Dynamics of mountain glaciation in the Central Caucasus and the formation of hazardous natural phenomena in conditions of climate change. Justify the thesis “Soils are a mirror of the landscape.” Chernozems are formed under...

evolution and current state of glaciation

A. A. Medvedkov,
Department of Physical Geography of the World and Geoecology of Moscow State University. Lomonosov

A glacier is an evolving system consisting of a mass of perennial natural ice, which arose as a result of the accumulation and transformation of snow, moving under the influence of gravity. Unlike ice water bodies, glacial ice is formed from snow. Conditions for the formation of glaciers exist where more snow falls during the winter than melts in the spring and summer, resulting in snow accumulation. The thickness of the snow cover increases every year, its bottom layers experience strong pressure, and melt water seeps into them and freezes. As a result, the accumulated snow first turns into firn(grainy, porous, old, last year’s snow), which under the pressure of the overlying layers can turn into solid ice.
At the very beginning of development, snow-ice masses are passive and practically motionless. The shape of these nival-glacial formations depends entirely on the geomorphological conditions in which they were formed. Such formations are classified as snowmen. And only when the snowfields reach a significant mass, at which they begin to move under the influence of gravity, do they move to a new stage and become full-fledged glaciers. Glaciers, like other objects of the hydrosphere, have their own specific mode, which is determined by climatic conditions. The state and regime of the glacier depend on the ratio arrival And consumption ice, that is, from mass balance. If during the year more snow falls on its surface than melts during the summer, then the balance of the glacier is positive, and the glacier advances - its tongue moves down the valley. If the balance of the glacier is negative, it means that more ice melts than accumulates, and the glacier is retreating.

Glacier regime formula:
ACCUMULATION > ABLATIONS → glacier advances
ACCUMULATION< АБЛЯЦИИ → ледник отступает
ACCUMULATION = ABLATIONS → glacier in a stable state

Modern glaciers occupy an area of ​​about 60 thousand km2 in Russia. If we add up all domestic glaciers together, we get a square of approximately 250 x 250 km. Not so much by Russian standards, but enough to completely cover the Kostroma region or Croatia.
This small area of ​​ice contains significant reserves of clean fresh water - over 16 thousand km 3, which is more than three times the volume of the annual flow of all Russian rivers.
The predominant part of modern glaciation in Russia occurs on the Arctic islands (more than 56 thousand km 2, or 95% of the glaciation area of ​​Russia), while a significant part of the glaciation is confined to the western part of the Russian sector of the Arctic, where the climate is less continental. The western sector of the Arctic is experiencing big influence moist air masses formed over the North Atlantic, and when they pass through eastern part sectors they transform and become less humid. Accordingly, they carry less precipitation, and the snow supply of glaciers on the islands in the eastern part of the sector is poorer.

