Theory of emotion. Psychological theories of emotions. Plutchik's adaptation theory of emotions
Main characteristics
Observation as a research method is a purposeful, developed according to a prepared plan, fixing the phenomena under study for the purpose of their subsequent analysis and use in practical activities. What is observed, how, using what tools, the sociologist displays in the research program. In addition, it substantiates hypotheses, basic concepts, tactics in general.
Observation as a method of sociological research
The famous Russian sociologist Yadov V.A. by this concept means the direct registration of facts, phenomena, events by an eyewitness. Scientific observation differs from everyday life. It is one of the most common methods in sociology, psychology and other sciences. As a matter of fact, the creation of any work begins with it.
Classification
Observation as a research method according to the degree of formalization is divided into:
- Uncontrollable. This is a non-standard structureless process in which the researcher uses only the general principal plan.
- Controlled. The researcher develops the entire procedure in detail and follows the initially prepared plan.
Other varieties of the method
In addition, there are differences depending on the position of the researcher who conducts the observation. As a method of research in theory, it is proposed to distinguish between still participatory and simple observation.
Contributory
It is included, it implies the adaptation and entry of the author into the environment that is to be analyzed and studied.
Simple
The researcher captures events or phenomena from the outside. This and the previous cases allow open observation. As a research method, you can use the hidden option and disguise yourself.
Stimulating observation
This species is a variant of the included. Its difference lies in the creation of an experimental environment in order to better reveal the characteristics of the object under study.
Observation as a research method: primary requirements
1. Formulation of a clear goal and clear research objectives.
2. Planning. The procedure for carrying out the method is considered in advance.
3. Recording data for the purpose of objectivity and accuracy. The presence of diaries and protocols.
4. The ability to control information for stability and validity.
Observation as a method of psychological research
In psychology, it can exist in two forms:
- self-observation (introspection);
- objective.
Useful advice
Often self-observation is a component of the objective, then it is important for the researcher to direct the questions of the individual not to communicate his emotions and feelings, but to coordinate his actions himself and thus determine the patterns unconscious by the recipient, which would be the basis of the corresponding processes.
Advantages of the method of observation in psychology
- the possibility of studying mental processes in life conditions;
- display of events in their course;
- obtaining information about the actions of individuals, regardless of their attitudes towards the appropriate behavior model.
Expert opinion
Experts argue that observation is still better used in combination with other scientific research methods for greater reliability and objectivity of the data.
Observation
Observation is a descriptive psychological research method, which consists in purposeful and organized perception and registration of the behavior of the object under study. Observation is an organized, purposeful, fixed perception of mental phenomena with the aim of studying them under certain conditions.
General information
Together with introspection, observation is considered the oldest psychological method. Scientific observation has been widely used since the end of the 19th century in areas where the fixation of the characteristics of human behavior in various conditions is of particular importance - in clinical, social, educational psychology, developmental psychology, and since the beginning of the 20th century - in labor psychology.
Observation is used where the intervention of the experimenter will disrupt the process of human interaction with the environment. This method is indispensable when it is necessary to obtain a complete picture of what is happening and reflect the behavior of individuals in its entirety.
The main features of the observation method are: - direct connection between the observer and the observed object; - partiality (emotional coloring) of observation; - the complexity (sometimes - the impossibility) of repeated observation. In the natural sciences, the observer, as a rule, does not influence the process (phenomenon) being studied. In psychology, there is a problem of interaction between the observer and the observed. If the subject knows that he is being observed, then the presence of the researcher influences his behavior. The limitations of the method of observation gave rise to other, more "perfect" methods of empirical research: experiment and measurement. [Druzhinin V.N. Experimental psychology. - St. Petersburg. 2000]
Subject of observation
The object of observation is an individual or a group of individuals. The subject is the physical manifestations of the phenomenon of interest to the researcher:
* Verbal behavior
o Length of speech
o Speech intensity
* Non-verbal behavior
o Expression of the face, eyes, body,
o Expressive movements
* Movement of people
* Distance between people
* Physical impacts
o Touch
o Etc. Etc.
That is, the object of observation can only be that which can be objectively registered. Thus, the researcher does not observe the properties of the psyche, he registers only those manifestations of the object that are available for fixation. And only on the basis of the assumption that the psyche finds its manifestation in behavior, the psychologist can build hypotheses about mental properties, based on the data obtained during observation.
Surveillance
Observation can be carried out directly by the researcher, or by means of observation devices and fixing its results. These include audio, photo, video equipment, special surveillance cards.
Classification of observations
Observation is a purposeful, organized and in a certain way fixed perception of the object under study. The results of fixing the observation data are called the description of the object's behavior. Surveillance is used when it is either impossible or inadmissible to interfere with the natural course of the process. It can be: 1. Direct and indirect, 2. External and internal, 3. Included (which can be open and closed) and not included, 4. Direct and indirect, 5. Continuous and selective (according to certain parameters), 6. Field (in everyday life) and laboratory.
According to the systematic distinction
* Non-systematic observation, in which it is necessary to create a generalized picture of the behavior of an individual or a group of individuals under certain conditions and does not aim to fix causal dependencies and give strict descriptions of phenomena.
* Systematic observation, carried out according to a certain plan and in which the researcher registers the features of behavior and classifies the conditions of the external environment.
Non-systematic observation is carried out in the course of field research (used in ethnopsychology, developmental psychology, social psychology). Result: creation of a generalized picture of the behavior of an individual or a group under certain conditions. Systematic monitoring is carried out according to a specific plan. Result: registration of behavioral features (variables) and classification of environmental conditions.
Observation is opposed to experiment. This opposition is based on two assumptions:
* Passivity of the observer - the observer does not change the surrounding reality.
* Directness - the observer fixes in the protocol what he sees.
For fixed objects
* Continuous observation. The researcher tries to fix all the features of behavior.
* Selective observation. The researcher captures only certain types of behavioral acts or behavioral parameters.
Stages of observational research
1. Definition of the subject of observation, object, situation.
2. Choice of the method of observation and data recording.
3. Create an observation plan.
4. Choice of method for processing results.
5. Actually observation.
6. Processing and interpretation of the received information.
Advantages of the Observation Method
* Observation allows you to directly capture and record acts of behavior.
* Observation allows you to simultaneously capture the behavior of a number of people in relation to each other or to certain tasks, objects, etc.
* Observation allows you to conduct research regardless of the readiness of the observed subjects.
