself of his own behavior, states, experiences, etc. As a result, a consistent estimate of the eigenstates is achieved. Interpretation is an informational process because it reduces the uncertainty that gives rise to many interpretations. The essence of interpretation (achieving certainty) is also in determining the meaning of information, its personal meaning (assessment).

This understanding of reflection echoes the provisions of cognitive theories of emotions. In S. Schechter's cognitive theory of emotions, the interpretation of the information available to the individual about his own state and external influence is the main factor determining the intensity, duration and modality of the emotional state. Interpretation and assessment of the state is implemented on the basis of cognitive processes. Similar ideas are presented by R. Lazarus in the context of the psychological theory of stress. Interpretation and evaluation are considered as processes of determining the meaning of the situation and the possibilities for overcoming it. According to the author, such an assessment is also carried out on the basis of cognitive processes. Within the framework of the concept of self-regulation of the psychophysiological state, a cognitive component is considered, which is responsible for assessing one's own state.

Thus, in the considered definitions of reflection, first of all, its intellectual side is noted as a process of analysis, evaluation, interpretation of one's internal states, processes, properties. In the course of reflection on oneself, the subject turns into some content of cognitive processes. The close relationship between reflection and the semantic sphere of the subject is also emphasized.

In addition, in modern research there is a tendency to consider the relationship of emotional states and cognition as mediated and regulated by the personality. Researchers believe that there is a system of some personality traits or abilities that are responsible for organizing the influence of emotional states on the cognitive sphere of a person. In particular, this trend is realized in the development of the problem of emotional intelligence. Emotional intelligence is understood as a certain model of abilities that involves the intersection of the emotional sphere and cognition. Four factors of emotional intelligence were identified: perception of emotions, understanding of emotions, management of emotions, use of emotions. Emotional intelligence is at the heart of self-regulation, in fact it has to do with reflections their own and "foreign" emotional states and their management for the purpose of adaptation. The end product of emotional intelligence is decision making based on the understanding of emotional states, which are a differentiated assessment of events that have personal meaning.

Within the framework of social psychology, a “model of the impact” of emotional states on cognition is being developed. The connections between the two spheres are based on various mechanisms, the relevance of which is determined by the type of social thinking and the situation. Firstly, emotions serve to initiate the same or similar cognitive categories, and secondly, emotional states are information about certain phenomena of the social world. These mechanisms are activated in various situations. If a person needs a thorough reflection and interpretation of information, then the influence of emotional states on cognition is carried out through the first mechanism, with tasks that require little cognitive effort - through the second, reflective mechanism. Emotional states have stronger effects on the process of cognition when a person is involved in active cognitive activity.

Thus, in the studies cited, mental states and cognitive processes are considered as a cognitive object, they are “perceived”, “reflected”, “evaluated”, “interpreted”. All of these processes are implemented on a reflexive basis. Hence, it can be assumed that a promising area of ​​research may be the study of the relationship between states and cognitive processes, taking into account reflection, on the basis of which the interpretation of the state, its “meaning”, influencing the meaningful characteristics of cognitive processes, takes place. On the other hand, reflection is considered as the highest, personal level of regulation of cognitive processes. Therefore, taking into account the positions of various researchers, one can make an assumption about the significant influence of reflection on the interaction of mental states and cognitive processes.

The semantic side of the relationship between mental states and cognitive processes.
The following provisions can serve as the most general basis for highlighting the semantic aspect of relations between states and cognitive processes.

1)General methodological principle of "non-disjunctivity of the mental"(S.L. Rubinshtein, A.V. Brushlinsky), according to which mental phenomena contain procedural and personal aspects, while the relationship of both aspects remains ontologically inseparable, “not disjunctive”. Mental as a process is characterized by its extreme dynamism, continuous mobility and variability. The methodological setting in the study of the mental as a process involves the disclosure of the relationship between the stages of the process in the course of their formation. The personal aspect of mental phenomena appears in the case of studying the relationship of a person to certain tasks, to the situation as a whole, to other people, etc.

In the context of the relationship between states and cognitive processes, the need to take into account personal relationships was pointed out by S.L. Rubinstein, B.F. Lomov, V.N. Myasishchev and others. So, according to B.F. Lomov, the concept of “subjective relations of a person” is the most general, denoting the subjective position of a person in a given situation. “Attitude” includes the moment of evaluation, expresses the partiality of the individual and is close in content to the concepts of “personal meaning”, “attitude”, at the same time, speaking in relation to them generic. As integral personality traits, relationships affect all mental processes (phenomena) and are manifested in emotional reactions.

One of the modern implementations of the "personal approach" to the study of the relationship between cognition and emotional states is the development of the problem of emotional abilities ("emotional intelligence").

2) The position of L. S. Vygotsky on the unity of the intellectual and affective aspects of the psyche. According to this principle, the relationship between intellectual processes and emotions is carried out in the context of a "dynamic semantic system".

This idea was most fruitfully implemented by O.K. Tikhomirov and his collaborators in experimental studies of the emotional regulation of thinking. The inextricable connection between emotional states and thinking was shown, the “central” factor of their interaction was revealed - “the meaning of the ultimate goal”. Under the influence of the meaning of the ultimate goal, the meaning of the situation develops, mediated by the development of the “operational meanings” of the elements of the situation. In later works, the motive began to be considered as a system-forming dynamic semantic system.

Let's look at these studies in more detail. OK. Tikhomirov studied the relationship between thinking and emotional states in the process of solving complex chess problems. The results of the experiments showed that the “emotional decision” sometimes precedes the issuance of a ready-made solution by tens of minutes, and in the future it outlines the zone of subsequent searches, directing mental activity. Thus, according to the author, "... emotional states perform various regulatory, heuristic functions in thinking." Interpreting the nature of the connection between emotional states and finding the main idea of ​​solving the problem, the author concludes that the states are included in the process of finding a solution. They are associated with the selection of an approximate area where a solution can be found, as if they determine the subjective significance of a particular direction of search.

In the studies of Yu.E. Vinogradov shows the impossibility of correct solution of difficult mental problems without the participation of emotional states. The author points to the phenomenon of "emotional development", which consists in an increase in emotional activation when performing logical operations, the culminating point of which is the "emotional solution" of the problem. Emotional development, including an assessment of objectively significant elements, contributed to the formation of their meaning in the subjects, as a result, the processes of emotional and semantic development turned out to be interconnected, while the earlier the emotional coloring of actions with objectively significant elements arose, the faster their meaning was formed and the task was solved. Thus, according to the author, emotional activation and regulation have a significant impact on the structure of mental activity, being the most important functions of emotions in the process of solving complex problems.

