Scientists who made discoveries in anatomy. The history of the development of anatomy. Kyiv anatomical school
Galvani, Luigi
The Italian anatomist and physiologist Luigi Galvani, one of the founders of the theory of electricity, the founder of electrophysiology, was born in Bologna. In 1759 he graduated from the University of Bologna, where he studied first theology, and then medicine, physiology and anatomy; in 1762 he received the degree of doctor of medicine. He taught medicine at the University of Bologna, from where, shortly before his death, he was fired for refusing to take the oath of allegiance to the Cisalpine Republic, founded in 1797 by Napoleon Bonaparte.
The first works of Galvani are devoted to comparative anatomy. In 1771, he began experiments on animal electricity: he discovered and investigated the phenomenon of muscle contraction of a dissected frog under the influence of an electric current; observed the contraction of muscles when they were connected by metal to nerves or the spinal cord, drew attention to the fact that the muscle contracts when two different metals touch it simultaneously. Galvani explained these phenomena by the existence of "animal electricity", due to which the muscles are charged like a Leyden jar. The results of observations and the theory of "animal electricity" he outlined in 1791 in his work "Treatise on the forces of electricity in muscular movement" ("De Viribus Electricatitis in Motu Musculari Commentarius"). With new experiments (published in 1797), Galvani proved that the frog muscle contracts even without metal touching it - as a result of its direct connection with the nerve. Galvani's research was important for medical practice and the development of physiological experiment methods.
Galvani's experiments, which were correctly interpreted in the works, also contributed to the invention of a new current source - a galvanic cell. The phenomena themselves, discovered by Galvani, were called “galvanism” in textbooks and scientific articles for a long time. Electrophysiology, whose father can be considered Galvani, now occupies an important place in science and practice.
Reproduction of the first experience of Luigi Galvani. The essence of the first experience of Galvani is that when the neuromuscular apparatus comes into contact with bimetallic tweezers, muscle contraction is observed. CONCLUSION: Galvani's first experiment with metal indirectly proves the presence of living electricity when a neuromuscular preparation is irritated with bimetallic tweezers. For direct proof of "living electricity" a second experiment was carried out without metal. Reproduction of the second experiment of Galvani: We select the sciatic nerve, attach electrodes to it, turn on the stimulator. We observe the spread of nervous excitation towards the lower leg and towards the thigh. CONCLUSION: Galvani's second experiment directly proves the existence of "living electricity".
The task:
- Read the proposed text;
- Write out the names and surnames of scientists and figures who have made a significant contribution and influenced the development of anatomy as a science (name, years of life, contribution to science)
The development and formation of ideas about anatomy and physiology begin from ancient times.
Among the first known history of anatomists should be called Alkemon from Kratona, who lived in the 5th century. BC e. He was the first to dissect (dissect) the corpses of animals in order to study the structure of their bodies, and suggested that the sense organs are connected directly with the brain, and the perception of feelings depends on the brain.
Hippocrates(OK. 460 - approx. 370 BC BC) - one of the prominent scientists of medicine in ancient Greece. He attached paramount importance to the study of anatomy, embryology and physiology, considering them the basis of all medicine. He collected and systematized observations on the structure of the human body, described the bones of the skull roof and the joints of the bones with sutures, the structure of the vertebrae, ribs, internal organs, the organ of vision, muscles, and large vessels.
The outstanding natural scientists of their time were Plato (427-347 BC) and Aristotle (384-322 BC). Studying anatomy and embryology, Plato revealed that the brain of vertebrates develops in the anterior sections of the spinal cord. Aristotle, opening the corpses of animals, he described their internal organs, tendons, nerves, bones and cartilage. According to him, the main organ in the body is the heart. He named the largest blood vessel the aorta.
A great influence on the development of medical science and anatomy had Alexandria Medical School, which was created in the III century. BC e. Doctors of this school were allowed to dissect human corpses for scientific purposes. During this period, the names of two outstanding anatomists became known: Herophilus (born c. 300 BC) and Erasistratus (c. 300 - c. 240 BC). Herophilus described the membranes of the brain and the venous sinuses, the ventricles of the brain and the choroid plexuses, the optic nerve and the eyeball, the duodenum and mesenteric vessels, and the prostate. Erasistratus He described the liver, bile ducts, heart and its valves quite fully for his time; knew that blood from the lung enters the left atrium, then into the left ventricle of the heart, and from there through the arteries to the organs. The Alexandrian school of medicine also belongs to the discovery of a method of ligation of blood vessels in case of bleeding.
The most prominent scientist in various fields of medicine after Hippocrates was the Roman anatomist and physiologist Claudius Galen(c. 130 - c. 201). He first began to teach a course in human anatomy, accompanied by an autopsy of the corpses of animals, mainly monkeys. The autopsy of human corpses was prohibited at that time, as a result of which Galen, facts without proper reservations, transferred the structure of the animal body to humans. Possessing encyclopedic knowledge, he described 7 pairs (out of 12) of cranial nerves, connective tissue, muscle nerves, blood vessels of the liver, kidneys and other internal organs, periosteum, ligaments.