* Observation allows you to achieve multidimensional coverage, that is, fixation on several parameters at once - for example, verbal and non-verbal behavior
* Efficiency of obtaining information
* Relative cheapness of the method
Disadvantages of the observation method
* Departure from the purpose of observation (Obtaining facts that do not correspond to the goals of the study)
*Past research experience influences subsequent observation facts
Observation- this is a purposeful, organized perception and registration of the behavior of the object under study. The task of the observer, as a rule, is not connected with interference in "life" by creating special conditions for the manifestation of the observed process or phenomenon.
Observation differs from passive contemplation of the surrounding reality in that it: a) is subordinated to a specific goal; b) is carried out according to a specific plan; c) equipped with subject means for carrying out the process and fixing the results.
Observation is an active form of sensory cognition, which makes it possible to accumulate empirical data, form initial ideas about objects, or test initial assumptions associated with them. Observation is historically the first scientific method of psychological research.
The term "observation" is used in three different senses: 1) observation as an activity; 2) observation as a method; 3) observation as a technique.
Seeing how activity relates to certain areas of public practice. The operator of the power system observes the readings of the instruments, the shift attendant inspects the equipment according to a specific plan, the doctor examines the patient, the investigator observes the behavior of the suspect, etc. In contrast to observation as a scientific method, observation as an activity is aimed at serving practical activities: observation is necessary for the doctor to diagnosis and clarification of the treatment process; to the investigator - to put forward and verify versions and solve the crime; the power system operator - to make a decision on the distribution of electricity flows.
Seeing how method science includes a system of principles of cognitive activity, provisions on the essence and specifics of psychological observation, on its capabilities and limitations, on instrumental equipment and varieties of human activity in the role of an observer. Observation as a method of psychology is distinguished by universality, i.e., applicability to the study of a wide range of phenomena, flexibility, i.e., the ability to change the “field of coverage” of the object under study as necessary, to put forward and test additional hypotheses in the course of observation. To conduct an observational study, minimal hardware is required.
The specificity of observation as a scientific method of psychology lies in the type of relationship to the object of study (non-intervention) and the presence of direct visual or auditory contact of the observer with the observed. The main characteristics of observation as a method of psychology are purposefulness, regularity, dependence on the theoretical ideas of the observer.
Seeing how technique(observation technique) takes into account the specific task, situation, conditions and instruments of observation. The method of observation is understood as a socially fixed, clearly stated for others, objectively presented system for collecting and processing empirical data, which is adequate to a clearly defined range of tasks. In foreign psychological literature, a synonym for "observation technique" is "observation technique". The observation methodology contains the most complete description of the observation procedure and includes: a) the choice of a situation and an object for observation; b) the program (scheme) of observation in the form of a list of signs (aspects) of the observed behavior and units of observation with a detailed description of them; c) method and form of recording the results of observation; d) a description of the requirements for the work of an observer; e) description of the method of processing and presentation of the received data.
Object and subject of observation. object external observation can be an individual, a group of people or a community. The object of observation is characterized by uniqueness, non-repeatability, very short or very long duration of mental phenomena.
The main problem that arises in the conduct of observation is the effect of the presence of the observer on the behavior of the observed. To minimize this impact, the observer must “become familiar”, i.e., be more often present in the environment, engage in some business, and not focus on what is being observed. In addition, it is possible to explain the presence of the observer by some purpose acceptable for the observed, or to replace the human observer with recording equipment (video camera, voice recorder, etc.), or to observe from an adjacent room through glass with one-way light conduction (Gesell's mirror). The modesty, tact, good manners of the observer weaken the inevitable influence of his presence.
There is also a reception included observation when the observer is a real member of the group. However, this technique entails an ethical problem - the duality of the position and the inability to observe oneself as a member of the group.
Subject observations can only be external, exteriorized components of mental activity:
– motor components of practical and gnostic actions;
- movements, movements and stationary states of people (speed and direction of movement, contact, shocks, blows);
– joint actions (groups of people);
- speech acts (their content, direction, frequency, duration, intensity, expressiveness, features of the lexical, grammatical, phonetic structure);
- facial expressions and pantomime, expression of sounds;
- manifestations of some vegetative reactions (redness or blanching of the skin, changes in the rhythm of breathing, sweating).
When conducting observation, the complexity of an unambiguous understanding of the internal, mental through observation of the external arises. In psychology, there is a multiplicity of connections between external manifestations and subjective mental reality and a multilevel structure of mental phenomena, so the same behavioral manifestation can be associated with various mental processes.
Observer position in relation to the object of observation can be open or hidden. The included observation can also be classified as open or covert, depending on whether the observer reports the fact of observation or not.
A person-observer has a selectivity of perception, which is determined by his attitudes, the general direction of his activity. A certain attitude activates perception, sharpens sensitivity to significant influences, however, an overly fixed attitude leads to bias. The general orientation of activity can serve as an incentive to overestimate some facts and underestimate others (teachers pay attention to cognitive activity, trainers - to body features, dexterity of movements, tailors - to tailoring, etc.).
There is also the phenomenon of the projection of one's own "I" on the observed behavior. Interpreting the behavior of another person, the observer transfers his own point of view to him. Individual characteristics of the observer (primary modality of perception - visual, auditory, etc., ability to concentrate and distribute attention, memory capacity, cognitive style, temperament, emotional stability, etc.) also have a significant impact on the result of observation. A good observer needs special training in observation, which allows you to somewhat reduce the influence of individual characteristics.
Depending on the situation, field observation, laboratory observation and provoked observation in natural conditions are distinguished. field the observation is carried out in the natural conditions of the life of the observed, the distortion of behavior in this case is minimal. This type of observation is very time-consuming, since the situation of interest to the researcher is hardly controllable and, therefore, observation is most often of an expectant nature. Laboratory observation is carried out in a more convenient situation for the researcher, but artificial conditions can greatly distort human behavior. provoked observation is carried out in natural conditions, but the situation is set by the researcher. In developmental psychology, this observation approaches a natural experiment (observation during the game, during classes, etc.).
2.2. Organization of psychological observation
By way of organizing distinguish between non-systematic and systematic observation. Unsystematic observation is widely used in ethnopsychology, developmental psychology, and social psychology. For the researcher, it is important here to create some generalized picture of the phenomenon under study, the behavior of an individual or group under certain conditions. Systematic observation is carried out according to plan. The researcher identifies some features of behavior and fixes their manifestation in various conditions or situations.
There are also continuous and selective observation. At continuous observation, the researcher captures all the features of behavior, and when selective pays attention only to certain behavioral acts, fixes their frequency, duration, etc.