Glaciation on the islands of the Russian sector of the Arctic

On the Arctic islands there is mainly cover glaciation: ice sheets and domes with outlet glaciers. The thickness of the ice sheets of the Arctic islands reaches 100-300 m, and the water reserves in them amount to over 15 thousand km 3.
The most extensive ice sheet is on the North Island Novaya Zemlya(Arkhangelsk region). The length of the glacier here is 400 km, and its greatest width reaches 90 km. The total area of ​​glaciation on Novaya Zemlya is about 24 thousand km 2, of which 20 thousand km 2 are in Severny.
Currently, the ice cover of Novaya Zemlya is shrinking. The reduction was already noted at the beginning of the twentieth century, but it was insignificant; since the 30s of the twentieth century. it sped up; Since the 60s, the pace of retreat began to slow down, maintaining this trend to the present day.
As a result of the reduction of glaciers, the outer parts fjords And subglacial valleys were freed from ice, and previously non-existent bays and bays appeared. Previous nunataks(lonely rocks protruding from under the ice onto the daytime surface) turned into islands and capes, and new sections of the coast appeared, free of ice. On average, over the past 50 years, the glaciers of Novaya Zemlya have retreated by 1.5 km, and the maximum retreat was more than 5.5 km. As a result of this reduction of glaciers, the area of ​​the Novaya Zemlya archipelago has decreased by 280 km 2 over the past 50 years. Many scientists see the reasons for the deterioration of the condition of Novaya Zemlya glaciers in the increased influence of the North Atlantic - a significant increase in the arrival of heat in the Arctic with the zonal transfer of air masses from the North Atlantic Ocean.
Employees of the Institute of Geography of the Russian Academy of Sciences, based on measurement data, found that the intensity of glacier loss on the eastern side of Novaya Zemlya is noticeably lower than on the western side: the rate of glacier retreat over the past 50 years on the Barents Sea coast was 34 m/year, and on the Kara coast - 19 m /year (1.8 times lower). Over the same period, the area of ​​glaciers on the Barents Sea coast decreased by 209 km 2 , and on the Kara coast by 75 km 2 . Some experts are inclined to believe that this may be a consequence of differences in the glacial morphology of the western and eastern coasts: on the side Barents Sea there is a system of fjords, and glaciers descend into the Kara Sea with wide blades that break off in shallow water. But, most likely, the inertia of the glaciers on the eastern coast and the delay in their response to the climate signal are caused by the greater continentality of the climate of the Kara coast, where average annual air temperatures are lower, and therefore there are fewer incentives for ablation processes.
On the archipelago Franz Josef Land(Arkhangelsk region) glaciation area is about 14 thousand km 2; More than 85% of the territory is covered with ice. At FFI it is also observed deglaciation. But over the last century, there have been short-term episodes of a slowdown in ice retreat, and even their transition to an offensive (around 1910, in the mid-20s and at the turn of the 40-50s of the 20th century). Over the past 50 years, glaciers, according to balance estimates, have lost about 10 m in thickness here.
Well-known expert on Arctic glaciers V.S. Koryakin believes that the glaciation area of ​​the FJL archipelago in the 20th century decreased by 700 km 2, and the volume decreased by 260 km 3.
Surface glaciation area Severnaya Zemlya (Krasnoyarsk region) - 18 thousand km 2 (half the area of ​​the archipelago). The degree of glaciation on the archipelago decreases from north to south: on the island. Schmidt, the share of glaciation in the total area of ​​the island is 99.7%, on the island. Komsomolets - 68, on the island. Bolshevik - 31%. The glacial region of Severnaya Zemlya, remote from the Atlantic influence, has been least affected by climate warming.
When moving east everything most of The islands remain ice-free. For example, on the New Siberian Islands (Republic of Sakha /Yakutia/) glaciation is typical only for the northernmost group De Long Islands, and on O. Wrangel(Chukchi Autonomous Okrug) there is no cover glaciation at all, only snowfields and small individual glaciers are found here.
Glaciers of the Arctic islands throughout the twentieth century. retreated, especially strongly in the 30-60s in the western sector of the Russian Arctic, when the previous “warming” was noted in the Arctic latitudes. Currently, the reduction of ground glaciation in the Arctic continues, which is especially facilitated by the current “warming” of the Arctic, enhanced by the zonal transfer of air masses from the warm North Atlantic.

Glaciation of the Urals

Climatic and orographic features contribute to the development of small forms of modern glaciation in the Polar and Subpolar Urals, between 68° and 64° N latitude. There are about 140 glaciers here. Their total area is about 30 km2, which is quite small compared to the Russian sector of the Arctic. The main morphological types of glaciers - carts(⅔ total number) And slope, There are also hanging And carovo-valley glaciers. The largest are the glaciers of IGAN (Institute of Geography of the USSR Academy of Sciences) and Moscow State University on the western border of the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug.
The area of ​​distribution of modern glaciation is the highest part of the Urals with the widespread development of such nival-glacial landforms as punishments, or circuses, trough valleys And alpinotypical peaks. Alpinotypical contours and the so-called alpine type of relief are most characteristic of the ridges lying to the west of the watershed. And the circus-shaped recesses and nivational niches, educated snow erosion(the destructive effect of snow cover on rock, due to increased frost weathering under conditions of alternating freezing and thawing) and physical weathering, are located mainly on the eastern slopes of these ridges. As a result of blowing snow and avalanche activity, snow accumulates in depressions.
As glaciologists note, the last phase of activation of the Polar Ural glaciers dates back to the 80s of the 19th century. and refers to the so-called. Little Ice Age (XVII-XIX centuries). The phase of glacial advance in the 1880s gave way to a sharp warming in the 20th century, which was the greatest at least since the beginning of the 10th century. AD, which is confirmed by dendrochronological studies and reconstructions (based on an analysis of the thickness and density of tree rings). In the 1900s and 1920s, there was a situation favorable for the development of glaciers, when there was an increase in zonal circulation from the Atlantic, which resulted in increased snowiness in winters and accumulation of glaciers. The worst climatic conditions for the existence of ground glaciation in the Urals occurred in the middle of the twentieth century, as was the case with the glaciation of the Arctic islands, which was associated with the “warming” of high latitudes. In the 1930-1940s, accumulation decreased, and negative mass balance values ​​began to predominate - glaciers began to retreat. And after the 40s, the snowiness of winters increased, while glacial accumulation slightly prevailed over ablation, although an increase in the latter was noted. Unfortunately, after 1981, as a result of the complete cessation of observations and the curtailment of all scientific programs from this area, little information is available about the current state of glaciers.
The famous glaciologist from Moscow State University V.V. Popovnin believes that the intensity of the modern reduction of glaciers is determined by their morphology. He notes that those cirque glaciers that have not moved away from powerful moraine Little Ice Age (glaciers IGAN, Kalesnik, Markov, on the northeastern border of the Komi Republic), almost did not change their area, but experienced a significant decrease in thickness. Those whose edge has moved away from course-moraine shafts(Obruchev and Anuchin glaciers, in the northeast of the Komi Republic) are degrading faster. The most severely degraded glaciers are those that end in lakes lying below the glaciers. Slope glaciers, which exist and are fed by snowstorm transport and are not so heavily dependent on modern conditions, are much more resistant to rising temperatures. climate change. As a rule, a significant part of such glaciers is located below the climatic boundary of the snow line, at altitudes of 800-1200 m.
It is known that most of the glaciers of the Urals have hardly changed their outlines, but their thickness has increased since the end of the 19th century. decreased by an average of 20-30 m, and in linguistic parts - even more. Some cirque glaciers have disappeared completely over the past 50 years. For example, one of the largest cirque glaciers in the Subpolar Urals (the Manaraga glacier in the northeast of the Komi Republic), discovered and studied in 1932, could not be discovered in 2002; in its place was a lake in a cirque depression. In the recent past, the glaciation of the Urals was more powerful, there were significantly more glaciers and many of them descended along river valleys. On the walls of the Moscow State University glacier, for example, a “shading” strip is clearly visible up to a height of 50 m, indicating a higher position of the glacier surface in the recent past. Currently, glaciers continue to retreat, as evidenced by the high position of lateral moraines (on the Ochenyrd ridge in the Polar Urals, lateral moraines rise 30-50 m above the surface of glaciers), the formation of lakes on the tongues of glaciers, and the separation glacial tongues from terminal moraine ridges, a chain of dammed lakes in the valley of glacial streams. The degradation of the Ural glaciers continues.