Important information was obtained by Galen about the structure of the brain. Galen considered it the center of sensitivity of the body and the cause of voluntary movements. In the book "On Parts of the Human Body" he expressed his anatomical views and considered the anatomical structure in close connection with the function.
A Tajik doctor and philosopher made a great contribution to the development of medical science Abu Ali Ibn Son, or Avicenna(c. 980-1037). He wrote the "Canon of Medicine", which systematized and supplemented information on anatomy and physiology, borrowed from the books of Aristotle and Galen. Avicenna's books were translated into Latin and reprinted more than 30 times.
Starting from the XVI-XVIII centuries. Universities are being opened in many countries, medical faculties are being established, and the foundations of scientific anatomy and physiology are being laid. An especially great contribution to the development of anatomy was made by the Italian scientist and artist of the Renaissance. Leonardo da Vinci(1452-1519). He dissected 30 corpses, made many drawings of bones, muscles, internal organs, providing them with written explanations. Leonardo da Vinci laid the foundation for plastic anatomy.
The founder of scientific anatomy is considered a professor at the University of Padua Andras Vesalius(1514-1564), who, on the basis of his own observations made during the autopsy, wrote a classic work in 7 books "On the structure of the human body" (Basel, 1543). In them, he systematized the skeleton, ligaments, muscles, blood vessels, nerves, internal organs, brain and sensory organs. Research Vesalius and the publication of his books contributed to the development of anatomy. In the future, his students and followers in the XVI-XVII centuries. made many discoveries, described in detail many human organs. The names of some organs of the human body are associated with the names of these scientists in anatomy: G. Fallopius (1523-1562) - fallopian tubes; B. Eustachius (1510-1574) - Eustachian tube; M. Malpighi (1628-1694) - Malpighian bodies in the spleen and kidneys.
Discoveries in anatomy served as the basis for deeper research in the field of physiology. The Spanish physician Miguel Servet (1511-1553), a student of Vesalius R. Colombo (1516-1559) suggested the passage of blood from the right half of the heart to the left through the pulmonary vessels. After numerous studies, the English scientist William Harvey(1578-1657) published the book Anatomical Study of the Movement of the Heart and Blood in Animals (1628), where he provided proof of the movement of blood through the vessels of the systemic circulation, and also noted the presence of small vessels (capillaries) between arteries and veins. These vessels were discovered later, in 1661, by M. Malpighi, the founder of microscopic anatomy.
In addition, W. Harvey introduced vivisection into the practice of scientific research, which made it possible to observe the work of animal organs using tissue cuts. The discovery of the doctrine of blood circulation is considered to be the date of foundation of animal physiology.
Simultaneously with the discovery of W. Harvey, a work was published Casparo Azelli(1591-1626), in which he made an anatomical description of the lymphatic vessels of the mesentery of the small intestine.
During the XVII-XVIII centuries. not only new discoveries in the field of anatomy appear, but a number of new disciplines begin to emerge: histology, embryology, and somewhat later - comparative and topographic anatomy, anthropology.
For the development of evolutionary morphology, the doctrine played an important role Ch. Darwin(1809-1882) on the influence of external factors on the development of forms and structures of organisms, as well as on the heredity of their offspring.
Cell theory T. Schwanna (1810-1882), evolutionary theory C. Darwin set a number of new tasks for anatomical science: not only to describe, but also to explain the structure of the human body, its features, to reveal the phylogenetic past in anatomical structures, to explain how its individual features developed in the process of historical development of man.
To the most significant achievements of the XVII-XVIII centuries. applies formulated by the French philosopher and physiologist Rene Descartes notion of "reflected activity of the organism". He introduced the concept of reflex into physiology. The discovery of Descartes served as the basis for the further development of physiology on a materialistic basis. Later, ideas about the nervous reflex, reflex arc, the importance of the nervous system in the relationship between the external environment and the body were developed in the works of the famous Czech anatomist and physiologist G. Prohasky(1748-1820). Achievements in physics and chemistry made it possible to apply more precise research methods in anatomy and physiology.
In the XVIII - XIX centuries especially significant contribution in the field of anatomy and physiology was made by a number of Russian scientists. M. V. Lomonosov(1711-1765) discovered the law of conservation of matter and energy, suggested the formation of heat in the body itself, formulated a three-component theory of color vision, and gave the first classification of taste sensations. Student of M. V. Lomonosov A. P. Protasov(1724-1796) - the author of many works on the study of human physique, structure and functions of the stomach.
Professor of Moscow University S. G. Zabelin(1735-1802) lectured on anatomy and published the book "A word about the additions of the human body and ways to protect them from diseases", where he expressed the idea of the common origin of animals and humans.
IN 1783 Ya. M. Ambodik-Maksimovich(1744-1812) published the Anatomical and Physiological Dictionary in Russian, Latin and French, and in 1788 A. M. Shumlyansky(1748-1795) in his book described the capsule of the renal glomerulus and the urinary tubules.
An important place in the development of anatomy belongs to E. O. Mukhina(1766-1850), who taught anatomy for many years, wrote the textbook "Course of Anatomy".