Different ways of organizing surveillance have their own advantages and disadvantages. So, with non-systematic observation, random phenomena can be described, therefore, it is preferable to organize systematic observation under changing conditions. With continuous observation, it is impossible to record the entire observed, therefore, in this case, it is desirable to use equipment or involve several observers. Selective observation does not exclude the influence of the observer's position on its result (he sees only what he wants to see). To overcome this influence, it is possible to involve several observers, as well as alternately test both the main and competing hypotheses.
Depending on the goals Research can be divided into exploratory research and research aimed at testing hypotheses. search engine research is carried out at the beginning of the development of any scientific field, is carried out extensively, aims to obtain the most complete description of all the phenomena inherent in this field, to cover it entirely. If observation is used in such a study, then it is usually continuous. Domestic psychologist M.Ya. Basov, the author of a classic work on the method of observation, designates the goal of such observation as “to observe in general”, to observe everything that an object manifests itself with, without selecting any specific manifestations. Some sources call this observation expectant.
An example of an exploratory study based on observation is the work of D.B. Elkonina and T.V. Dragunova. The general goal of this study was to obtain a description of all manifestations of neoplasms in the mental development of a child in adolescence. Systematic, long-term observation was carried out to identify the actual behavior and activities of adolescents during lessons, preparation of homework, circle work, various competitions, behavioral features and relationships with friends, teachers, parents, facts related to interests, plans for the future, attitude towards oneself , claims and aspirations, social activity, reactions to success and failure. Value judgments, conversations of children, disputes, remarks were registered.
If the purpose of the study is specific and strictly defined, the observation is built differently. In this case it is called researcher, or selective. At the same time, the content of the observation is selected, the observed is divided into units. An example is the study of the stages of cognitive development conducted by J. Piaget. To study one of the stages, the researcher chose manipulative games of the child with toys that have a cavity. Observations have shown that the ability to insert one object into another occurs later than the motor skills required for this. At a certain age, the child cannot do this because he does not understand how one object can be inside another.
By use of surveillance Distinguish between direct and indirect (with the use of observation instruments and means of fixing the results) observation. Surveillance equipment includes audio, photo and video equipment, surveillance maps. However, technical means are not always available, and the use of a hidden camera or voice recorder is an ethical problem, since the researcher in this case encroaches on the inner world of a person without his consent. Some researchers consider their use unacceptable.
By way chronological organization distinguish between longitudinal, periodic and single observation. Longitudinal observation is carried out over a number of years and involves constant contact between the researcher and the object of study. The results of such observations are usually recorded in the form of diaries and broadly cover the behavior, lifestyle, habits of the observed person. periodic observation is carried out for certain, precisely specified periods of time. This is the most common type of chronological organization of observation. single, or single, observations are usually presented as a description of a single case. They can be both unique and typical manifestations of the phenomenon under study.
Fixing the results of observation can be carried out in the process of observation or after some time has passed. In the latter case, as a rule, completeness, accuracy and reliability in recording the behavior of the subjects suffer.
2.3. Observation Program
The program (scheme) of observation includes a list of units of observation, the language and form of description of the observed.
Choice of observation units. After choosing the object and situation of observation, the researcher faces the task of conducting the observation and describing its results. Before observing, it is necessary to single out certain aspects of the object's behavior, individual acts accessible to direct perception from the continuous flow of the object's behavior. The chosen units of observation should be consistent with the purpose of the study and allow interpretation of the results in accordance with the theoretical position. Units of observation can vary considerably in size and complexity.
When using categorized observation, it is possible to quantify observed events. There are two main ways to obtain quantitative estimates during observation: 1) the observer's assessment of the intensity (severity) of the observed property, action - psychological scaling; 2) measurement of the duration of the observed event - timing. Scaling in observation is carried out by the method of scoring. Three to ten point scales are usually used. The score can be expressed not only as a number, but also as an adjective (“very strong, strong, medium”, etc.). Sometimes a graphic form of scaling is used, in which the score is expressed by the value of the segment on the straight line, the extreme points of which mark the lower and upper scores. For example, the scale for observing the behavior of a student at school, developed by J. Strelyau to assess the individual characteristics of a person, involves an assessment of ten categories of behavior on a five-point scale and very accurately defines reactivity as a property of temperament.
For timing in the process of direct observation, it is necessary: a) to be able to quickly isolate the desired unit from the observed behavior; b) establish in advance what is considered the beginning and what is the end of a behavioral act; c) have a chronometer. However, it should be remembered that the timing of activities, as a rule, is unpleasant for a person, interferes with him.
Methods for recording observations. General requirements for recording observations were formulated by M.Ya. Basov.
1. The record must be factual, that is, every fact must be recorded in the form in which it actually existed.
2. The record must include a description of the situation (subject and social) in which the observed event occurs (background record).
3. The record must be complete in order to reflect the reality being studied in accordance with the purpose.
Based on the study of a large number of records by M.Ya. Basovs proposed to distinguish three main ways of verbal fixation of behavior: interpretive, generalizing and descriptive, and photographic recordings. The use of all three types of records allows you to collect the most detailed material.
Recording non-standardized observations. In an exploratory study, preliminary knowledge about the reality under study is minimal, so the observer's task is to record the manifestations of the object's activity in all their diversity. This photographic record. However, it is necessary to include elements of interpretation in it, since it is almost impossible to reflect the situation “impartially”. “One or two well-aimed words of a researcher are better than a stream of long descriptions, where “you can’t see the forest for the trees,” wrote A.P. Boltunov.
Usually, in the course of exploratory research, the form of observation records is used in the form continuous protocol. It must indicate the date, time, place, situation of observation, social and objective environment, and, if necessary, the context of previous events. A continuous protocol is an ordinary sheet of paper on which the record is kept without headings. For the record to be complete, good concentration of the observer is necessary, as well as the use of conditional abbreviations or shorthand. A continuous protocol is used at the stage of clarifying the subject and situation of observation; on its basis, a list of units of observation can be compiled.
In a long-term field study conducted by the method of non-standardized observation, the recording form is a diary. It is carried out during many days of observations in a notebook with numbered sheets and large margins for subsequent processing of records. To maintain the accuracy of observations for a long time, the accuracy and uniformity of terminology should be observed. Diary entries are also recommended to be kept directly, and not from memory.