According to I.A. Vasiliev, when studying the problem of emotional regulation of mental activity, it is legitimate to use such concepts as "intellectual emotions and feelings". These emotions arise in the course of mental activity and are directed to the mental process itself, correlating with its individual phases. It is this orientation that determines the possibility of regulating mental activity. For example, during the analysis of a problematic situation, a contradiction arises between the requirements of the goal and one's own experience, which is experienced in the form of a state of surprise. Attempts to resolve contradictions lead to some conjecture, which leads to the appearance of a state of conjecture. The stage of checking the guesses that have arisen is characterized by the states of doubt and certainty. Acceptance of a hunch leads to the dominance of the emotion of certainty. At the last stage, specific emotions arise associated with the result of mental activity. Thus, intellectual emotions, when considered in unity with the thought process, receive a meaningful characteristic. The author believes that intellectual emotions are an assessment, on this basis he singles out the orienting and motivating function of emotions in the thought process. These functions are specific forms of emotional regulation.

3)The concept of semantic determination of states by A. O. Prokhorova, within which the assumption is developed that the semantic organization of consciousness determines the selectivity of the influence of life situations on the subject. The situation is “refracted”, mediated by semantic structures, significant components are distinguished in it that have meaning for the subject, mental states are a consequence of this determination. Thus, the semantic characteristics of the personality are one of the factors of the relationship between cognitive reflection and the actualizing state, influencing the characteristics of the latter.

At one time, B.A. Vyatkin and L.Ya. Dorfman, considered experience as the initial unit of analysis of mental states, linking the situationality and objectivity of experiences with energy and semantic aspects, while the latter aspect was noted as the leading one. These two characteristics of experiences, according to the authors, determine the modality of the state.

The important role of semantic characteristics in the relationship between states and cognitive processes, taking into account their connection with experiences, can also be evidenced by JI studies. R. Fakhrutdinova, which, in particular, considered the relationship of visual perceptions and ideas with mental states. It was shown that the subject's experiences are the mediating link in the relations between states and cognitive processes. According to the author, the accumulation of changes in the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the processes occurs in this intermediate link, the change in the mental state itself occurs after exceeding a certain "critical mass". Thus, experiences act as a mechanism of self-regulation in a complex "process-state" system. The results of the study indicate that spatio-temporal characteristics are predominant in the influence of mental processes on states through experiences.

In addition, in the context of a holistic psyche, the semantic aspect acts in conjunction with its other meaningful characteristics. The concept of "content", as a rule, correlates with the category of consciousness and its components. For consciousness, the subject, semantic meaning is specific, which is the semantic content of various mental formations. Semantic content is formed in a person in the process of mastering speech and language. At the level of consciousness, mental states and cognitive processes acquire a symbolic nature, the study of which is associated with the phenomenology of the subject. For example, mental states at the level of consciousness are represented in meanings and experiences. The content aspect is specific only to the human psyche and reflects its cultural and historical conditioning. According to D.A. Leontiev: "The soul is the content."

V.M. Rusalov. The content side, including worldview, ideals, values, aspirations, etc., is determined by social factors. Dynamic characteristics, manifested in the temporal features of behavior (tempo, rhythm, speed of operations, etc.), are significantly related to the biological properties of a person. The author showed that the dynamic properties of the personality, manifested in temperament and abilities, are determined by the organization of the natural qualities of a person. At the same time, natural properties do not determine the meaningful characteristics of mental activity.

With regard to the problem of determining states, N.D. Levitov: "... The mental state of a person to a greater extent depends on the significance for a person of the situation in which he finds himself."

Recently, the content side of mental states has become the subject of increased interest of researchers. For example, A.O. Prokhorov conducted research on semantic state spaces. It has been established that cognitive processes are mediated by states that affect their course, manifestations and awareness, and also establish the categorical complexity of the processes. The author identified four main factors - categories that determine cognitive processes in the semantic space of mental states: activity, evaluation, attitude, dynamism. The same factors also entered the categorical structure of mental states, thus showing that there is a certain proximity in the categorization of these phenomena in the human mind. The influence of the level characteristics of cognitive processes on the size of the semantic spaces of states has also been revealed - a greater productivity of cognitive processes corresponds to a larger semantic space of mental states.

The semantic content of mental states and processes is associated with sensory content, some data available to awareness. According to the phenomenological tradition of E. Husserl, the intentionality or "reference" of mental phenomena to some objects of the external world is an essential characteristic of mental life. In the Amsterdam Reports, the author writes: “... As reflection reveals to us, it is inseparable from perception that it is the perception of this and that, just as the experience of a memory is in itself the recollection of this and that. - something, just like thinking - there is thinking of such and such thoughts, people are afraid of something, they love something, etc. From the position of the psychological theory of meaning, a state is “an active intentional orientation of the subject to certain phenomena of the external or internal world”.

In domestic psychology, the term "objectivity" is an analogue of the concept of intentionality. YES. Leontiev notes that the misunderstanding of this term "objectivity" is rather the rule than the exception. The subject can be both an ideal object and a material one, the subject is also integral life events and specific actions of the subject.

The objectivity of mental states is traditionally associated with the concepts of situation and experience. The experience by the subject of his attitude to the situation or various stages of activity is an essential characteristic of the state. This understanding of states allows us to answer the question “why does a state appear?”.

Content characteristics in the study of states play a decisive role. The mental state is often characterized not so much by its functional nature (it is mental, emotional or volitional), as by the content side, orientation. Inadequate anger, caused by an insignificant reason, cannot be identified with anger, a reaction to a serious offense. Under the direction of N.D. Levitov understood the peculiarly experienced selective attitude to reality, which is characteristic of a given person. Orientation according to this definition means the content of significant goals and motives. The author calls mindfulness as one of the forms of orientation, as its feature, which manifests itself both in involuntary and voluntary attention.

At the level of consciousness, experiences acquire their meaning and give rise to an important characteristic of mental life - meaningfulness. Any activity depends on the "significance" of sensory images, on the consciousness of the subject. The objective activity of the subject is always mediated by the processes of consciousness. Values, representing a special internal relationship, refract the situation in the mind of a person. The subject distinguishes between the objective meaning of certain phenomena and their meaning for himself, thus, the same phenomena are able to acquire a different personal meaning in the consciousness of the subject, which creates the partiality of human consciousness. By definition, A.N. Leontiev, personal meaning is the relationship between the motives and goals of activity, is an assessment of the vital significance for the subject of objective circumstances and his actions in these circumstances.

The content characteristics of cognitive processes, as shown in the studies of domestic scientists, are determined by their objectivity as the main property. Objects of the surrounding world or their aggregates, constituting integral situations, form the sensory content of cognitive processes. At the level of consciousness, cognitive processes acquire the qualities of categorization and meaningfulness. Thus, cognitive processes are determined, first of all, by the objective world. Similar positions are held in foreign cognitive psychology.

At the same time, one of the problematic issues within the framework of the informational approach is the issue of representation of information about the outside world in the human mind. This is due to the fact that internal representations are not isomorphic to the surrounding reality, but have a person's previous experience as a prerequisite. It is the structures of past experience that determine the content and procedural characteristics of cognitive processes.