The founder of topographic anatomy is N. I. Pirogov(1810-1881). He developed an original method for studying the human body on cuts of frozen corpses. He is the author of such well-known books as "A Complete Course in Applied Anatomy of the Human Body" and "Topographic Anatomy Illustrated by Cuts Through the Frozen Human Body in Three Directions". Especially carefully N. I. Pirogov studied and described the fascia, their relationship with the blood vessels, attaching great practical importance to them. He summarized his research in the book Surgical Anatomy of Arterial Trunks and Fascia.
Functional anatomy was founded by an anatomist P. F. Les-gaft(1837-1909). His provisions on the possibility of changing the structure of the human body through the impact of physical exercises on the functions of the body are the basis of the theory and practice of physical education. .
P. F. Lesgaft was one of the first to use the method of radiography for anatomical studies, the experimental method on animals and the methods of mathematical analysis.
The works of famous Russian scientists K. F. Wolf, K. M. Baer and X. I. Pander were devoted to the issues of embryology.
IN 20th century successfully developed functional and experimental areas in anatomy such research scientists as V. N. Tonkov (1872-1954), B. A. Dolgo-Saburov (1890-1960), V. N. Shevkunenko (1872-1952), V. P. Vorobyov (1876-1937), D.A. Zhdanov (1908-1971) and others.
Formation of physiology as an independent science in the XX century. significantly contributed to the successes in the field of physics and chemistry, which gave researchers accurate methodological techniques that made it possible to characterize the physical and chemical essence of physiological processes.
I. M. Sechenov (1829-1905) entered the history of science as the first experimental researcher of a complex phenomenon in the field of nature - consciousness. In addition, he was the first who managed to study the gases dissolved in the blood, establish the relative effectiveness of the influence of various ions on the physicochemical processes in a living organism, and find out the phenomenon of summation in the central nervous system (CNS). I. M. Sechenov received the greatest fame after the discovery of the process of inhibition in the central nervous system. After the publication in 1863 of the work of I. M. Sechenov "Reflexes of the brain", the concept of mental activity was introduced into the physiological foundations. Thus, a new view was formed on the unity of the physical and mental foundations of man.
The development of physiology was greatly influenced by the work I. P. Pavlova(1849-1936). He created the doctrine of the higher nervous activity of man and animals. Investigating the regulation and self-regulation of blood circulation, he established the presence of special nerves, of which some increase, others delay, and others change the strength of heart contractions without changing their frequency. At the same time, IP Pavlov also studied the physiology of digestion. Having developed and put into practice a number of special surgical techniques, he created a new physiology of digestion. Studying the dynamics of digestion, he showed its ability to adapt to excitatory secretion when eating various foods. His book "Lectures on the work of the main digestive glands" became a guide for physiologists around the world. For work in the field of physiology of digestion in 1904, IP Pavlov was awarded the Nobel Prize. His discovery of the conditioned reflex made it possible to continue the study of the mental processes that underlie the behavior of animals and humans. The results of many years of research by IP Pavlov were the basis for the creation of the doctrine of higher nervous activity, in accordance with which it is carried out by the higher parts of the nervous system and regulates the relationship of the organism with the environment.
Physiology 20th century characterized by significant achievements in the field of disclosure of the activities of organs, systems, the body as a whole. A feature of modern physiology is a deep analytical approach to the study of membrane and cellular processes, the description of the biophysical aspects of excitation and inhibition. Knowledge of the quantitative relationships between various processes makes it possible to carry out their mathematical modeling, to find out certain violations in a living organism.
abstract
in the discipline "Anatomy"
The main modern ways of development of anatomy.
Kyiv anatomical school.
The value of scientific achievements for the development of human anatomy"
Performed:
1st year student
groups 11 f/l
Lapikova Marina
Yalta, 2012
Scientists who have contributed to the study of anatomy, physiology and medicine ………………………………………………………….2
The main modern ways of development of anatomy……………..7
Kyiv Anatomical School……………………………………11
The connection of anatomy and physiology with other sciences that study a person…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
The value for a person of knowledge about the structure and functions of his body…………………………………………………………..14
List of used literature……………………………..16
Scientists who have contributed to the study of anatomy, physiology and medicine
· Hippocrates(about 460 BC, island of Kos - 377 BC)
Ancient Greek physician, naturalist, philosopher, reformer of ancient medicine.
The works of Hippocrates, which became the basis for the further development of clinical medicine, reflect the idea of the integrity of the body; individual approach to the patient and his treatment; the concept of anamnesis; teachings about etiology, prognosis, temperaments.
· Aristotle(384 BC, Stagir - 322 BC)
- ancient Greek philosopher. Introduced the name "aorta". Aristotle noted the common features of the similarity between man and animal, laid the foundations for descriptive and comparative anatomy.
· Claudius Galen(129 or 131 - about 200)
- ancient physician. Described about 300 human muscles. He proved that not the heart, but the brain and spinal cord are "the center of movement, sensitivity and mental activity." He concluded that "without a nerve there is not a single part of the body, not a single movement called arbitrary, not a single feeling." Having cut the spinal cord across, Galen showed the disappearance of the sensitivity of all parts of the body lying below the cut. He proved that blood moves through the arteries, and not "pneuma", as previously thought.
