External form of thinking. Forms and types of thinking. Let's give a brief description of each type of thinking.

There are three main forms of thinking: concept, judgment and inference.
Concept. A concept is a form of thinking that reflects the general and, moreover, essential properties of objects of phenomena.
Each object, each phenomenon has many different properties, signs. These properties, features can be divided into two categories - essential and non-essential. For example, each individual triangle has three angles, certain dimensions - the length of the sides and area, a certain amount of angles, a shape. But only the first sign makes the figure a triangle, allows you to distinguish it from other shapes: a rectangle, a circle, a trapezoid. Other signs distinguish one triangle from another; when they change, the triangle will not cease to be a triangle. Equally, each individual tree also has such features that make it possible to distinguish it from a shrub, grass (i.e., essential features), for example, the presence of a trunk, and those that distinguish one tree from another, such as age, number of branches, preservation of the bark, the presence of a hollow, etc.
The concept contains only properties that are common and essential for a number of homogeneous objects: for the concept of "schoolchild" a common and essential property is schooling (but not age, nationality, eye color or hair color); for the concept of "thermometer" - that it is a device for measuring ambient temperature (and not its shape, dimensions, etc.).
The concept exists in the form of the meaning of the word, denoted by the word. Each word generalizes (except, of course, words denoting proper names). In concepts, our knowledge about objects and phenomena of reality crystallizes in a generalized and abstract form. In this regard, the concept differs significantly from the perception and representation of memory: perception and representation are concrete, figurative, visual; the concept has a generalized, abstract, not visual character.
Representation is an image of a particular object. A concept is an abstract thought about a class of objects.
Perception and representation are always a reflection of the concrete, the individual. None of us has ever seen and cannot see a book in general, a tree in general, a dog in general, even a person in general, since it is impossible to imagine an object absolutely devoid of any individual features. And you can think about it.
The concept is a more developed and comprehensive form of cognition; it reflects reality much broader and more fully than representation. A vivid illustration of this position is given by V. I. Lenin, when he says that it is impossible to visualize the movement at a speed of 300 thousand kilometers per second (the speed of light), but it is possible to think of such movement.
In the process of socio-historical development of knowledge, the content of the concept expands, deepens and changes. Thus, the concept of "atom" used to have one content, with the development of science and technology, the content of this concept has changed, expanded, deepened.
Judgment. Judgments reflect the connections and relationships between objects and phenomena of the surrounding world and their properties and features. A judgment is a form of thinking that contains the assertion or denial of a position regarding objects, phenomena or their properties.
Examples of an affirmative judgment would be such judgments as "The student knows the lesson" or "The psyche is a function of the brain." Negative judgments include such judgments in which the absence of certain features of the object is noted. For example: "This word is not a verb" or "This river is not navigable."
Judgments are general, particular and singular. In general judgments, something is affirmed or denied about all objects and phenomena united by the concept, for example: "All metals conduct electricity." In a private judgment, we are talking only about a part of objects and phenomena united by a concept, for example: "Some schoolchildren can play chess." A singular judgment is a judgment in which the speech is about some individual concept, for example: “Moscow is the capital of the USSR”, “Pushkin is a great Russian poet”.
Judgment reveals the content of concepts. Therefore, in order to express this or that judgment, a person must know the content of the concepts that make up the judgment. If a person expresses the judgment that "the psyche is a function of the brain", he must have the corresponding concepts about the psyche and about the brain. To know “any object or phenomenon means to be able to express a correct and meaningful judgment about it, that is, to be able to judge it. The truth of judgments is verified by human social practice.
Inference. Inference is a form of thinking in which a person, comparing and analyzing various judgments, derives a new judgment from them. A typical example of inference is the proof of geometric theorems.
A person uses mainly two types of reasoning - inductive and deductive.
Induction is a way of reasoning from particular judgments to a general judgment, the establishment of general laws and rules based on the study of individual facts and phenomena.
Deduction is a way of reasoning from a general judgment to a particular judgment, the knowledge of individual facts and phenomena on the basis of the building of general laws and rules.
Induction begins with the accumulation of knowledge about the largest possible number of homogeneous objects and phenomena in something, which makes it possible to find similar and different things in objects and phenomena and omit the insignificant and secondary. Summarizing similar features of these objects and phenomena, they make a general conclusion or conclusion, establish a general rule or law. For example, when mastering the concept of “pets”, students establish that a cow is useful, a horse is useful, a sheep, a pig are also useful. Then, on the basis of this, the students build a generalizing conclusion: "All pets are useful." Deductive reasoning gives a person knowledge about the specific properties and qualities of an individual object based on knowledge of general laws and rules. For example, knowing that all bodies expand when heated, a person can foresee that railway rails will also expand on a hot summer day, and therefore, when laying a railway track, builders leave a certain gap between the rails.
In addition to psychology, human thinking is studied by another science - logic. It studies the rules for constructing correct inferences, correct (i.e., leading to correct conclusions) reasoning. Therefore, logical thinking is called justified, evidence-based thinking, which, being based on correct initial judgments, necessarily leads to correct, objective conclusions.
Solving mental problems. The thinking of a person, and in particular a schoolchild, is most clearly manifested in solving problems.
Any mental activity begins with a question that a person poses to himself, without having a ready answer to it. Sometimes this question is posed by other people (for example, a teacher), but always the act of thinking begins with the formulation of a question that needs to be answered, a problem that needs to be solved, with the realization of something unknown that needs to be understood, clarified. Does the doctor set himself the task of determining what disease the patient has; whether the mechanic asks himself to find out the cause of the malfunction of the mechanism; Whether the teacher gives the student a problem to solve - always thinking is determined by the need to find something, as yet unknown.
The teacher must keep in mind that the student sometimes does not realize the problem, the question, even when the corresponding task is set before him by the teacher. There are cases when a student said in bewilderment: “The teacher drew two identical triangles on the blackboard and the whole lesson proved that they are equal. I do not understand why". The question, the problem must be clearly understood, otherwise the student will have nothing to think about.
The solution of a mental problem begins with a thorough analysis of the data, an understanding of what is given, what a person has. These data are compared with each other and with the question, correlate with the previous knowledge and experience of the person. A person tries to draw on principles that have been successfully applied earlier in solving a problem similar to a new one. On this basis, a hypothesis (assumption) arises, a mode of action is outlined; solution path. Practical verification of the hypothesis, verification of the solution path can show the fallacy of the intended actions. Then they look for a new hypothesis, a different mode of action, and here it is important to carefully understand the reasons for the previous failure, to draw appropriate conclusions from it.
When looking for a solution, it is important to rethink (reformulate) the initial data of the problem, to try to visualize the situation of the problem, to rely on visual images. The latter is very important not only for the younger ones. schoolchildren, whose thinking generally needs to be based on visual representations, but also for teenage schoolchildren. Try to give a student of grades IV-V a task: “A train passes a telegraph pole in 15 seconds, and a bridge 540 m long in 45 seconds. What is the length of the train and its speed? Students will not solve this problem if they do not visualize the situation. The train passes the telegraph pole in 15 seconds, which means that in 15 seconds it travels a distance equal to its length. For 45 with the train passes the bridge. It begins to pass it when the locomotive enters the bridge, and ends when the last car leaves the bridge, i.e., in 45 seconds the train travels 540 m plus a distance equal to its length, or 540 m in 30 seconds. The further solution is simple (train length 270 m, speed 64.8 km/h).
The solution of the problem is completed by checking, comparing the obtained result with the initial data.
All these points can be easily traced to the solution of any practical problem (for example, to determine why a table lamp is not lit), any educational problem, for example, to solve a complex mathematical problem).