Empirical studies predominantly show the influence of emotional states on cognitive processes. At the same time, many researchers note in terms of content the reverse effect of cognitive processes on states.

One of the mechanisms of such influence is cognitive priming. The content of a particular thought increases the likelihood of other thoughts appearing in the mind, semantically related to the original one. As a result, the emotional state corresponding to the “seed thought” is enhanced.

Another mechanism involves cognitive assessments. For example, the concept of R. Lazarus assigns a large role to the significance of the event in relation to the well-being of the individual. The intensity of the states depends on "how much is at stake" and the person's confidence in their ability to cope with the situation. Based on the idea of ​​the subjective significance of events, the author introduces the concept of "assessment" and describes some of its varieties: "harm", "threat", "challenge".

The two-way relationship between cognitive processes and states of aggression in children was studied by N.A. Dubinko. A high level of aggression is associated with the perception of ambiguous situations as dangerous, harmful and a threat. Thus, this mental state determines the qualitative characteristics of the knowledge of the surrounding world. In turn, the aggressive states of younger schoolchildren may be the result of poor development of social and cognitive skills. Children's ideas about aggression affect their states and behavior.

The mental state has a significant impact on the perception and classification of current life situations. On the other hand, memories of life events change the state of the subject in accordance with their content. In addition, the authors note that, along with stressful events, depressive states of the subject can cause a negative cognitive style.

Thus, not only cognitive processes acquire direction under the influence of emotional states, but vice versa. This again emphasizes the need to consider these mental phenomena as an interacting system. At the same time, it is important to note the connection of orientation with the semantic sphere of personality. For example, D.A. Leontiev refers intentionality to the most general characteristics of the semantic sphere, since the meaning of something indicates the purpose or target orientation.

Based on the considered theoretical and experimental studies, it can be assumed that the semantic context of activity has a significant impact on the relationship between states and cognitive processes, determining the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of mental states (modality, polarity, intensity, etc.) and cognitive processes (orientation, selectivity, productivity). In addition, the productivity of cognitive processes may depend not only on the experienced states, but also on the "correspondence" of states and cognitive processes in terms of content.

Dynamic aspect of relations between mental states and cognitive processes is associated with the requirements of a system-functional approach to their study, within which opportunities are opened up for identifying patterns of relationships between two mental phenomena and their functions. According to E.P. Ilyin: “Understanding the state as the status quo of the human psyche (i.e., a slice of its functional state at the moment) contradicts the understanding of the state as dynamically developing processes and does not allow us to identify either the cause or the mechanisms of its occurrence.” It is necessary to record the dynamics of indicators for a certain period of time under certain influences on a person (diachronic method).

The dynamic aspect is related to the content aspect, since the intensity of the state can be considered as a condition for maintaining certain intentional structures of consciousness. This approach reflects the interdisciplinary links between the psychological theory of meaning and conceptual ideas about the state as a functional structure that has a certain amount of energy.

In studying the dynamics of mental states and processes, general scientific categories of energy, space, and time play an important role. According to B.F. Lomov, the level of mental processes and states brings psychology closer to the natural sciences, so it is legitimate to use natural science methods here. This feature of the object of study contributed to the fact that many studies were carried out within the framework of a systematic approach and the methodology of synergetics.

Historically, the first experimental studies of the relationship between emotional states and cognitive processes began to be carried out in the laboratory of V.M. Bekhterev. For example, in the thesis of V.V. Sreznevsky, the influence of the state of fright on the processes of short-term memory was shown. Later, S.L. Rubinshtein, summarizing the results of many empirical studies, came to the conclusion that states can both increase and decrease the efficiency of activity, can give effects of the opposite direction or generalized effects that spread to all manifestations of personality. S.L. Rubinstein noted that mental processes and states should not be opposed, since the dynamics of states and the patterns to which they obey are inextricably linked with the dynamics of mental processes. In addition, the author emphasized the dependence of the latter on the properties of the individual, as well as the ratio of the level of her achievements and claims that have developed in the course of previous activities.

Regulatory influence of emotional states on mental processes S.L. Rubinstein described with the help of the metaphor of "gateways", which, being installed at one or another height, adapt the course of cognitive, volitional and other processes, thereby setting various dynamic aspects of activity. At the same time, the author notes the dependence of the dynamic characteristics of states on their content (relation to the object to which the activity is directed).

Among modern studies, the dynamic side of the relationship between states and cognitive processes is most fully represented in the works of A.O. Prokhorov. According to the author, the study of the mechanisms of the relationship between mental states and processes should consist in studying the structure of mental states. The mental state, being a reflection of the entire psyche as a whole and its certain component dominating in a given period of time, plays the role of a link between mental processes and personality traits. Each component of the psyche, with its sufficient effectiveness relative to other components, can characterize a certain temporary state as a whole. In this case, the mental state can be considered as part of this mental component. From this point of view, we can talk about the mutual influence of mental processes and states.

The mental state acts as a general functional level of mental activity, against which mental processes develop. Due to differences in the order of temporal characteristics of processes and states, variable characteristics of states are parameters for processes (for example, they set the level, range of changes in mental processes). The level and polar characteristics of mental states are of primary importance.

Empirical studies of the relationship between mental states and processes were carried out in real conditions of educational and pedagogical activities in schools and universities: at lessons, lectures, seminars, practical exercises, etc. A.O. Prokhorov found that there are three types of influence of mental states on cognitive processes (hour-day time interval):

1. "Pass-through" states that influence throughout the entire mental process (provide the background);
2. states that affect the deployment of the mental process, which are "starting";
3. states that provide the middle of the process;
4. states that affect process termination.

The results of studies of the relationship between processes and states made it possible to identify the patterns of their interaction: integration, differentiation, disintegration (dynamic characteristics of interaction). Integration processes are associated with the convergence of individual processes to states, disintegration - with the collapse of previous structures, differentiation - with the formation of structural and functional blocks from different processes and states in the course of activity.

From the side of quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the relationship between processes and states, the following results were obtained:

1. Mental processes are involved in interaction with states in the current time interval in different ways (the ratio of the number of significant correlations to their total number, the average value of the involvement of cognitive processes is 19%).
2. Each individual state integrates several mental processes.
3. A ratio of stable - changeable connections between mental processes and states was found (22% / 78%, respectively).
4. There is a peculiarity of the integration of mental processes and states in schoolchildren and students, due to the activity factor.
5. Age features of the interaction of mental processes and states are revealed, for example, the involvement of the imagination in interaction with states increases in ontogenesis (from grade 5 to grade 10).

Thus, these studies have established that mental states integrate processes, act as a way of organizing them (ensuring their alignment with the requirements of activity), which is manifested in the magnitude of the inclusion of the latter in relationships with states and the specifics of their relationships. Mental states affect the procedural characteristics of processes, provide the background and stages of process deployment. The regularities of the dynamics of relationships include the processes of integration, differentiation, and disintegration. Separate states integrate several different processes. The dominance of unstable, changeable connections in the structure of the interaction of processes and states, as well as a tendency to greater frequency and closeness of connections between states and processes of a higher level of hierarchy (imagination, thinking) was found.