He created about 400 works on philosophy, medicine and pharmacology, of which about a hundred have come down to us. He collected and classified information on medicine, pharmacy, anatomy, physiology and pharmacology, accumulated by ancient science.
Described the quadrigemina of the midbrain, seven pairs of cranial nerves, the vagus nerve; conducting experiments on transection of the spinal cord of pigs, he demonstrated a functional difference between the anterior (motor) and posterior (sensitive) roots of the spinal cord.
· Paracelsus(1499 - 1541)
Famous doctor. Medieval medicine, which was based on the theories of Aristotle, Galen and Avicenna, he opposed the "spagiric" medicine, created on the basis of the teachings of Hippocrates. He taught that living organisms consist of the same mercury, sulfur, salts and a number of other substances that form all other bodies of nature; when a person is healthy, these substances are in balance with each other; disease means the predominance or, conversely, the lack of one of them. He was one of the first to use chemical agents in the treatment.
Paracelsus is considered the forerunner of modern pharmacology, he owns the phrase: “Everything is poison, and nothing is devoid of poisonousness; one dose makes the poison invisible.
· Andreas Vesalius(1514 - 1654)
- Italian naturalist. Convinced that many of the anatomical texts of Galen, the famous Roman physician (c. 130–200 AD), were based on animal dissections and therefore did not reflect the specifics of human anatomy, Vesalius decided to undertake experimental studies of the human body. Studying the works of Galen and his views on the structure of the human body, Vesalius corrected over 200 errors of the canonized ancient author. The result was a treatise on the structure of the human body (De humani corporis fabrica, 1543).
· William Harvey(1578 - 1657)
- English physician, founder of physiology and embryology. Organized a public lecture in London. In this lecture, he first outlined his vision of the circulatory systems in the human body, as well as other warm-blooded animals, conducted a series of experiments and experiments that allowed him to make a number of observations. He calculated that the blood moves in a circle, or rather, in two circles: a small one through the lungs and a large one through the whole body.
· Luigi Galvani(1787 - 1796)
- Italian physician, anatomist, physiologist and physicist, one of the founders of electrophysiology. He was the first to investigate electrical phenomena during muscle contraction ("animal electricity").
· Louis Pasteur(1822 - 1895)
- French microbiologist and chemist. Pasteur, having shown the microbiological essence of fermentation and many human diseases, became one of the founders of microbiology and immunology.
· Pirogov Nikolay Ivanovich(1810 - 1881)
- Russian surgeon and anatomist, naturalist and teacher. The main significance of all Pirogov's activities lies in the fact that with his selfless and often disinterested work he turned surgery into a science, arming doctors with a scientifically based method of surgical intervention.
· Sechenov Ivan Mikhailovich(1829 -1905)
Outstanding Russian physiologist, scientist-encyclopedist, pathologist, histologist, toxicologist, psychologist, culturologist, anthropologist, naturalist, chemist, physical chemist, physicist, biochemist, evolutionist, instrument maker, military engineer, teacher, publicist, humanist, educator, philosopher and thinker - rationalist, founder of the physiological school
· Mechnikov Ilya Ilyich(1845 -1916)
- Russian and French biologist (zoologist, embryologist, immunologist, physiologist and pathologist). One of the founders of evolutionary embryology, the discoverer of phagocytosis and intracellular digestion, the creator of the comparative pathology of inflammation, the phagocytic theory of immunity, the founder of scientific gerontology. Winner of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1908).
· Palov Ivan Petrovich(1849 - 1936)
- one of the most authoritative scientists in Russia, physiologist, psychologist, creator of the science of higher nervous activity and ideas about the processes of digestion regulation; founder of the largest Russian physiological school; recipient of the Nobel Prize in Medicine and Physiology in 1904 "for his work on the physiology of digestion".
· Botkin Sergey Petrovich(1832 - 1889)
Russian therapist and public figure, created the doctrine of the body as a single whole, subject to the will.
· Ukhtomsky Alexey Alekseevich(1875 - 1942)
- Russian and Soviet physiologist. The main discovery of Ukhtomsky is considered to be the principle of dominant developed by him - a theory capable of explaining some fundamental aspects of human behavior and mental processes. The principle of dominance is described by him in the work "Dominant as a working principle of nerve centers" and in other scientific works. This principle was the development of the ideas of N. E. Vvedensky.
· Burdenko Nikolai Nilovich(1876 - 1946)
- Russian and Soviet surgeon, healthcare organizer, founder of Russian neurosurgery. Nikolai Burdenko created a school of experimental surgeons, developed methods for treating oncology of the central and autonomic nervous system, pathology of liquor circulation, cerebral circulation, etc. He performed operations to treat brain tumors, which before Burdenko were few in the world. For the first time, he developed simpler and more original methods for performing these operations, making them widespread, developed operations on the hard shell of the spinal cord, and transplanted sections of nerves. He developed a bulbotomy - an operation in the upper spinal cord to cut the nerve pathways overexcited as a result of a brain injury.
18. Medicine of the Renaissance (iatorophysics and iatromechanics, Descartes, Borelli, Santorio).
Renaissance - the spiritual renewal of antiquity, means rebirth. This era in history was marked by a revival of interest in the sciences and in the world around us. The center of the revival is Southern Italy.