In a covert participant surveillance situation, data recording usually has to be done after the fact, since the observer does not have to reveal himself. In addition, as a participant in events, he cannot record anything. Therefore, the observer is forced to process the material of observations, summing up and generalizing homogeneous facts. Therefore, the observation diary uses generalizing descriptive And interpretation notes. However, at the same time, some of the most striking facts are reproduced by the observer relatively photographically, without processing, “as such and the only ones” (M.Ya. Basov).
Each entry in the observation diary should include a short introduction to better understand the behavior that has become the subject of recording. It reflects the place, time, situation, situation, state of others, etc. Along with the introduction, a conclusion can also be attached to the record, which reflects the changes in the situation that have occurred during the observation (appearance of a significant person, etc.).
While maintaining complete objectivity when recording data, the observer must then express his attitude to the described phenomena and his understanding of their meaning. Such entries should be clearly separated from observational entries and are therefore made in the margins of the diary.
Recording standardized observations. For categorized observations, two recording methods are used - notation in symbols and standard protocol. At character entries each category can be assigned designations - letters, pictograms, mathematical signs, which reduces the recording time.
Standard protocol is used in cases where the number of categories is limited and the researcher is only interested in the frequency of their occurrence (N. Flanders' system for analyzing the verbal interaction between a teacher and a student). This form of recording the results of observation has its advantages and disadvantages. The advantages include the accuracy and completeness of the fixation of manifestations, the disadvantages are the loss of the “living tissue of interaction” (M.Ya. Basov).
The result of the observation is a "behavioral portrait". This result is very valuable in medical, psychotherapeutic, consultative practice. The main parameters in compiling a behavioral portrait based on observation are as follows:
1) individual features of appearance that are important for the characteristics of the observed person (style of clothing, hairstyles, how much he strives in his appearance to “be like everyone else” or wants to stand out, attract attention to himself, whether he is indifferent to his appearance or attaches particular importance to it, what elements of behavior confirm this, in what situations);
2) pantomime (posture, features of gait, gestures, general stiffness or, conversely, freedom of movement, characteristic individual postures);
3) facial expressions (general facial expression, restraint, expressiveness, in which situations facial expressions are significantly animated, and in which they remain constrained);
4) speech behavior (silence, talkativeness, verbosity, laconicism, stylistic features, content and culture of speech, intonational richness, the inclusion of pauses in speech, the pace of speech);
5) behavior in relation to other people (position in the team and attitude to it, ways to establish contact, the nature of communication - business, personal, situational communication, communication style - authoritarian, democratic, self-oriented, with an orientation to the interlocutor, positions in communication - “on an equal footing”, from above, from below, the presence of contradictions in behavior - a demonstration of various ways of behavior that are opposite in meaning in situations of the same type);
6) behavioral manifestations (in relation to oneself - to appearance, personal belongings, shortcomings, advantages and opportunities);
7) behavior in psychologically difficult situations (when performing a responsible task, in conflict, etc.);
8) behavior in the main activity (game, study, professional activity);
9) examples of characteristic individual verbal cliches, as well as statements that characterize the outlook, interests, life experience.
2.4. The use of observation in psychological and pedagogical research
The widespread use of the observation method for studying the mental development of children is due to the characteristics of the object of study. A small child cannot be a participant in psychological experiments, unable to give a verbal account of his actions, thoughts, emotions and actions.
The accumulation of data on the mental development of infants and young children made it possible to bring them into certain systems.
Development tables A. Gesell cover four main areas of child behavior: motor skills, language, adaptive and personal-social behavior. Data obtained through direct observation of children's reactions to common toys and other objects are complemented by information provided by the child's mother. The American psychologist A. Anastasi, in his authoritative manual on psychological testing, notes the lack of standardization of these developmental tables, but points out their usefulness as an adjunct to medical examinations carried out by pediatricians and other specialists.
Method E. Fruht fixes the development of a child aged 10 days to 12 months in the following categories: 1) visual orienting reactions; 2) auditory orienting reactions; 3) emotions and social behavior; 4) hand movements and actions with objects; 5) general movements; 6) understanding of speech; 7) active speech; 8) skills and abilities.
For each age, a list of categories (from two to seven) and a description of the reactions characteristic of this age are given. For example, for the age of 1 month: general movements - lying on the stomach, trying to raise and hold the head (for 5 s); immediately raises his head after stroking his back, holds it for 5 s and lowers it. For the age of 3 months: general movements - lies on the stomach, leaning on the forearms and raising the head high (for 1 min), immediately raises the head high, leaning on the forearms, the chest is raised, the legs lie calmly, maintains this position for 1 min; holds the head in an upright position (in the arms of an adult); keeps head straight for 30 s. With support under the armpits, it firmly rests on a solid support with legs bent at the hip joint; when touching the support, straightens the legs at the knee joint and rests with both feet.
This scheme is not aimed at making a diagnosis, but only allows you to recognize the overall picture of development and pay attention to some alarming symptoms.
1) physical development, which covers both general movements, such as walking, climbing, and more subtle ones, such as coordinating eye and hand movements when drawing and sculpting;
2) communication and speech development. These include expressive speech and understanding; 3) social development and play - include relationships with adults and children, how the child plays, his interests, the ability to concentrate on these activities; 4) autonomy and independence - the ability to do without the help of adults during eating, dressing, using the toilet, as well as the ability to help adults, participate in group activities and carry out current assignments; 5) behavior. Sometimes included under heading 3 (social development) or 4 (independence), but this section is necessary to record the difficulties and problems of the child.
The structure of the development card is a list of points for each direction of development. If a skill or skill is formed, then an icon is put in the card, if the data is uncertain - “?”. There are no results at the end. This is a way to "photograph" a baby at some point in development in order to plan further measures for his upbringing, as well as for comparison with future "snapshots" of the same child.
Psychologists and speech therapists use the results of a child's development to compare with the average for children of a given age. Educators tend to compare later developmental outcomes with earlier ones. If a child has developmental deviations, they are usually expressed in a decrease in the rate of development. For such children, special development cards are needed, which indicate more detailed stages and steps that the child goes through before he learns certain skills. They are not always marked as milestones for healthy children.
When choosing a development card, you should not strive to find a perfect sample - one hardly exists. Precisely formulated points in the card are less important than systematic observation of the child. The regularity of observations is called by D. Lashley the "method of time samples" and means making observations over pre-marked time intervals. All entries relating to one "slice" must be entered on the card within one week. If this is not possible, follow-up should be postponed.