Due to the high level of unstable connections between mental processes and states in the functional structure, a change in the latter (quality, nomenclature, sign, intensity) is ensured, which ensures the balance of the subject with the environment. Thanks to relatively stable connections, the management of cognitive processes is ensured, their fixing in the functional structure of states.

The question of the relationship between mental states and cognitive processes is often touched upon in the context of the study of certain psychological characteristics that affect the relationship of these mental phenomena. Apparently, the most significant of them are their own characteristics of states and cognitive processes.

With regard to mental states, such an important characteristic that determines the qualitative features of relationships is state level. Indicative in this respect are the studies of T.A. Nemchin, who studied the state of neuropsychic tension. The researcher identifies three levels of neuropsychic stress, of which the most informative are "moderate" and "excessive" stress. With moderate stress, the effectiveness of the main properties of attention increases: the volume, stability, and concentration of attention increase. The indicators of short-term memory and logical thinking also improve. In general, there is an increase in the efficiency of cognitive activity, despite the multidirectional interfunctional characteristics of individual cognitive processes.

With excessive stress, there was a significant decrease in indicators of volume, stability, concentration, switching attention. The productivity of short-term memory and logical thinking is significantly reduced. Thus, the results of the study show that at a high level of neuropsychic stress, the subject's cognitive activity is disorganized.

The mechanism of relations between cognitive processes and stress states T.A. Nemchin describes on the basis of the theory of functional systems. The reason for the transition from a state of operational rest to a state of increased activity, subjectively experienced as moderate stress, is, in the author's opinion, information about changes in external conditions, which comes through analyzers to the perceptual-gnostic level of the individual's neuropsychic organization. The gnostic functions of attention, memory, logical thinking are activated and increase their productivity, providing an adequate reflection of the situation and optimal efficiency. As a result, an adequate assessment of the situation and a programmable desired result are formed, which is a system-forming factor. In a state of excessive tension, this mechanism is violated, which leads to an inadequate assessment of the situation and a violation of the coordination of the activities of subsystems, which ultimately leads to disorganization of activities.

Thus, the author attaches decisive importance in the process of adaptation to a difficult situation to the information block of the functional system of neuropsychic tension. The main factor determining the mechanisms of formation of mental states that reflect the process of adaptation to difficult conditions is not so much the objective essence of the situation as its subjective assessment by a person.

Similar studies in relation to the level characteristics of the state of stress were carried out by L.A. Kitaev-Smyk. The results of the studies showed that against the background of a stressful state, not only the deterioration of the indicators of cognitive processes is possible, but also their significant improvement, in accordance with the indicators of the participation of these functions in the activity (with the preservation of motivational factors that encourage the individual to purposeful activity). The principle of “strengthening the main direction” is being implemented due to the weakening of the secondary ones, which obeys the Yerkes-Dodson law (with an increase in the extremeness of the stress factor, after the improvement in the indicators of cognitive processes, their deterioration occurs).

Under moderate stress, cognitive processes are characterized by sharpening of attention and thinking, the ability to make insightful decisions. An increase in the extremeness of the stressor causes a "narrowing" of attention, leading to the loss of information important for activity. In addition, the perception of time is distorted, concentration of attention, indicators of working memory and thinking are reduced. At the same time, the factor of extremeness is subjective; changes in the interpretation of the situation, certainty, and significance determine the possibilities for managing cognitive manifestations of stress.

Another important characteristic that influences the interaction with cognitive processes is polarity states.

In studies carried out by A.O. Prokhorov showed that, in general, negative states worsen, while positive ones increase the productivity of cognitive processes. According to the author, the reason for these relationships lies in the differences in the states experienced by the subject, as a result of which the integrating and differentiating functions of the states connect the dynamic characteristics of processes with qualitatively different states in different ways.

The influence of negative mental states on the cognitive subsystem as a whole is shown in empirical studies by N.D. Zavalova with co-authors. Under certain conditions of flight activity, mental states can lead to the disintegration of an integral mental reflection according to the mechanism of restructuring the dominant relations between its main levels: perception, representation, thinking. In the case of the dominant value of one of the levels, a significant deformation of the system of cognitive processes can be observed.

Studies have also shown that color perception is significantly dependent on the polarity of a person's states. For example, unpleasant experiences increase sensitivity to red, while positive emotions make a person more sensitive to blue. Under conditions of mental stress, there is a deterioration in the discrimination of color stimuli, a reduction in the yellow component of color perception.

The influence of positive emotional states on cognitive processes is intensively studied in foreign psychology. The results of the study of memory show that associative processes are more productive in positive emotional states. Compared with negative states, subjects are more likely to find connections between various phenomena, thoughts and ideas.

The obtained experimental data indicate that the experience of positive states contributes to an increase in the productivity of thinking, an improvement in the understanding of complex situations, and an increase in the productivity of verbal associations.

Positive states (which include calmness, satisfaction, joy, interest, serenity, etc.) have a beneficial effect on thinking - the repertoire of mental actions increases, the understanding of complex tasks improves, and the results of tests for creativity and quick wits increase. Based on empirical research, “The Broaden-and-Build Theory of Positive Emotions” (The Broaden-and-Build Theory of Positive Emotions) is proposed, according to which a complex of positive emotional states significantly increases the potential of thinking, as a result, the physical, intellectual and social resource of the individual increases.

Thus, the considered empirical data speak about the functional asymmetry of positive and negative mental states. Negative states (distress, anxiety, fear, laziness, fatigue, etc.) are usually associated with the disorganization of cognitive processes and a decrease in their productivity. Positive emotional states (calmness, interest, joy, love, satisfaction, etc.), on the contrary, can be an important source of increasing the intellectual efficiency of a person.

One such characteristic is individual cognitive style. According to M.A. Cold, cognitive styles are metacognitive abilities responsible for the regulation of intellectual activity. Their main functions are participation in the construction of objectified mental representations of what is happening and the control of affective states in conditions of cognitive reflection. There is evidence in the literature regarding the relationship between cognitive styles and emotional states. For example, the cognitive style "analyticity" is mainly associated with manifestations of states of fear and distress, while operating with the cognitive style "synthetic" is associated with a state of anger.

The susceptibility of cognitive processes to the influence of states also depends on the degree of structure of the cognitive process. By this term, J. Reikovsky understood the degree of separation of the reflected phenomenon from other phenomena (for example, figures from the background), the degree of separation of the components of the phenomenon and the connections between them, as well as the measure of the certainty of the structure and organization of the phenomenon. The degree of structuring of the cognitive process depends, first of all, on the properties of the cognized reality: the less organized the object of cognition itself, the less structured the cognitive process. This characteristic depends on the conditions in which cognition takes place, for example, poor lighting; a blurry image given by a projector, etc. According to J. Reikovsky, the more structured the cognitive process is, the less it is subject to the influence of emotional states.