The main forms of thought are concept, judgment and inference.

concept- a form of thinking that reflects the essential properties, connections and relationships of objects and phenomena, expressed by a word or a group of words.

One of the most important moments in the assimilation of a concept is its awareness. Sometimes, using a concept, we do not fully understand its meaning. Therefore, awareness of a concept can be considered as the highest step in the formation of concepts, as a link connecting the concept and understanding.

Judgment- a form of thinking that reflects the relationship between objects and phenomena; assertion or denial of something.

In modern psychology, the concepts of "judgment" and "understanding" are not completely identical, but they are most closely related to each other. If understanding is a faculty, then judgment is the result of that faculty. Judgment as a form of thinking is based on the subject's understanding of the diversity of relationships of a particular object or phenomenon with other objects or phenomena.

Explaining the meaning and essence of understanding, A. A. Smirnov gives the following example: “We do not understand how a car engine works, how it works, how a car moves with it. To understand this, we will find out what parts it consists of, how they are connected to each other, how they interact with each other, what is their connection with the parts of the car. Understanding the design of the motor and its action is achieved, therefore, by understanding the connection of its individual parts, both among themselves and with what moves them in the car ”(1). In turn, supplementing the statement of A. A. Smirnov, it can be argued that when we realize the reasons for the movement of a car, we will be able to make judgments about a particular car.