D. Lashley's method of observing "difficult" behavior. The author believes that in order to understand the problem of the child, one should conduct an observation and then conclude how serious it is. It is fairly easy to identify three main aspects of observation: 1) frequency - how often the problem occurs; 2) duration - how long the "difficult" behavior lasts in each case, or how long per day such behavior looks typical; 3) intensity - the problem is simple, fairly serious or very serious. Separately, it should be said about the frequency of observations. You can observe the child for several days, or you can simply count the number of manifestations of "difficult" behavior. Frequency calculation in relation to such behavior sometimes brings unexpected results. Adults may decide that the child is naughty most of the day, and after observation it turns out that there are long periods during the day, or even whole days, when the child is not at all "difficult".
Thus, on the basis of observation, it is possible to conduct both fundamental research in the field of child development and a huge number of applied research that helps to reveal and explain various phenomena of child development. Mastering the skills of psychological observation is very important for the teacher, as it allows him to better understand his pupils.
4.3.2. Theories of emotion
The problems of the origin and functional significance of emotions in the behavior of humans and animals are the subject of constant research and discussion. There are currently several biological theories of emotion.
The biological theory of Darwin. One of the first who singled out the regulatory role of emotions in the behavior of mammals was the outstanding naturalist Charles Darwin. His analysis of the emotional expressive movements of animals gave reason to consider these movements as a kind of manifestation of instinctive actions that play the role of biologically significant signals for representatives not only of their own, but also of other animal species. These emotional signals (fear, threat, joy) and the mimic and pantomimic movements accompanying them have an adaptive value. Many of them manifest themselves from the moment of birth and are defined as innate emotional reactions.
Each of us is familiar with facial expressions and pantomime accompanying emotional experiences. From the expression on a person’s face and the tension of his body, you can quite accurately determine what he is experiencing: fear, anger, joy, or other feelings.
So, Darwin was the first to draw attention to the special role in the manifestation of emotions played by the muscular system of the body and, first of all, those of its departments that are involved in the organization of body movements and facial expressions specific to most emotions. In addition, he pointed out the importance of feedback in the regulation of emotions, emphasizing that the intensification of emotions is associated with their free external expression. On the contrary, the suppression of all external signs of emotions weakens the power of emotional experience.
However, in addition to external manifestations of emotions, changes in heart rate, respiration, muscle tension, etc. are observed during emotional arousal. All this indicates that emotional experiences are closely related to vegetative changes in the body. It was these observations that provided the basis for the first widely known theory of emotions - the James-Lange theory.
James–Lange theory- one of the first theories that tried to link emotions and vegetative changes in the human body that accompany emotional experiences. It assumes that after perceiving the event that caused the emotion, a person experiences this emotion as a sensation of physiological changes in his own body, i.e. physical sensations are emotion itself. As James stated: “We are sad because we cry, we get angry. because we strike, we are afraid because we tremble.
The theory has been repeatedly criticized. First of all, it was noted that the very initial position is erroneous, according to which each emotion corresponds to its own set of physiological changes. It has been experimentally shown that the same physiological changes can accompany different emotional experiences. These shifts are too non-specific and therefore cannot by themselves determine the qualitative originality and specificity of emotional experiences. In addition, vegetative changes in the human body have a certain inertia, i.e. may proceed more slowly and not have time to follow the range of feelings that a person is sometimes able to experience almost simultaneously (for example, fear and anger or fear and joy).
Cannon's thalamic theory– Bard. This theory singled out one of the formations of the deep structures of the brain - the thalamus (visual tubercle) as the central link responsible for the experience of emotions. According to this theory, when perceiving events that cause emotions, nerve impulses first enter the thalamus, where the impulse flows are divided: some of them enter the cerebral cortex, where the subjective experience of emotion (fear, joy, etc.) arises. The other part enters the hypothalamus, which, as has been repeatedly said, is responsible for vegetative changes in the body. Thus, this theory singled out the subjective experience of emotion as an independent link and correlated it with the activity of the cerebral cortex.
Lindsley's activation theory. The activating reticular formation of the brainstem plays a central role in providing emotions in this theory. The activation resulting from the excitation of neurons of the reticular formation performs the main emotiogenic function. According to this theory, an emotiogenic stimulus excites brainstem neurons, which send impulses to the thalamus, hypothalamus, and cortex. Thus, a pronounced emotional reaction occurs with diffuse activation of the cortex with simultaneous activation of the hypothalamic centers of the diencephalon. The main condition for the appearance of emotional reactions is the presence of activating influences from the reticular formation with a weakening of cortical control over the limbic system. The putative activating mechanism converts these impulses into behavior accompanied by emotional arousal. This theory, of course, does not explain all the mechanisms of the physiological support of emotions, but it allows us to connect the concepts of activation and emotional excitation with some characteristic changes in the bioelectrical activity of the brain.
Biological theory of P.K. Anokhin, like Darwin's theory, it emphasizes the evolutionary adaptive nature of emotions, their regulatory function in ensuring the behavior and adaptation of the organism to the environment. According to this theory, in the behavior of living beings, two main stages can be conditionally distinguished, which, alternating, form the basis of life: the stage of formation of needs and the stage of their satisfaction. Each of the stages is accompanied by its own emotional experiences: the first is mostly negative, the second, on the contrary, is positive. Indeed, the satisfaction of a need is usually associated with a feeling of pleasure. An unmet need is always a source of discomfort. Thus, from a biological point of view, emotional sensations have become fixed as a kind of tool that keeps the process of adaptation of the organism to the environment within optimal limits and prevents the destructive nature of the lack or excess of any factors for its life.
So, the essence of P.K. Anokhin's theory is as follows: a positive emotional state (for example, the satisfaction of a need) arises only if the feedback from the results of the performed action exactly matches the expected result, i.e. action acceptor. Thus, a positive emotion associated with the satisfaction of a need reinforces the correctness of any behavioral act in the event that its result reaches the goal, i.e. benefits by providing accommodation. On the contrary, the discrepancy between the result obtained and the expectations immediately leads to anxiety (ie, to a negative emotion) and to a further search, which can ensure the achievement of the required result, and, therefore, to a full-fledged emotion of satisfaction. From Anokhin's point of view, in all emotions, from the gross lower to the higher socially conditioned, the same physiological architecture of the functional system is used.
Information theory of emotions by P.V.Simonov introduces the concept of information into the range of analyzed phenomena. Emotions are closely related to the information we receive from the world around us. Emotions usually arise from an unexpected event for which the person was not prepared. At the same time, emotion does not arise if we encounter a situation with a sufficient supply of the necessary information. Negative emotions most often arise due to unpleasant information, and especially when there is insufficient information, positive emotions arise when sufficient information is received, especially when it turned out to be better than expected.