In addition, in recent years, within the framework of psychodiagnostics, there has been a tendency to consider methods for measuring cognitive processes as projective or quasi-projective. This draws attention to the qualitative analysis of the process of completing tasks and emphasizes the dependence of the characteristics of cognitive processes on personal factors. Thus, a holistic approach to the psyche is partially realized, since the opposition of personality tests and tests for measuring the characteristics of cognitive processes is removed.

In addition to “own” characteristics, other psychological (and psychophysiological) factors, apparently, also influence the relationship between states and cognitive processes, for example involuntary regulation. Modern ideas about the involuntary regulation of the activation components of states are associated with the theory of self-regulation of mental tone by the American psychophysiologist D. Freeman.

In ordinary situations, the self-regulation of the state is “woven” into the activity being performed as its subsystem through activation components. Changes in the state are made automatically, regulated at an unconscious, involuntary level, reflected in the activation of physiological indicators. In complicated conditions (lack of time, increased requirements for accuracy, selectivity, etc.), a person needs to analyze the “price” and means of activity, which is manifested in an increase in tendencies to communicate with friends and an experimenter, an increase in motor and speech activity, and a rapid shift poses, in terms of respiration, pulse, etc. These manifestations characterize the involuntary self-regulation of states, which is mainly aimed at activation-energy components. Awareness of the inconsistency of the current state with the requirements of activity leads to the transformation of self-regulation into an independent activity with its own motive, purpose, image of the state. The main motive for the activity of self-regulation of states is the avoidance of negative and the desire for positive mental states.

The least opportunity to combine two types of activity is the activity that requires sustained attention, excluding its switching to self-regulation of the state. Thus, the ineffectiveness of self-regulation of states under conditions of complex intellectual activity (solving visual and verbal tasks) was shown.

A similar mechanism for regulating the state of monotony is described by E.P. Ilyin. In this case, the leading sign is a decrease in mental activity, which is expressed in a loss of interest in work, a decrease in attention, an increase in the time of the visual-motor reaction, and an increase in parasympathetic influences. However, such a decrease is in conflict with the goals and objectives of the activity, therefore, regulatory mechanisms are activated that are designed to activate functional systems. Self-regulation is carried out through an increase in motor activity, leading to an increase in the flow of proprioceptive impulses to the cerebral cortex. Thus, the relationship between the state of monotony and cognitive processes is mediated by the involuntary regulatory mechanisms of the individual.

Another characteristic that affects the relationship between states and cognitive processes can be self-esteem personality. For example, data are presented according to which, at the same high level of intelligence development, individuals with low self-esteem are less successful in performing intellectual tasks than individuals with high self-esteem. Empirical studies (performed on a sample of adolescents) show that the psychological mechanism of the influence of self-esteem on the effectiveness of intellectual activity is the subject's emotional states.

The role of self-assessment in determining states of tension is important. Self-assessment performs a regulatory role in activities, which is manifested in the features of goal formation, the level of claims, in relation to the subject and conditions of activity.

The relationship between states and cognitive processes (attention, memory, thinking) can be influenced by antipathy processes, the ratio of assessments of the extremeness of the situation and the ability to overcome it, as well as achievement motivation, significant personal goals, etc.

Thus, the interaction of states and cognitive processes is determined by the characteristics of the experienced states (sign, intensity, level, modality) and cognitive processes (the level of development of cognitive processes, the degree of organization of cognitive subsystems). In addition, researchers note the influence of personal characteristics: self-esteem, self-regulation, cognitive style, etc. Apparently, none of these factors can accurately predict the relationship between states and cognitive processes. For example, although most authors point to the influence of level indicators of states on the characteristics of cognitive processes, at the same time it is noted that the result of interaction depends on the inclusion of achievement motivation factors, self-regulation, assessment and interpretation of the situation, etc. into it.

Thus, the relationship between mental states and cognitive processes is complex and multifaceted. Representing a single dynamic system, the interaction of processes and states is subject to the influence of many personal characteristics.

Allocate reflexive, semantic and dynamic aspects of the relationship of mental states and cognitive processes. Reflexivity, personal meaning, and the time factor have a cumulative effect on the interaction of mental states and cognitive processes.

Level indicators of reflexivity mediate the interaction of mental states and cognitive processes. The regulatory function of reflexivity is associated with its level characteristics: a high level of reflexivity contributes to high productivity of cognitive processes at lower energy costs; the average level of reflexivity ensures the achievement of maximum productivity of cognitive processes, subject to the activation of states of high intensity; a low level of reflexivity is characterized by a minimum productivity of cognitive processes over the entire range of changes in the intensity of states.

Personal meaning influences the organization of the interaction of cognitive processes and mental states. The dominance of the procedural orientation of personal meaning (in comparison with the orientation towards self-affirmation) in situations of learning activity enhances the relationship between cognitive processes and states of medium and low intensity. At the same time, the level of integration of cognitive processes with states of a high level of intensity decreases. In quantitative terms, this is expressed in an increase in the productivity of cognitive processes in less intense states.

In dynamic terms, the interaction of typical states and cognitive processes in the course of educational activity leads to the emergence of qualitatively different spatio-temporal structures based on a synchronous change in their relationships: at the beginning of training sessions, the structures of states and cognitive processes are characterized by an average level of integration; the middle of classes is accompanied by the disintegration of connections in the structure of cognitive processes and a simultaneous increase in the level of integration of states; the end of training sessions is characterized by a high level of integration of the structure of cognitive processes and a low level of integration of the structure of states.

It has been established that the influence of states on cognitive processes is mediated by a temporal characteristic. At the initial stage of training sessions, the productivity of cognitive processes is facilitated by states of medium intensity, at subsequent stages (middle and end of classes) - by states of high intensity. The most “sensitive” to interaction with mental states in educational activity are the processes of attention, their indicators are statistically significantly reduced in negative states of high and low intensity. The most resistant to the influence of states are the processes of memory and perception: during the training sessions, their characteristics remain constant or improve.

One of the most important characteristics of emotions is their connection with cognitive processes. The study of the relationship between emotional and cognitive processes goes back to the works of L.S. Vygotsky and other classics of psychology. So L.S. Vygotsky wrote: "Whoever has torn thinking from affect from the very beginning, has forever closed his way to explaining the causes of thinking itself."

S.L. wrote about the unity of the affective and the intellectual as an essential characteristic of the emotions themselves. Rubinstein, who believed that emotions as such determine primarily the dynamic side of cognitive functions, the tone, pace of activity, its "tuning" to one or another level of activation, drew attention to the fact that the action of emotions can be both sthenic, reinforcing, and asthenic. , lowering.

Moreover, if normally conscious cognitive intellectual activity inhibits emotional arousal, giving it direction and selectivity, then with affects, with superintense emotional arousal, the selective orientation of actions is violated and impulsive unpredictability of behavior is possible.