In the first place were natural Sciences, it was they who became the foundation of an attempt to explain life. The culture of the Renaissance, putting man in the center of attention, in the field of medicine began with study his body.
Rene Descartes(1596-1650). Western European rationalism originates in the philosophy of the French scientist Rene Descartes. The main feature of Descartes' philosophical outlook is the dualism of soul and body, "thinking substance" and material ("extended") substance.
R. Descartes was one of the creators iatrophysics(Greek iatrophysike; from iatros - doctor and physi "- nature) - a direction in natural science and medicine that considered the vital activity of all living things from the standpoint of physics. Iatrophysics studied the phenomena of nature at rest and reflected the metaphysical direction in the philosophy of the 17th-18th centuries. Compared with medieval scholasticism, the metaphysical thinking of the 17th century. was progressive.
Man, according to Descartes, is a being in which a mechanical body is connected with an immaterial soul. There is an interaction between body and soul that takes place in the pineal gland. The human body is an automaton, its driving force is heat, the focus of which Descartes considered the heart, the source of heat is the processes of “burning without a flame” occurring in the body.
He gave a purely mathematical interpretation of the processes of blood circulation and digestion. He was the first to formulate the reflex principle of the main manifestations of vital activity. These principles influenced representatives of the iatrophysical (iatromechanical) direction in medicine.
From the position iatromechanics a living organism is like a machine in which all processes can be explained with the help of mathematics and mechanics. The main provisions of iatromechanics are set out in the essay "On the Movement of Animals" by the Italian anatomist and physiologist Giovanni Alfons Borelli(Borelli, Giovanni Alfonso, 1608-1679), one of the founders of biomechanics. He was the first to determine the center of gravity of the human body; showed that with the joint action of bones and muscles, the bones act as levers, and the muscles act as driving forces. He considered all the processes of the body's vital activity purely mechanically (vessels, pipes, etc.). He was one of the first to describe typhoid fever, defining it as an inflammation of the intestines due to the use of bad drinking water.
Among the outstanding achievements of the Renaissance is the invention at the end of the 16th century. thermometer. FROM. Santorio(Santorio, S.. 1561-1636) - a physician, anatomist and physiologist, created his own device, with which he measured the heat of the human body. Santorio's device consisted of a ball and a long winding tube with divisions arbitrarily applied to all; the free end of the tube was filled with a colored liquid. The subject took the ball in his mouth or warmed it with his hands. The heat of the human body was determined during ten pulse beats by changing the level of the liquid in the tube. Santorio's instrument was rather bulky; it was installed in the courtyard of his house for public viewing and testing.
Santorio also designed an experimental scale chamber to study the quantitative assessment of food digestibility (metabolism) by systematically weighing himself, food and body secretions. The results of his observations are summarized in the work "On Medicine of Balance" (1614)
19. Renaissance medicine (anatomy by A. Vesalius, physiology by W. Harvey). Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) Studied at three universities - in Lowen (Flanders) on the course of the humanities, in Montpellier and Paris, where he studied medicine. In 1537, at the age of 23, he received a doctorate in medicine in Padua and soon, at the invitation of the Venetian Republic, became a professor at the University of Padua, the foremost scientific center of that time. The founder of scientific normal anatomy He indicated a number of Galen's mistakes - regarding the structure of the arm, pelvic girdle, sternum, etc., but above all - the heart. In 1543, Vesalius published his fundamental work on anatomy "On the structure of the human body" (De humani corporis fabrica ”), who presented the first open speech against Galen Vesalius enriched science with his own reliable data obtained as a result of numerous autopsies of the human body, corrected a large number of mistakes of his predecessors and, most importantly, for the first time brought all this knowledge into a system, that is, made science out of anatomy. Vesalius was an innovator in the study and teaching of anatomy. He accompanied his lectures with demonstrations not only of the corpse, but also of the skeleton and the sitter. In the illustrations of his works, the corpse is not depicted lying down, motionless, but dynamic everywhere, in working positions, with tools, moreover, in a joyful nature, which is very characteristic of the Renaissance William Harvey (1578-1657) Harvey had predecessors - the ancient Chinese, Ibn -en-Nafis, Miguel Servet and others, but none of them gave a picture of the blood circulation as a whole and its scientific explanation. Harvey published his book "On the movement of the heart and blood in animals" ("De motu corclis et sanquimis in animaiiclus") in 1628 year after many years of work It was with William Harvey that scientific normal physiology began. Harvey was the first to apply the method of calculation to the study of the process in the body. He proved that: the mass of blood contained in the body must return back to the heart and cannot be formed in the liver and absorbed in the tissues; pulsation of the arteries is a consequence of the contraction of the heart. Harvey's main merit is the successful application of a new method: experiment and mathematical justification. And before him, blood circulation was described, but only Harvey was the first to experimentally prove its existence. Harvey, studying blood circulation, embarked on the path of research and was (together with Fallopio and Malpighi and others) one of the founders of embryology. In the treatise "On the Birth of Animals" Harvey objected to the primitive, preserved from ancient times, ideas about the spontaneous generation of animals from silt, mud, etc.