We come to judgments both directly, when they state what is perceived (“It is quite noisy in the audience”, “All the roads are covered with snow”, etc.), and indirectly - through inferences.

inference- a form of thinking in which a certain conclusion is made on the basis of several judgments. In other words, based on the analysis and comparison of existing judgments, a new judgment is made. There are two main types of reasoning - inductive and deductive.

Inductive reasoning is a reasoning from particular cases to a general position. Summarizing similar features of objects and phenomena, they make a new general conclusion, or conclusion, establish a general rule or law. For example, it is known that gold, copper, iron, cast iron smelting. Hence, from these judgments we can obtain a new general judgment: "All metals are smelting."

deductive reasoning- such a conclusion in which the conclusion is from a general judgment to a single judgment or from a general position to a particular case. For example, two judgments: "All bodies expand when heated" and "Air is a body." Hence the conclusion (new judgment): "Consequently, air expands when heated."

Both types of reasoning are closely related to each other. Complex processes of reasoning are always a chain of inferences in which both types of conclusions are intertwined and interact.

Inference is the highest form of thinking. As a form of thinking, inference is based on concepts and judgments and is most often used in the processes of theoretical thinking.

1. Smirnov A. A. Selected psychological works: In 2 vols. T. 2. / Ed. B. F. Lomova - M .: Pedagogy, 1987. S. 146.

Man is a thinking being. Even when he did not go to school, his brain used all its capabilities in the form of memorization, thinking, solving logical problems, etc. There are three forms, which are the concept, inference and judgment ..

Thinking is the process of processing information and bringing it to a certain conclusion. A person thinks in order to better understand the world around him, to solve a problem, to see patterns and connections. In the process of thinking, a person makes scientific discoveries, creates creative objects of art, and deduces assumptions. Without thinking, a person would be like an ordinary animal, which is guided only by its instincts. Thanks to him, speech arose, which people now use to communicate with each other.

What are forms of thought?

Thinking is a process. What are forms of thought? This is the result of mental activity, which has specific manifestations. Among the forms of thinking, there are three, the founder of which was still Aristotle:

1. Concept.
2. Inference.
3. Judgments.

However, many scientists wanted to attribute hypotheses, laws, proofs, concepts and arguments to forms of thinking. Subsequently, they were classified as derivatives of three main forms.

The concept is called a holistic concept, which implies the presence of certain qualities and properties of the phenomenon under consideration. This is also attributed to generalization and reflection, which involves consideration of the category of objects according to common properties and relationships, the totality of their specific features.

Judgment is an unfinished thought process that involves the denial or confirmation of some idea. Here, various characteristics of an object or phenomenon can be considered.

A conclusion is called a conclusion or summed up. This is already a complete process that deduces a certain rule, an axiom, a theory.

Basic forms of thinking

As already mentioned, the main forms of thinking are inference, judgment and concept. This division is conditional. First, a person faces a certain question to which he has no answer, after which he begins to think. Forms of thinking are conditional structures of thoughts that a person comes to as a result of his mental activity.

It is quite difficult to understand the definition of these forms. The concept is difficult to recognize, since it is based on qualities, properties, signs that may be significant and not significant. It is on significant signs that concepts are made, while not significant qualities can change.

The concept becomes complex, since any object that only partially or completely has the qualities in question can fit into it. For example, a triangle differs from other geometric shapes only in the presence of three angles. However, the shape, length and other parameters may coincide with the same parameters of other geometric shapes.

In a general sense, the concept denotes a certain phenomenon or object that has certain properties and parameters. It is denoted by a word and defines the given word. So, people use various terms, knowing their definition, meaning. This is called a concept, which differs from perception and representation, which have concreteness, visibility, imagery.

A concept is a generalized and abstract phenomenon, in contrast to perception and representation. The concept is presented in the form of an abstract definition, while perception and representation have specific figurative phenomena.

Judgment is a process of mental activity, which denotes the relationship between the parameters, qualities and relationships between objects in the environment. The essence of judgment is the denial or confirmation of a certain relationship. Here, both exclusively mental processes can be used, as well as the sense organs, etc.