VC. Viliunas substantiates the impossibility of the existence of emotions in isolation from cognitive processes as follows: emotions perform their functions, the most common of which are evaluation and motivation; depending on the cognitive content of the mental image, they single out goals in the cognitive image and induce them to take appropriate action.

A classification of emotions is proposed according to their cognitive component - the subject, which allows us to consider any subject of the traditionally distinguished cognitive process - perception, memory, thinking - as an object of emotional experience. The author believes that knowledge of the functions of emotions in relation to cognitive content makes it possible to approach the experimental study of emotions through the analysis of cognitive processes - cognitive processes accompanied by emotional experience will have a number of dynamic differences from those that are emotionally weakly experienced. These include the pace, speed, productivity of cognitive processes. Modern literature has accumulated a number of specific experimental data on the relationship of emotions with various cognitive processes: memory, perception and thinking.

I would like to dwell in more detail on the analysis of the influence of emotions on the reception, processing and reproduction of information, in particular on such processes as perception and learning.

As you know, perception is a complex phenomenon. It includes such processes as highlighting a figure from the background, assessing the size, brightness and distance of the perceived object, highlighting the details that make up the object. So, each of these processes can undergo changes under the influence of emotional factors.

Consider the influence of emotional experience on the selection of a figure from the background. The process of selecting a figure from the background plays an essential role in perception. Among the factors that determine this process, the organization of perceptual material is usually indicated in the first place. However, it turned out that emotional factors also influence the course and result of this process.

This is indicated, in particular, by the studies of Schafer and Murphy. The subjects were shown the contour of the face for about 1/3 second and were asked to remember the names presented simultaneously. The faces were presented repeatedly, and two of them were constantly reinforced by a reward - after their exposure, the subject received 2 or 4 cents, the exposure of the rest of the faces was regularly followed by punishment - the subject himself had to pay 2-4 cents. Each face was exposed 25 times; rewards and punishments were distributed in such a way that at the end of the experiment, the subjects could earn some money (about 15 cents). The critical moment of the experiment was the presentation of a dual figure obtained by combining two profiles.

The subjects had to say what kind of face they see in this dual picture. It turned out that out of a total of 67 presentations, in 54 cases, the subjects perceived a face that was accompanied by positive reinforcement. In other words, the configuration of stimuli with which the positive emotional experience was associated stood out from the background.

It should be emphasized that the subjects were not told what they were rewarded or punished for. The tendency to perceive what received positive reinforcement appeared as if automatically.

From a common sense point of view, the result of this study may seem quite obvious; Isn't it natural that we tend to perceive what a reward or promotion entails? However, the matter is by no means so simple. A perfectly legitimate question arises: why should the receipt of 15 cents have any effect on the organization of the perceptual field? Why do our eyes see better what promises such a small reward? Are the results of the experiment credible?

In favor of the data obtained is the fact that two other researchers who repeated the experiment, namely Smith and Hochberg, obtained similar results.

Research by Barbara Cohn paints a somewhat different picture. Instead of contours of faces, Kohn presented the subjects with meaningless syllables with different frequencies - from 1 to 25 times. As in the experiment of Schafer and Murphy, the presentation of some syllables was accompanied by a monetary reward, while others were accompanied by a monetary punishment. But there were also syllables that were not followed by either positive or negative reinforcement. Then the subjects were offered several perceptual tests, which allowed them to assess the correctness of the perception of syllables. What were the results of this experiment?

First of all, it was found that the quality of perception depends on the degree of familiarity with the syllable, that is, on the number of presentations: the more familiar the syllable was, the easier it was perceived. This result is in full agreement with what is known about perception. In addition, emotional experiences associated with positive or negative reinforcement have also been found to influence perception. Compared to neutral syllables, rewarded and punished syllables were perceived better.

This result does not contradict the data discussed above, because it does not diminish the significance of the reward, but only indicates that not only the reward, but also the punishment facilitates perception.

Thus, as Kohn's research shows, the factor contributing to the selection of a figure from the background is not only and not so much positive reinforcement, but some kind of emotional state associated with the perceived object (regardless of whether it is positive or negative).

Now consider the influence of emotional experience on the perception of the properties of an object. The selection of an object and an accurate assessment of its properties are associated with the emotional experience of a person. This is evidenced, in particular, by the experiments of Proshansky and Murphy on pairwise comparison of the line and loads. The experiment was carried out as follows.

The first part: the subjects compared lines and loads in pairs. The experimenter determined the accuracy of the estimates. The second part: the subjects were divided into three groups - A, B and C. The subjects of group C (control) were neither rewarded nor punished. The third part: the subjects compared lines and weights in pairs (as in the first part).

It turned out that in the third part of the experiment, the number of errors increased, the nature of which depended on what received positive reinforcement. Thus, those subjects who were rewarded for indicating longer lines and lighter weights (Group B) found a tendency to overestimate the length and underestimate the weight. Group A subjects, who were rewarded for pointing shorter lines and heavier weights, showed the opposite trend. In the control group, which received neither positive nor negative reinforcement, no change was found.

Thus, as in previous experiments, in this case the emotional experience led to a change in perceptual actions: the accuracy of perception of the difference between stimuli changed.

In the experiments considered, the emotional significance of the stimulus was determined by the experimenter, who applied rewards or punishments according to a predetermined plan. It is known, however, that many stimuli have a natural emotional significance due to the fact that in the experience of a person a connection has been established between them and vital events. This was used in their research by Bruner and Goodman. They asked the children under study, by manipulating the controller of the projector, to highlight on the screen a circle corresponding in size to the sample (one time decreasing, the other increasing the circle on the screen). Coins and cardboard mugs of equal size were used as samples.

As might be foreseen, children made mistakes in estimating the size of objects, but these errors in reproducing the sizes of cardboard circles and coins were not identical; the size of the coin seemed to the children larger than the size of the corresponding circles. Thus, a tendency was revealed to overestimate the size of objects that have a certain value for the child. The degree of revaluation was the greater, the greater the denomination of the coin, in other words, children overestimated twenty cents more than five cents.

Thus, a number of data indicate that objects with emotional significance are perceived somewhat differently than neutral objects, and that they (in the terminology of Bruner and Postman) are accentuated, which leads to overestimation of their size, better separation from the background, etc. . P.

Perception and emotional state. Regardless of whether a person perceives an object that is meaningful to him or a relatively neutral object, the content of perception can be influenced by emotions caused by previously acting factors. This influence is manifested primarily in a change in the meaning of the perceived content.

One of the first attempts to experimentally study this influence, undertaken as early as the 1930s, was Murray's study of five eleven-year-old girls. The subjects had to rate photographs of strangers on a nine-point scale. Two series (A and B) of photographs were offered, 15 in each. Evaluations were made three times: on Saturday afternoon, after returning from a trip (Series A), on Saturday evening, after a "terrible game of killer" that caused great excitement and fear (Series A and B), and on Sunday afternoon, after returning from walks (series B). The girls had to rate how good or bad the presented faces seemed to them. Comparing the scores that were given to individuals from series A and B in two situations (neutral and exciting), it was possible to assess the effect of emotional arousal, while excluding the effect of the presentation order factor. The results of the study showed that the state of arousal caused changes in assessments; in 70% of cases, these changes were negative, that is, under the influence of exciting games, the girls rated faces as “worse”.