20. Medicine of the Renaissance (surgery A. Pare) In the Middle Ages, doctors were divided into two groups: 1) doctors (internal diseases) 2) surgeons (they had no scientific education, they were not considered doctors and were not allowed into the class of doctors - artisans). In Paris, surgeons united in the Brotherhood of St. Cosima", and the doctors were part of the medical corporation at the University of Paris and very zealously guarded their rights and interests. Doctors are theory without practice, surgeons were practitioners. Gradation of surgeons: 1) long-sex (the most complex operations) 2) short-sex (small surgery: dentistry, etc.) 3) bath attendants (simple manipulations) Official medicine stubbornly resisted the recognition of the equality of surgeons: they were forbidden to cross the boundaries of their craft, to perform medical manipulations (for example, giving enemas) and writing prescriptions. Surgeons were not allowed in universities. The training of surgery took place within the workshop (corporation), at first on the principles of apprenticeship. Then surgical schools began to open. 1731 - the first Surgical Academy was opened. In 1743 it was equated with the Faculty of Medicine. At the end of the XVIII century. it was surgical schools that became the basis on which higher medical schools of a new type were created. Thus ended the struggle of surgeons and doctors. Surgery in Western Europe did not have scientific methods of anesthesia until the middle of the 19th century. With the advent of firearms in Europe in the XV century. the nature of the wounds has changed a lot: general complications have become more frequent. All this began to be associated with the penetration of the wounded "powder poison" into the body.
Johannes de Vigo. "The best way to treat gunshot wounds is to destroy the remnants of gunpowder in the wound by cauterizing the wound surface with a hot iron or a boiling composition of resinous substances (to avoid the spread of "powder poison" throughout the body). In the absence of anesthesia, such a cruel method of treating wounds caused much more torment than the wound itself" Ambroise Pare (1517-1590) Proposed a number of complex orthopedic devices - artificial limbs, joints with a system of gears First described a fracture of the femoral neck Significantly improved the amputation technique but forgotten in the Middle Ages Applied - ligation of blood vessels The activities of Ambroise Pare largely determined the formation of surgery as a science and contributed to the transformation of an artisan surgeon into a full-fledged medical specialist. Renaissance surgery made significant progress. The treatment of gunshot wounds and bleeding has changed dramatically. In the absence of anesthesia and antiseptics, medieval surgeons bravely carried out craniotomy and lithotomy, resorted to radical treatment of hernias, and revived eye and plastic surgery operations that required jewelry skill. The transformation of surgery associated with the name of Ambroise Pare was continued by his numerous followers and successors.
21. Modern medicine: preventive medicine of the 18th century. B. Ramazzini, E. Jenner In England, interest in disease prevention has increased. In July 1794, a bill was created for medical care in the countryside. It determined the number of physicians (the so-called surgeons, in fact, paramedics) in rural areas, the order of their appointment, the content of "pharmacy boxes" completed in the center and sent to villages, etc. 17-18 centuries. - the time of the creation of a new natural science, the period of the formation of scientific physiology, clinical and preventive medicine. The outstanding achievements of the natural sciences and medical thought of modern times served as the foundation for the development of medicine in the 19th and 20th centuries. The beginnings of practical activity in the field of hygiene and sanitation go back to ancient times. The emergence of the scientific foundations of hygiene is associated with the name of Bernardo Ramazzini (1633-1714). Bernardo Ramazzini (1633-1714) Italian physician, founder of occupational health and occupational pathology as a branch of medicine. Honey. Educated in Modena and Parma (1659), improved in Roman hospitals under the leadership of Rossi, engaged in medical practice. From 1682 he headed the department of theoretical medicine (pathology) at the Modena University; from 1700 head. department of practical (clinical) medicine and at the same time the rector of un-that in Padua. Ramazzini analyzed the causes of the penetration of diseases, suggested possible methods for their treatment and prevention, and demanded improvement in the working conditions of manufacturing workers. He speaks for the first time about chronic intoxication as a hazard, the impact of which affects health gradually, about conducting a preliminary examination before hiring: are there any contraindications? He speaks of the need to wash at least on holidays! Ramazzini described some anatomical defects that appear as a result of professional activity (“the shoemaker’s chest”, visual impairment during small work, etc.). Ramazzini described the occupational pathology of a physician in his time; here he included melancholy, indigestion and dysentery
Edward Jenner (1749-1823), English physician, founder of smallpox vaccination. He studied medicine in London under the guidance of J. Gunther. Since 1773 he was engaged in independent medical practice in Gloucestershire. Confirmed the opinion that people who had cowpox did not get smallpox by inoculating an eight-year-old boy, James Phipps, with the contents of a pustule from the hand of a peasant woman, Sarah Nelma, who had contracted cowpox. A month and a half later, E. Jenner introduced the contents of the pustule of a smallpox patient to James - the boy did not get sick. A second attempt to infect the boy with smallpox five months later also did not give any results - James Phipps was immune to this disease. In 1798, Jenner summarized the results of his work in the article "Investigation of the causes and effects of cowpox" and introduced vaccination in the English army and navy. In 1803, the Royal Jenner Society was organized, the purpose of which was the widespread introduction of vaccination in England. Only in the first year and a half of its activity, 12 thousand people were vaccinated, and the death rate from smallpox decreased by more than three times. In 1808, smallpox vaccination became a state event in England. Centuries before Jenner's discovery, the ancient East used the method of inoculation (variaolation): the contents of the pustules of a patient with moderate smallpox were rubbed into the skin of the forearm of a healthy person, who, as a rule, fell ill with a mild form of smallpox, although deaths were also observed. In the XVIII century. Mary Wortley Montagu, the wife of the British ambassador to Turkey, transferred the method of inoculation from the East to England. Jenner's discovery was a turning point in the history of smallpox control. The first vaccination against smallpox in Russia according to his method was made in 1802 by Professor E. O. Mukhin to the boy Anton Petrov. It took almost 200 years for mankind to go from the discovery of Jenner to the discovery of the smallpox virus (E. Paschen, 1906) and achieve the complete elimination of this dangerous infectious disease throughout the globe. The smallpox eradication program was proposed by the USSR delegation at the 11th WHO Assembly in 1958 and implemented by the joint efforts of all countries of the world.