From the point of view of the author of this theory, P.V. Simonov, emotion is a reflection by the human and animal brain of some actual need (its quality and magnitude), as well as the probability (possibility) of its satisfaction, which the brain evaluates on the basis of genetic and previously acquired individual experience. In the most general form, the rule for the emergence of emotions can be represented as a structural formula:
where E - emotion, its degree, quality and sign; P - the strength and quality of the actual need; (In - Is) - assessment of the probability (possibility) of satisfying a need based on innate and ontogenetic experience; In - information about the means that are predictively necessary to meet the need; Is - information about the means that the subject has at the moment.
From the "formula of emotions" it can be seen that a small probability of satisfying a need leads to the emergence of negative emotions. On the contrary, an increase in the probability of achieving the goal, i.e. satisfaction of the need compared to the previously available forecast, leads to the emergence of positive emotions.
This theory highlights the evaluative function of emotions, which is always the result of the interaction of two factors: demand (need) and supply (the ability to satisfy this need).
The theory of differential emotions. The central position of this theory is the idea of the existence of a certain number of basic emotions, each of which has its own motivational and phenomenological properties. Basic emotions (joy, fear, anger, etc.) lead to various internal experiences and various external manifestations and can interact with each other, weakening or strengthening one another.
Each emotion includes three interrelated components: 1) neural activity of the brain and peripheral nervous system (neurological component); 2) the activity of the striated muscles, which provides mimic and pantomimic expressiveness and feedback in the body/face-brain system (expressive component); 3) subjective emotional experience (subjective component). Each of the components has a certain autonomy and can exist independently of the others (Izard, 1980).
Unfortunately, the theory of differential emotions does not give a satisfactory explanation of how this or that emotion is actualized, what are the external and internal conditions for its awakening. In addition, the disadvantage of this theory is the fuzziness in the definition of the actual basic emotions. Their number ranges from four to ten. Evolutionary and cross-cultural data are used to highlight basic emotions. The presence of similar emotions in great apes and humans, as well as in people who grew up in different cultures, testifies in favor of the existence of a number of basic emotions. However, the ability of emotional processes to interact and form complex complexes of emotional response makes it difficult to clearly distinguish the fundamental basic emotions.
Neurocultural theory of emotions was developed by P. Ekman in the 70s of the XX century. As in the theory of differential emotions, its starting points are the idea of six basic (basic) emotions. According to this theory, the expressive manifestations of the main emotions (anger, fear, sadness, surprise, disgust, happiness,) are universal and practically insensitive to environmental factors. In other words, all people use the muscles of the face in almost the same way when experiencing basic emotions. Each of them is associated with a genetically determined program of facial muscle movement.
Nevertheless, the norms of social control accepted in society determine the rules for the manifestation of emotions. For example, the Japanese usually mask their negative emotional experiences by artfully demonstrating a positive attitude towards events. The so-called short-term facial expressions testify to the mechanism of social control of the manifestation of emotions. They are recorded during special filming and reflect the person's real attitude to the situation, alternating with socially normative facial expressions. The duration of such genuine expressive reactions is 300-500 ms. Thus, in a situation of social control, people are able to control facial expressions in accordance with accepted norms and traditions of education.
From all of the above, it follows that there is no single generally accepted physiological theory of emotions. Each of the theories allows us to understand only some aspects of the psychophysiological mechanisms of the functioning of the emotional-need sphere of a person, bringing to the fore the problems: adaptation to the environment (theories of Darwin, Anokhin), brain support and physiological indicators of emotional experiences (thalamic and activation theories, Ekman's theory), vegetative and homeostatic components of emotions (the James-Lange theory), the influence of awareness on emotional experiences (Simonov's theory), the specifics of basic emotions (the theory of differential emotions).
The variety of approaches that are not consistent with each other complicates the reconstruction of a holistic picture and indicates that the emergence of a single logically consistent theory of emotions is apparently a matter of the distant future.
Introduction
In 1970, Barry Comoner formulated the 4 laws of ecology:
- Everything is connected to Everything.
- You have to pay for everything.
- Everything has to go somewhere.
- Nature knows best.
For us, the first and fourth laws are of greatest interest. According to the first law “Everything is connected with Everything”, I don’t think that anyone will argue with this statement, since everything in our life has a cause and a certain effect, so to speak, a cause-and-effect relationship. And since emotions exist, it means that they are needed for something. In the course of evolution, nature got rid of those things, organs, abilities that were useless. In humans, the third eyelid and tail were reduced, the shape of the auricle changed, and in dolphins it completely disappeared, since it is not needed under water. If it remained (and its function is to capture and amplify the signal), then the dolphins would simply go deaf, since sound propagates very quickly in water and is already amplified in the environment itself. If emotions were not needed, they would disappear in the same way, but no, they exist and are being improved. Compare the expression of emotions in congenitally blind children and normal, healthy children; undoubtedly, the facial expressions of the blind will be very poor, since they cannot see and improve the manifestation of their emotions. And for comparison, dumb children, their facial expressions, are not only much richer than those of the blind, but also much richer than those of healthy ones, since for them this is the only opportunity to express themselves. What is this if not a compensatory reaction of the body in response to injury? This means that emotions are just as necessary for the body as sight, hearing or speech. Try to imagine communicating with a person who is completely devoid of emotions, it is very difficult to communicate with him, because with the help of intonations and emotions you can convey much more material than just with the help of words. Perceiving words that are not emotionally colored in any way, we can only guess whether we were able to catch the hidden meaning that our interlocutor puts into them.
The fourth law says: "Nature knows best." These two laws are closely intertwined with each other, and since nature has preserved emotions, then they are needed. And since they exist, then a person, being a curious creature, will, of course, explore and study them. This was done by many ordinary people, psychologists, philosophers, everyone was interested in understanding what it is and on what principle they operate, what causes them to arise. But, as they say, how many people, so many opinions, someone said that emotions are generated by organic reactions, someone emphasized external stimuli and stimuli, and someone said that emotions themselves generate themselves. In my work, I will try to highlight the views of various scientists on the problem of emotions. This area of psychology has been studied very little, so it cannot be said that some theory is correct and some is not. All of them are correct, but most of them consider emotions from one side, not paying attention to other aspects.