A similar result was obtained in studies conducted with students of the University of Warsaw, who before the exam (it was their first exam in higher education) met with an unknown person, allegedly to perform some pre-examination formalities. After the exam, they filled out a special sheet on which they had to rate this person using a seven-point scale.

A few days later, the same students performed an easy test, after which they had to evaluate the person (previously unknown to them) who conducted this study using the same sheet. In both situations - examination (which caused strong emotional arousal) and test (which, as expected, caused much weaker arousal) - the object of observation were two young women A and B.

Half of the subjects (group I) saw A in a situation of strong arousal, and B - in a situation of weak arousal, the other half (group II) - vice versa.

Such an organization of the experiment made it possible to compare the scores that person A received in the group of strong emotional arousal (I) and the group of weak arousal (II). In the same way, the scores that person B received were compared.

A positive value of the indicator meant a higher assessment of the person with whom the subjects met in a situation of weak arousal. Subsequently, the subjects were divided into three groups: the group in which negative indicators prevailed (the person with whom the subjects met before the exam was rated higher); a group in which positive indicators prevailed (the person who conducted the test study was rated higher), and a group in which the number of both indicators was the same (on one half of the scales, the subjects gave preference to person A, on the other - to person B).

It was found that 2/3 of the subjects showed a tendency to a higher assessment of the person they met in a situation that caused a lower level of emotional arousal. In other words, group I liked face A less than group II, and group II liked face B less than group I.

For the subjects who were in a state of strong emotional arousal, the person being assessed seemed ugly, less interesting, not dexterous enough, and also less sympathetic, less affable.

The presented results indicate that the changes that occur in perception are to some extent related to the content of emotions: a negative emotional state (fear, anxiety, tension, pre-exam excitement) caused a negative shift in assessments.

However, not only temporary emotional states, but also stable emotional attitudes lead to a directed change in perception. Thus, in a series of studies in which projective tests were used, it was found that subjects with a high level of anxiety show an increased tendency to perceive threat elements in presented situations. In other words, under the influence of the emotional set, there was a tendency to perceive a larger number of stimuli as stimuli that cause a negative reaction (a tendency to broader generalization).

These data indicate that the emotional process is one of the factors that influences the formation of a perceptual image.

Let us dwell in more detail on the process of learning and reproduction of mnemonic material, and their dependence on emotions. Emotions influence what a person perceives, but this influence does not, in essence, lead to a fundamental change in the perceived material. As emphasized by many authors, the main determinant of perception remains objective reality. On the other hand, there are reasons to conclude that the process of memorization, as well as reproduction, is influenced by emotions to a much greater extent.

Emotions have a selective effect on the learning process, contributing to the establishment of those connections that somehow correspond to the content of the experienced emotion. This is evidenced, in particular, by the experiment conducted by Beam. The subjects in his experiments performed two types of tasks: they memorized a number of meaningless syllables, and, in addition, they developed a conditioned emotional reaction to a light stimulus that anticipated a painful effect (the development of a conditioned galvanic skin reaction); the conditioned stimulus was the lighting of a light bulb, and the unconditioned (reinforcement) was an electric shock. The second task, which consisted in learning that a light signal anticipates danger, differed from the first in that its assimilation was mediated by anxiety (a person learned to be afraid of light).

The study was conducted in two different conditions: in neutral, and also in conditions that caused anxiety. The source of anxiety was a university exam or participation in a performance in front of a large audience (the study was conducted immediately before the exam or speech).

The main result obtained in these studies was that syllable learning was worse under anxiety conditions than under neutral conditions (more errors, more repetitions), while the assimilation of the danger signal was better than under central conditions.

Thus, it can be assumed that an increase in the level of anxiety facilitates the memorization of such reactions, the development of which is mediated by anxiety.

The conclusion that anxiety facilitates the learning of "anxious" (anxiety-mediated) responses, which follows from Beam's research, can be seen as a special case of the more general assertion that emotions facilitate the learning of responses that are related in content. In favor of such a broader understanding of the established dependence is evidenced by the results obtained in the study of other emotions.

An example is Smith's research. Smith found that under conditions of failure (frustration), some subjects tend to more quickly memorize pairs of words that have aggressive content. Smith also found that this applies primarily to those who, on a questionnaire designed to identify personality traits, scored high on feelings (or attitudes) of hostility.

How can this result be explained? It is known that the encounter with failure, or frustration, usually leads to an increase in aggressive emotions. These emotions are likely to be stronger in individuals characterized by a high level of feelings (or attitudes) of hostility. Therefore, it is likely that their emotions reach a level that leads to a change in the effectiveness of learning.

Not only learning, but also remembering depends to a certain extent on emotional processes. This is evidenced by the results obtained in the study of the influence of emotions on memories. Such studies have been carried out for a long time. An example is the studies of Jerseyld.

Jerseysild asked a group of subjects to write down for 7 minutes all the pleasant events of the last three weeks. Then the same subjects were asked to list all the unpleasant events that happened in the same period for the next 7 minutes. No information about the purpose of the experiment was given to the subjects. After 21 days, all subjects were asked to once again recall all the pleasant and unpleasant events of the same period.

After analyzing the results, we can conclude that already at the first attempt, the subjects recalled more pleasant events than unpleasant ones; this is, however, a common occurrence, as evidenced by the results of many other studies. Why it happens? Various suggestions have been made: perhaps there are more pleasant events in people's experience than unpleasant ones? Or maybe unpleasant memories gradually turn into pleasant ones or unpleasant experiences are easier to forget? An analysis of the results of the second recall shows that the last assumption is the most probable: the subjects recalled 43% of the previously indicated pleasant events and only 28% of the unpleasant ones. The above experiment shows that emotions influence the process of memorization and that the influence of positive and negative emotions is different.

It can also be argued that emotions contribute to the retention of related material in memory, and positive emotions may facilitate memorization to a greater extent than negative ones, and strong emotions more than weak ones.

In conclusion, we can formulate a general conclusion that emotions have a selective effect on memory processes. This influence may consist of both facilitating and hindering one or another act of remembering. Thus, we come to the conclusion that the connection with the emotional sphere, the sign and intensity of emotions is manifested in various cognitive processes of the personality - mnestic, gnostic, intellectual, affecting the efficiency, semantic structure of cognitive activity and the nature of its course.

It is no longer possible to dismiss this question as meaningless, although it is the strangest and most unusual question that science has ever faced. Did the Universe have to adapt from the first days of its existence to the requirements that life and mind will place on it in the future? Until we understand in what direction we need to look for an answer to this question, we will be forced to admit that we do not know the most important thing about the Universe.