22+ 24 Modern Medicine: General Pathology (Pathological Anatomy and Physiology)
pathological physiology - a branch of medicine that studies the patterns of occurrence, development and outcome of pathological processes; features and nature of changes in physiological functions in various pathological conditions of the body.
Origin stories
In 1542, the French physician Jean-Francois Fernel in his work convincingly showed that a number of completely new patterns were revealed in the onset of the disease and in its further development, which, however, did not obey the vital activity of a healthy organism. In this regard, the author singled out such a field of medicine that studied the features of the vital activity of a “sick” organism. The author called this area "pathology".
In 1791, the work of A.F. Gekker “Fundamentals of Pathological Physiology” was published, with the release of which this area of medicine has undergone significant changes.
As an independent branch of science in Russia, pathological physiology took shape in the 19th century. The founders of pathological physiology in Russia are A. I. Polunin, A. B. FochtiV. V. Pashutin.
pathological anatomy - a science that studies the structural foundations of pathological processes - stood out from anatomy in the middle of the 18th century.
Its development in modern history is conditionally divided into two periods:
macroscopic
microscopic (associated with the use of a microscope)
-one. Compiled a collection of anatomical drawings
2. Carried out autopsies
3. Conducted research on the comparative anatomy of human organs and the human fetus
4. First described the thoracic duct, kidneys, larynx, hearing organ, including the auditory tube
-five. Refuted more than 200 mistakes of K. Galen
-6. Conducted Europe's first forensic autopsy
Determine the contribution of the Italian anatomist and physician G. Fallopia to the development of scientific anatomy
-2. Founded the Department of Pathological Anatomy at the University of Padua
3. Described the sphenoid sinuses, the tympanic string in the middle ear, the canal of the facial nerve
4. Described the structure and functions of the fallopian tubes
5. Introduced a mirror for diagnosing ear diseases into medical practice
6. Gave names to hard and soft palate, placenta, vagina
Determine the contribution of the French anatomist Ch. Etienne to the development of scientific anatomy
1. Examined the seminal vesicles
-2. Collection of over 250 anatomical drawings
-3. Founded the Department of Anatomy and Physiology at the University of Paris
4. Opened the subarachnoid space and studied the sympathetic trunk, proving its independence from the vagus nerve
-five. Published a guide to new anatomical instruments
6. Described venous valves
Determine the contribution of the Dutch anatomist and physiologist R. de Graaf to the development of scientific anatomy and medicine
1. Described the seminiferous tubules as "semen-producing vessels"
2. He proposed to call the female sex glands the ovaries
-3. Introduced the stethoscope into medicine
4. Established that the ovaries contain vesicles ("Graaffian vesicles")
5. Introduced the syringe and cannula into practice
6. Studied the chemistry of digestion and the action of pancreatic juice
Determine the contribution of the English anatomist and physiologist F. Glisson to the development of scientific anatomy
1. Introduced the concept of "irritability"
-2. Compiled the first anatomical atlas in Europe
3. First described the capsule covering the liver
-4. Refuted more than 200 errors
5. Proposed an apparatus for stretching the spine
6. Described the disease rickets
Determine the contribution of the English physician and anatomist N. Gaimor to the development of scientific anatomy
1. Described the maxillary sinus
2. Described the anatomical structure of the testicles
-3. Refuted more than 200 errors
-4. Introduced the stethoscope into medicine
-five. Developed a model of obstetric forceps
-6. Described the anatomy of the cerebral cortex
Name a Renaissance doctor who proposed a burning candle as a symbol of medicine and the motto "Shining to others, I burn"
-one. L. da Vinci
2. N. Tulp
-3. A. Vesalius
-4. L. Pasteur
-five. T. Paracelsus
-6. F. Haaz
The main achievement of the English physician, physiologist and embryologist W. Harvey