Biological theories of emotion
PC. Anokhin: "Biological theory of emotions"
Anokhin considers emotional states "as a natural fact of nature, as a product of evolution, as an adaptive factor in the life of the animal world." At the same time, he relies on the theory of evolution of Ch. Darwin. According to it, only useful devices are saved. Proceeding from this, emotional states, not only retained in the process of evolution, but also developed to a certain level, could not be preserved and fixed by heredity if they were at least a little harmful or useless for life. At the same time, Anokhin argues that the question boils down only to what, in fact, is the biological and physiological usefulness of emotions in the implementation of body functions. Anokhin, answering this question, argues that in the process of evolution, emotional sensations have become fixed as a kind of tool that keeps the process within its optimal boundaries. Thus, emotions prevent the destructive nature of the lack and excessive information about any factors in the life of the organism.
The essence of the biological theory is that it states that a positive emotional state of any need arises only if the information about the action taken reflects all the components of a positive result. This emotion consolidates the correctness and usefulness of both the action itself and the adaptive actions that were used to achieve the result ...
Duffy: "Emotions as Organic Excitation"
Duffy is based on the teachings of Wundt and Spencer, and believes that all human behavior can be explained using terms of a "single phenomenon" - organismic excitation. Duffy also argues that behavior can only change with respect to two vectors: directionality, intensity.
Orientation - the selectivity of the response, which is based on the expectations, goals and relationships of the organism with its environment (perceived stimuli emanating from the environment). Depending on the meaning of the situation (inciting, threatening), the individual can either obey it or avoid it.
Intensity is a consequence of the general excitability of the body, the mobilization of energy. Duffy's measure of intensity is "the amount of energy released from the body's tissues."
Duffy considers emotions as a point, or as a set of points on the excitation scale, therefore, in her theory, the discreteness of emotions can only be considered in the context of intensity ...
Lindsley: "Activation Theory of Emotions"
In his theory, Lindsley replaced the broad concept of organismic excitation, which was proposed by Duffy, with the concept of activation.
Activation - "neuronal excitation of the reticular formation of the brain stem with concomitant changes in the electroencephalographic parameters of the cortex."
Lindsley's interpretation of emotions assumes the existence of a previous emotional stimulus, which can be external conditional or internal unconditional. These stimuli generate impulses, which in turn activate the brainstem, further impulses are sent to the thalamus and to the cerebral cortex. A "hypothetical activating mechanism" transforms all these impulses into behavior that is characterized by "emotional arousal"...
Theory of emotions by W. James - G. Lange
According to this theory, the emergence of emotions is due to changes in the voluntary motor sphere or in the sphere of involuntary acts, which in turn are caused by external influences. The sensations associated with these changes are emotional experiences. According to James, organic changes are the root cause of emotions, that is, we are sad because we cry; we are afraid because we tremble; and we rejoice because we laugh. Being reflected in the human psyche through a feedback system, organic changes give rise to an emotional experience of the corresponding modality…
Psychoanalytic theories of emotion
Freud's theory deals predominantly with negative affects. This comes from the fact that affects are generated by a conflict between the unconscious (interest - attraction of the libido) and the preconscious (sanctions of the Super-Ego). This kind of affect enslaves the ego and can cause mental disorder.
Psychoanalytic theory of emotions - "The theory of emotions, which asserts the signifying character of emotional facts, must look for this meaning in consciousness itself. In other words, it is consciousness that makes itself consciousness, being excited by the need for an inner meaning."
Holt rejects the theory of instinctive drives. In his theory, he emphasizes the importance of external stimulation and perceptual-cognitive processes, but at the same time recognizes that the phenomena that are associated with the expression and experience of emotions are important. According to Holt, "despite the fact that sexual attraction, aggression, fear and other affective phenomena can be considered as biologically determined, innate ... reactions, they are activated only as a result of an individual's awareness of external pressure ... "...
Motivational Theory of Emotions by R.W. Leeper
He brings up for discussion the fact that "without resorting to a motivational criterion, we are not able to distinguish between those processes that we call emotions and a number of other processes that we do not attribute to emotions."
As an example, he considers the situation when you are driving a car with a person who is driving it extremely carelessly. At the same time, Leeper notes that you will not admire the landscape around you, but will focus on the road and try to figure out what you could do to make the car drive more carefully. Here, the influence of the emotion of fear for one's life on the activity of the whole organism is on the face. And it is this fact that served as the basis for the fact that Leeper considers emotional processes as motives.
The author believes that two types of motives can be distinguished. These are emotional and physiological motives. At the same time, Leeper emphasizes that physiological motives may depend on the internal state of the body (hunger, thirst), and may depend on external stimulation (pain from mechanical shock). And emotional motives depend on mental processes. The main difference between these types of motives, Leeper suggests, is that emotional motives are "processes that depend on signals ... resembling stimuli that cause perceptual or cognitive processes; these are processes that can be excited even by very light and weak external stimuli ...". And physiological motives are processes that depend either on special, specific chemical conditions inside the body, or on strong irritation from the outside ...
Cognitive theories of emotion
Arnold: Emotion as a function of cognitive processes
According to Arnold, emotions arise as a result of the impact of a sequence of events that are described in terms of perception and evaluation.
"The term "perception" Arnold interprets as "elementary understanding". In this case, "to perceive an object" means in a sense to "understand" it, regardless of how it affects the perceiver." An image of a perceived object is formed in the mind, and in order for this image to receive an emotional coloring, it must be evaluated, taking into account its influence on the perceiver. Based on this, we can conclude that Arnold understands emotion not as an assessment, but as an unconscious attraction to an object, or its rejection.
According to Arnold, evaluation occurs immediately after the direct perception of the object, it is an intuitive act that is not associated with reflection, evaluation acts as the final stage of the perceptual process and can only be presented separately reflexively...
Schechter: A two-factor theory of emotions
Schechter suggested that emotions arise on the basis of physiological arousal, but only in the presence of a cognitive assessment of the situation that caused the arousal. According to Schechter, the same physiological arousal can be interpreted both as joy and anger, depending on how the situation that caused the tension is perceived, since it is the assessment that can be made from memory and feeling that makes it possible to define tension as some kind of emotion...
Theory of emotions by J. Kelly
J. Kelly created the theory of personal constructs. He believed that "people perceive their world with the help of clear systems or models called constructs. Each person has a unique construct system (personality) that he uses to interpret life experience." he also described various types of personality constructs: anticipatory, constellatory, suggestive, comprehensive, particular, core, peripheral, rigid, and free. Kelly's goal was to create a more empirical approach to clinical psychology. Kelly also believed that his theory could be useful for understanding emotional states, mental health, as well as in therapeutic practice ...