Judgment happens:

1. General - denial or agreement with a certain quality of objects or phenomena, united by one concept.
2. Single - the allocation of a specific feature inherent in one phenomenon or object.
3. Particular - denial or agreement with the presence of a certain quality or characteristic of only some objects or phenomena, united by one concept.

Judgment is aimed at identifying certain features of a particular concept. They can be tested by practice and by actual environmental evidence. At the same time, a person must have the necessary information about all the processes with which he operates, and the concepts that he uses.

Inference is a form of derivation of a new judgment on the basis of old ones, which are compared and compared. There are 4 types of inference:

1. Induction is a form of thinking when a person moves from the particular to the general. Based on private assumptions, qualities, events, general rules, conclusions, and conclusions are made.
2. Deduction is a form of thinking when a person moves from the general to the particular. General rules and norms make it possible to identify particular qualities, events.
3. Analogy is a form of thinking when significant features of some objects are highlighted and conclusions are drawn.
4. Assumption is an unfinished form of thinking that has no evidence. It only puts forward theories that can be criticized and find other evidence that refutes it.

Inductive reasoning is based on the study of many subjects, the collection of information. By identifying similarities and differences, certain general conclusions can be drawn. Summarizing, a person derives general formulas and concepts.

Deductive thinking allows you to identify the particular parameters and qualities of an object based on general knowledge about it.

The most commonly used form of thinking is induction. The highest form of the thought process is the verbal-logical one, which displays complex relationships, deduces concepts, solves theoretical problems, and draws conclusions.

Forms of thinking and their characteristics

Known 3 forms of thinking are aimed at simplifying human life. This is determined by the structures of the nervous system with which a person is born. The thought process is considered the highest process that allows you to separate a person from the animal world. Here the characteristics of the forms of thinking become interesting.

The concept is:

1. Simple - uniting objects and phenomena on the same basis.
2. Complex - uniting objects and phenomena on several grounds. In turn, it happens:

• Disjunctive - concepts that are united by one or another property, or two at the same time.
• Conjunctive - concepts that combine at least two features.
• Correlative - the union of concepts for all connections and relationships between the structures of a separate group.

1. Single.
2. specific.
3. Universal.
4. Specific - shows certain characteristics of the phenomenon under consideration.
5. Abstract - shows characteristics that are difficult to imagine, confirm.

The unification of objects and phenomena according to common features often manifests itself only in some part of the group, and not in the whole. Thus, a person operates only with individual objects for generalization, and not with the entire category of objects.

Concepts are formed in a person in two ways:

1. He learns, as a result of which he learns new concepts, their definitions and features.
2. He observes on the basis of what experience is formed, which allows us to draw certain conclusions.

Judgment is presented in psychology as an individual's understanding of the diversity of the relationship of an object or phenomenon with other things in the surrounding world. The more a person knows about the subject he is discussing, the more accurate and correct the judgment becomes. Mistakes occur when a person thinks in general terms. All objects that are similar in some way, he endows with qualities that are not inherent in them. This is a superficial judgment.

Judgment becomes deeper when a person moves from the general to the particular. He highlights the specific features of an object that distinguish it from other objects similar to it. Here you can highlight the parts and see the relationships between them. Also be aware of the processes occurring in a separate object, the reasons for their occurrence.

Judgment happens:

• True (truthful) when the conclusions drawn are confirmed by objective reality.
• False when assumptions are not supported by real evidence.
• General orientation, when a general relationship is seen in subjects of the same category.
• Private, when the relationship is observed in several subjects of the same group.
• Singular, when the conclusion refers to only one subject, it is not characteristic of other subjects of this class.
• Formal, when facts are stated without indicating their veracity.
• Empirical, when judgments are derived on the basis of observation of objects that are part of the same group.

Inference is a complex mental mechanism that involves the use of existing knowledge to acquire new knowledge. It uses concepts and judgments that already have evidence of their veracity. Several concepts or judgments are combined, between which the relationship is visible. Initial judgments are premises for the formation of a conclusion. A person mentally combines them and forms a relationship based on affirmation or denial. Thus, a conclusion is drawn.

Inference is made using logic.

Outcome

Thinking is an important function in a person. Animals have simple forms of thinking, while a person can deduce concepts, reason and draw conclusions. This ultimately allows him to organize his life, build states and establish rules.

Human life is inconceivable without thinking. It is only thanks to him that he makes new discoveries, suggests that he then tries to prove or disprove, creates new technologies and mechanisms.