-one. Developed a smallpox vaccine
2. Calculated and experimentally substantiated the theory of blood circulation ...
-3. Invented the thermoscope
-4. Discovered penicillin
-five. Founder of neurology
-6. Introduced the stethoscope into medicine
Name the scientist who in his theological book "The Restoration of Christianity" for the first time in Europe described the pulmonary circulation
-one. A. Vesalius
2. M.Servet
-3. N. Pirogov
-4. I. Semmelweis
-five. A. Pare
-6. I.Sechenov
Determine the contribution of the Spanish philosopher-theologian and physician M. Servet to the development of medicine and physiology
-one. Calculated and experimentally substantiated the theory of blood circulation
-2. Created the doctrine of higher nervous activity
-3. For the first time in Europe described reflexes
-4. For the first time in Europe, he described the mechanism of the gastrointestinal tract
5. For the first time in Europe, he described the pulmonary circulation
-6. Compiled the first anatomical tables
Determine the contribution of the Italian doctor M. Malpighi to the development of medicine
1. Opened the capillaries
-2. Suggested thermoscope
3. The first anatomist to use a microscope
4. One of the founders of histology and embryology
5. Described the cells of the cerebral cortex
6. Described the innervation of the tongue, skin layers, renal glomeruli, lymph nodes
Which statement correctly characterizes iatrochemistry?
1. Iatrochemistry is an intermediate stage in the development of chemical science in the Renaissance, a person was considered as a set of chemical processes
-2. The founder of iatrochemistry is Galen. His treatment system was based on the use of complex chemical compounds.
3. The founder of iatrochemistry is Paracelsus. His treatment system was based on three elements: sulfur, mercury and antimony, and their compounds.
4. The main goal of chemistry is the study of chemical processes in the human body and the search for effective medicines.
-five. The founder of iatrochemistry is Avicenna. His system was based on the gradual increase in the dose of poisons in order to develop the body's resistance.
-6. The founder of iatrochemistry is Hippocrates. His system was based on the use of chemical elements for treatment in accordance with 4 temperaments.
How did the Swiss scientist T. Paracelsus determine the purpose of chemistry?
-one. Chemistry should direct its efforts to the search for gold
2. Chemistry creates cures for diseases
-3. Chemistry is designed to obtain the Philosopher's Stone
4. Chemistry should study the processes in the human body
-five. Chemistry must first create new poisons
-6. Chemistry should not be used in medicine
Determine the contribution of the Swiss scientist T. Paracelsus to the development of medicine and pharmacy
1. One of the founders of iatrochemistry
-2. Founder of military field surgery and traumatology
3. Introduced the concept of "herbal preparations" into pharmaceutical terminology
4. Combined an experimental method of understanding nature and the desire for magic and understanding the impact of celestial bodies on the fate of people and their health
5. Doctor-theorist and practitioner, founder of the experimental method in medicine
-6. Developed scholastic medicine
-one. L. da Vinci
-2. N.Tulp
-3. A. Vesalius
-4. L. Pasteur
5. T. Paracelsus
-6. R. Laennec
What, according to the Swiss scientist T. Paracelsus, makes a substance a poison or a medicine?
-one. The degree of cleanliness of the pharmacist's hands
-3. utensils in which medicines are made and stored
-4. Mortar and pestle shape
-five. Chemical incompatibility of components
-6. The chemical composition of dishes and tools
Who, according to the Swiss scientist T. Paracelsus, should not be a doctor?
-one. Cynic, lyricist
2. Torturer, executioner, servant of the executioner
-3. Christian
-4. Vicar of God
-five. Ascetic
-6. Philosopher
Determine the contribution of the German physician and chemist G. Agricola to the development of medicine, pharmacy and chemistry
-one. Describe infectious diseases
2. Information on metallurgical chemistry, chemistry of minerals
3. Proposed measures to prevent occupational diseases
4. Work "On mining and metallurgy"
5. Contributed to the development of analytical chemistry
-6. Founder of neurosurgery
What infectious diseases prevailed in Europe during the Renaissance?
1. Smallpox
-2. Rabies
3. Syphilis
-4. chronic fatigue syndrome
-6. Chlamydia
183. In the Renaissance, scientists believed that the causes of epidemics are ...
1. Earthquakes
2. Miasma
3. Special position of the stars
-4. Viruses, bacteria
-five. Will of the gods and evil demons
-6. Non-sterile instruments
Who formulated the first scientifically substantiated concept of the spread of infectious diseases - the "doctrine of contagion"?
-one. A. Vesalius
-2. L. Pasteur
3. J. Fracastoro
-4. L. da Vinci
-6. D. Samoylovich
Determine the contribution of the Italian doctor, astronomer, philosopher, physicist, poet, G. Fracastoro to the development of medicine
-one. Received the rabies vaccine
2. The doctrine of contagion (on the spread of infectious diseases)
3. Work "On contagion, contagious diseases and treatment"
4. Introduced the term "infection", which meant "introduction", "penetration", "damage"
5. The poem "Syphilis, or the French disease"
-6. Discovered viruses
Name the doctor who suggested the name "infectious diseases"
-one. J. Fracastoro
2. K. Hufeland
-4. L. Pasteur
-five. A. Vesalius
-6. A. Yersen
Who is the founder of "humane surgery"?
-one. N. Sklifosovsky
-2. A. Vesalius
-4. N. Pirogov
-five. D. Larrey