L. Festinger: The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance
Leon Festinger formulated the theory of cognitive dissonance. He says that the occurrence of dissonance motivates the individual to reduce the degree of dissonance and, if possible, achieve consonance. In addition to this desire to reduce dissonance, the individual seeks to avoid situations and information that may lead to an increase in the degree of dissonance.
The author understands cognitive dissonance as a condition that leads to actions aimed at reducing it. Festinger says that dissonance can arise in situations where a person becomes an eyewitness to some unpredictable events or when he learns new information.
According to Festinger, positive emotions arise only when there is no cognitive dissonance between the outcome of the situation and how this outcome was presented in the mind of the individual, and negative or negative emotions arise when there is cognitive dissonance ...
Plutchik's adaptation theory of emotions
Plutchik views emotions as a means of adaptation. In the table below, we will look at the basic prototypes of adaptive behavior and the emotions that correspond to them.
Protypical adaptive complex Primary emotion
- Incorporation - absorption of food and water
- Rejection - rejection reaction, excretion, vomiting
- Destruction - Removing the Obstacle to Satisfy Anger
- Protection - initially against pain or the threat of pain Fear
- Reproductive Behavior - Responses Accompanying Sexual Behavior Joy
- Deprivation - the loss of an object that brings pleasure Grief
- Orientation - a reaction to contact with a new, unfamiliar object Fright
- Exploration - more or less erratic, voluntary activity aimed at exploring the environment Hope or curiosity
Plutchik defines emotion as a somatic reaction that is associated with a specific adaptive biological process that is common to all living organisms. He divides emotions into primary and secondary. By secondary emotions he means various combinations of primary emotions. In addition, primary emotions are limited in time and are formed under external influence, and each secondary corresponds to a certain physiological and expressive-behavioral complex. Plutchik believes that "the constant blocking of adequate motor responses in conflict or frustrating situations causes chronic muscle tension, which can serve as an indicator of poor adaptation ... "...
The theory of differential emotions K.E. Izard
The theory of differential emotions got its name due to the fact that the object of its study is private emotions, which are considered separately. The theory is based on 5 main theses:
- The main motivational system of a person is made up of ten basic emotions (further, which emotions are basic and why will be explained in more detail).
- Each emotion implies a specific way of experiencing.
- All fundamental emotions affect the cognitive sphere and behavior in general in different ways.
- Emotional processes interact with drives and influence them.
- In turn, drives influence the course of the emotional process.
Within the framework of the differential theory of emotions, the latter are considered not only as a motivational system of the body (as in the theory of Leaper), but also as basic personal processes that give meaning to human existence.
The differential theory of emotions defines emotions as complex processes that have neurophysiological, neuromuscular, and sensory-experiential aspects. The neurophysiological aspect is defined in terms of the activity of the central nervous system. It is assumed here that emotion is a function of the somatic nervous system. At the neuromuscular level, it manifests itself in the form of mimic activity. At the sensory level, emotion is represented by experience.
The criteria on the basis of which Izard determines basic emotions:
- Basic emotions have distinct and specific neural substrates.
- the basic emotion manifests itself with the help of an expressive and specific configuration of facial muscle movements (facial expressions).
- the basic emotion entails a distinct and specific experience that the person is aware of.
- basic emotions arose as a result of evolutionary biological processes.
- basic emotion has an organizing and motivating effect on a person, serves his adaptation.
- These criteria, according to the author, correspond to such emotions as joy, interest, surprise, sadness, anger, disgust, contempt, fear, shame, guilt.
Simonov's Information Theory of Emotions
Simonov says that his approach to the problem of studying emotions belongs to the Pavlovian direction of studying the higher nervous activity of the brain. He is of the opinion that "emotion is a reflection by the human and animal brain of some actual need (its quality and magnitude) and the probability (possibility) of its satisfaction, which the brain evaluates on the basis of genetic and previously acquired individual experience."
Simonov offers a formula in which he presents the rule for the emergence of emotions: E \u003d f [P, (In - Is), ...] ...
Emotions in the framework of the teachings of A.N. Leontief
"In its most general form, the function of emotions can be characterized as a plus or minus indication of the sanctioning of an activity that has been carried out, is being carried out, or is to be carried out." Emotions, according to Leontiev, are able to regulate activity in accordance with the expected results, but at the same time, he emphasizes that although emotions play a very important role in motivation, they are not motives themselves.
Leontiev refers to emotional processes affects, actually emotions, feelings. He separates them by duration in time. Following the logic of Leontiev, the shortest affects in time, they are accompanied by pronounced motor and vegetative manifestations, and the longest - feelings, moreover, they are supra-situational, objective and hierarchized.
If we turn to the issue of the emergence of emotions - there is no consensus (this was to be expected). The division of theories into groups was carried out taking into account what scientists considered the cause of emotions to be.
In the biological theories of emotions (the theories of Anokhin, Duffy, Lindsley, James, Lange), the source of occurrence lies in organic changes. Different authors call it differently, but it does not matter what it is called, since the meaning is the same.
In psychoanalytic theories, the cause of emotions is the clash of instinctive energy with the prohibitions and norms of the Super-Ego. This can be explained by the fact that the entire theory of psychoanalysis was built on the concept of two instincts (eros, tonatos), as well as on the three-component theory of personality structure (Id, Ego, Super-Ego).
Cognitive theories, in which the emergence of emotions is associated with the activity of the cogito, and emotion is presented as an assessment, in this Simonov's informational theory is similar to the cognitive theories of emotions, where emotion is an assessment of the situation, it seems to me that they could be combined under the general name of cognitive theories, but we will not do this due to the fact that the key word for cognitivists is assessment, and for Simonov - information.
The remaining theories: motivational, adaptive, respectively, consider emotions as motives for adapting to environmental conditions, while the mechanism of occurrence becomes clear
A separate place is occupied by the view of A.N. Leontiev on the same problem, since he considers emotions within the framework of his doctrine of activity, the mechanism of occurrence, automatically, is human activity. Moreover, he says that emotions are a "specific personal attitude", and the very concept of attitude includes the concept of activity, that is, without any kind of activity, relations and attitudes do not seem possible to us.
It seems to us that a full-fledged theory of emotions that would explain everything has not been created, all those numerous views that were presented in this work are based on the study of individual aspects of the phenomenon of emotion, but do not describe the phenomenon as a whole. Although they are called the big word "Theory", not all of them correspond to it ...