Some believe that the study of this problem will require us to gradually dive into the depths of matter - from the crystalline structure to the molecular, from molecules to atoms, from atoms to the smallest particles, from the smallest particles to quarks and, perhaps, to even more elementary particles. But there is also a completely different point of view, it can be called<логический парадокс Лейбница>. In accordance with it, an analysis of the physical world, carried out deep enough, will open a certain path, hidden from us so far, leading to a person, to his consciousness and mind, and then we, perhaps unexpectedly for ourselves, will discover that the human mind, human consciousness underlie the universe through the mere ability to observe and to penetrate into the secrets of being (Wheeler, 1974, pp. 688-691).

There are many researchers who are inclined to consider consciousness as the main subject of psychology, but the problem of consciousness often looks undeservedly overlooked by theorists and experimenters. In a sense, consciousness is perceived as<данность>, which underlies some of the more particular variables manipulated and measured by scientific psychology. There is no universally accepted definition of consciousness, and it must be admitted that the development of a clear and precise definition of consciousness is an extremely difficult matter. Scientists often talk about consciousness, not only without defining it, but without even relating it to related concepts such as<разум>(or<ментальные структуры>) And<субъективный опыт>. Of course, within the framework of this chapter it is impossible to resolve all the existing problems in relation to consciousness, we will simply try to identify them more clearly, we will give some postulates that can form the basis for the definition of consciousness, we will approach the consideration of this concept from the point of view of others, correlated and partly adjacent to him, concepts. We will also look at emotions as organizing factors in active consciousness, discuss the relationship<мозг-эмоция-сознание>.

CONCEPTUALIZATION OF CONSCIOUSNESS

In everyday speech, we distinguish between the conscious and the unconscious, the state of wakefulness and the state of sleep. At the same time, if<сознание>And<бодрствование>are often perceived by us as synonymous concepts, then the concepts<сон>And<бессознательное>represent different states for us. Sleep, or at least REM sleep, is an active process and can be thought of as a state of consciousness in which the thresholds of sensory receptors are elevated compared to those of the waking state. We dream, and dreaming can be considered an affective-cognitive process. Life experience, as well as laboratory data, suggests that dreams perform useful functions: if a person is deprived of dreams, he can get sick.

Obviously, such an affective-cognitive process as a dream can proceed without external stimulation, that to a greater extent, if not entirely, it depends on the images produced by the individual in the waking state. The images or sequences of images that appear in a dream and seem new, in fact, are peculiar variations on the theme of the images already in the mind.

It is hardly possible to seriously dispute the assertion that a person experiences emotions in a dream. Who among us has not woken up from the horror generated by a nightmare? Apparently, this happens when a powerful emotion changes the threshold of the receptors, or, in other words, a high-intensity emotion awakens consciousness.

It is also obvious that in the unconscious state we lack perceptual-cognitive processes, emotions, and dreams. Having lost consciousness, we are no longer aware of what is happening around us. We lose not only our understanding of the world around us, but also of time and place. In this state, a person is likened to a flower or a tree: he lives, but does not realize himself alive. This is not the Freudian unconscious, in which, as Freud believed, cognitive processes take place, but are not realized by a person. It is now generally accepted that some kind of<умственные процессы>operate at preconscious or unconscious levels (or at a low level of awareness, out of the focus of consciousness) and affect consciousness and its processes. It is these processes that will be discussed in this chapter.

CONSCIOUSNESS AS A STREAM OF THOUGHT

Since there is no clear and compact definition of consciousness in the scientific literature, we will have to start with its particular definitions, with postulates of a descriptive nature, with those ideas that have developed so far in relation to consciousness. Many of these ideas have their roots in the work of William James, which, while not defining the phenomenon of consciousness, is still a rich source of ideas. Considering<индивидуальное сознание>, James wrote:<Любому человеку понятно его значение, но только до тех пор, пока его не попросят дать ему определение, а между тем точное определение сознания - одна из сложнейших философских задач>(James, 1890, p. 225). Here, at least, James's belief in the individual nature of consciousness is reflected. In his opinion, consciousness is identical to a single individual. But, limited by this postulate, James was unable to distinguish between consciousness and the content of consciousness, and most of his thinking about this problem is reduced to reasoning about the cognitive processes of consciousness. In his famous description of continuous consciousness, he views the stream of consciousness as a stream of thought. Some modern scholars, like James, do not distinguish between a stream of thought and a stream of consciousness, thereby downplaying the role of the affective component of consciousness.

James's failure to distinguish between thought and consciousness made it difficult to define consciousness and prevented him from developing a set of postulates that characterize consciousness. However, it seems that James did not in fact exclude emotions from the scope of his analysis, since he used the concept<мысль>in its most general sense, meaning by it any<умственные>processes. He talked about such different states of consciousness as visual and auditory observation, inference, will, remembrance, hope, love, hate, and more about<сотне способов, с помощью которых мы опознаем работу нашего разума>(p. 230). However, neither in the works of James nor in the works of many modern scientists do we find a clear distinction between consciousness (as receptivity / awareness / attention), on the one hand, and the content, operations of consciousness, on the other, although a number of authors (Cantril, 1962; Deikman, 1971; Mandler, 1975; Tart, 1976) have paid some attention to this problem.

Thus, James's ideas are applicable to the analysis of the contents and operations of consciousness rather than to the analysis of states of receptivity/awareness as characteristics of consciousness. We have already noted that James characterized thought, or the contents of the mind, as an individual phenomenon. He wrote that the discord between thought and feeling is the most insoluble of all existing in nature. He emphasized that the content of consciousness is constantly changing. He believed that even somatic sensations change, that a person never experiences the same sensation twice.<Человек меняется ежесекундно, чувственный опыт постоянно трансформирует его, и ментальная реакция на конкретную данность в конкретный момент времени есть результат индивидуального опыта взаимодействия с миром, сложившегося к настоящему моменту>(James, 1890, p. 234).

James noted that the content of consciousness is continuous. Even in exceptional cases, when consciousness is temporarily interrupted, it seems that the unconscious period does not affect the overall continuity of consciousness in any way. In this case, consciousness, in spite of everything, is felt as inseparable. In addition to continuity from the point of view of time, consciousness is also continuous in the sense that its elements are internally connected with each other and form one whole. According to James, the most appropriate name for this wholeness is<Я>. Concluding his analysis of consciousness, James writes:<Таким образом, оглядываясь назад и подытоживая этот обзор, можно сказать, что разум в любом его проявлении представляет собой театр одновременных возможностей. Роль сознания заключается в сопоставлении этих возможностей, в отборе одной или нескольких из них и в подавлении остальных путем наращивания или подавления силы внимания>(James, 1890, p. 288). Obviously, here James is talking about the contents of consciousness and about the operations of consciousness, and this remark is very valuable. Other observations of James concerning the phenomenon of consciousness will be considered by us in the following sections.