Only through complex thinking does a person have a speech that has a clear structure and rules. Also, thanks to thought processes, he can learn. It is often mental forms that are used here, and not simple memorization. The more associations and actually made conclusions a person uses, the better he knows the material.

There is still much in the world around us that remains unknown. But thanks to his mental activity, a person will be able to formulate specific concepts and theories at the expense of the unknown. On the basis of old knowledge, new ones will be derived, which will make it possible to better understand the world around us and even manage it.

Forms of thinking characterize the structural structure of expressed thoughts. The main forms of thinking include concepts, judgments and inferences.

concept- this is a form of thinking that reflects a class of homogeneous objects at the highest level of generalization by fixing their common features. Properties and relationships between objects act as features. In other words, a concept is a thought about a whole class of objects (objects or phenomena), highlighting their main, interconnected common properties and characteristics. This is an internal, mental psychological representation of the general properties of objects. Having uttered the concept of "tree", a person distinguishes from the vast plant world a class of plants that have a trunk of solid size and a powerful crown formed by a system of branches.

It is difficult to imagine the life of a person deprived of the opportunity to operate with concepts. In order to accurately navigate the world, it would be necessary for each object belonging to the same class (for example, each of the pine trees standing nearby in the forest) to give its own name (“name”) belonging only to it.

Concepts are general And single, concrete And abstract. General concepts refer to a certain group of objects, united, as a rule, by the same name and having the same features. So, the concept of "temperament" applies to all people. Single concepts characterize properties related to one object. Pointing, for example, to the sanguine type of temperament of a given person, we reflect a single property.

Specific concepts refer to a well-defined, easily represented object (for example, the concept of "cerebral cortex"). Abstract ones reflect the properties and phenomena of objects that are difficult to imagine and classify (for example, the concept of "mental development").

Operation with concepts refers to the highest level of thinking, characteristic of its verbal-logical form. This type is characteristic of a person starting from a certain age and continues to improve almost his entire life. The concept is considered as a form of abstract thinking, the result of generalizing the properties of individual concrete objects, phenomena and highlighting essential features in them.

There are two strategies for learning concepts - instance and hypothesis testing.

Understanding. Distinguish direct understanding, when the concept, after a few mental operations, is formed according to the principle "here and now"; mediated (discursive), formed in the process of many mental operations.

Judgment- the process (or result) of forming an opinion or conclusion based on previously realized information. Judgment manifests itself in assertion, supposition, criticism, statement, insistence, etc. This is the result of the individual's ability to understand and, as such, includes the awareness of all kinds of connections between objects, phenomena and processes. “A sociable person is a kind person” is not an indisputable, but a private, possible judgment of some individual, formed by him on the basis of personal experience of interaction with other people.

Distinguish types of judgments:

• formal characterizing the very fact of the relationship between objects without focusing on their truth or falsity (“blue sky” - the truth of this judgment is determined by previous judgments related to the conversation about the sky);
• empirical, which characterizes the fact of relationships between objects as a result of observing them and, therefore, provides an opportunity to verify their truth (“look how blue the sky is!”).

inference- the highest form of thinking, leading to a new judgment as a result of operating with other concepts and judgments. Inferences are often formed on the basis of judgments that precede the conclusion, and serve as evidence obtained by logical means. “A phlegmatic person is a calm person. Petrov is a calm person, which means he is phlegmatic. Here, two judgments (“a phlegmatic person is a calm person” and “Petrov is a calm person”) lead to the conclusion that Petrov is a phlegmatic person. Of course, Petrov's calmness can be ensured by his strong will (even if he has a choleric temperament), but such is the thread of mental operations of the author of this conclusion.

The most commonly used in practice are types of inference:

• induction- when more general ones are formed from private judgments and concepts on the basis of logical operations (example: all dogs have a tail, four legs and bark; this furry creature is on four legs with a tail and barks, therefore, we have a dog in front of us); deduction - when, as a result of logical operations, more particular information, consequences are formed from general knowledge about objects (example: all pilots are brave people; Ivanov is a pilot, therefore, a brave person);
• analogy- when the conclusion is based on the similarity of the most significant features of psychological objects;
• assumption- when a conclusion is formed on the basis of probabilistic concepts and incomplete information about the object under study (for example, that the planet Earth has the shape of a ball and revolves around the Sun), N. Copernicus suggested in 1543 in his book "On the rotations of the celestial spheres" based on observations of periodically changing phenomena of day and night in summer and winter).