Glaciation of the Caucasus

Caucasus - the largest center of mountain glaciation within Russia. There are more than 2,000 glaciers in the Russian Caucasus; the total area of ​​glaciation is more than 1400 km 2. The relief of the Caucasus is favorable for the development of glaciation. The mountain slopes here are strongly dissected; in the upper reaches of most valleys and on their sides there are cirque-shaped or cirque depressions. Almost three-quarters of the glaciers in the Caucasus are small glaciers with an area of ​​less than 1 km 2. Among them prevail hanging on mountain slopes and in the bottoms of carts, or circuses.
In the Western Caucasus, due to the fact that the mountains here are of low height, there is little glaciation. Within this part of the Caucasus, the largest areas of glaciation are in the Kuban basin, in the southeastern part Krasnodar region, the south of the Republic of Adygea and the Karachay-Cherkess Republic.
Glaciation in the Eastern Caucasus, due to the very dry climate, is insignificant: there are very small cirque, hanging and cirque-valley glaciers. In the western Caucasus the climate is more humid and snow line below, and in the east it is drier and the snow line is higher. Following a decrease in precipitation and an increase in the altitudinal level of the entire glacial zone of the Greater Caucasus from west to east, the summer air temperature at the altitude of the glacier feeding line decreases - from 6-7° to 1-2 °C. Accordingly, ablation decreases, and accumulation at this height also becomes insignificant. Cold air cannot contain much moisture, and this does not contribute to the development of powerful glaciation in the highlands of the Eastern Caucasus.
The greatest glaciation is in the Central Caucasus, on the northern slope. Valley glaciers predominate here. The peaks of the extinct volcanoes Kazbek and Elbrus are covered with ice caps. The largest massif of modern glaciation in the Caucasus is the Elbrus ice complex (area 122.6 km 2). On the double-headed Elbrus there is a firn-ice cap with a diameter of about 10 km. It feeds over 50 glacial streams radiating from it. Over an 80-year period, glaciers on the western slopes of Elbrus retreated by 900-1100 m, and on the eastern slopes by 450-550 m. The process of deglaciation of the Greater Caucasus has been observed at least since late XIX V.
Since the beginning of the twentieth century. before 1970, the total area of ​​Caucasian glaciers decreased by a third. The area of ​​glaciation decreased in the Western Caucasus by almost 33%, in the Central Caucasus by 37%, and in the Eastern Caucasus by 59%. For 1970-2000 The area of ​​glaciation on the northern macroslope of the Greater Caucasus decreased by another 17%. Large glaciers have significantly decreased in size. At the same time, experts record an increase in the number of glaciers due to the division of large glaciers into parts and increased avalanche activity. From migratory snowmen, persisting throughout the summer on shaded slopes or in relief depressions , new small glaciers are formed.
Most of the valley and cirque glaciers under observation at the end of the 20th century. steadily retreated: in the Western Caucasus - the Marukhsky, Eastern Klukhorsky, Khakel glaciers (Karachay-Cherkess Republic); in the Central - Dzhankuat (Kabardino-Balkarian Republic), Tseya (Republic of North Ossetia). Variable fluctuations were experienced by the valley glaciers Alibeksky (Karachay-Cherkessia), Kulak Nizhny (Kabardino-Balkaria), Skazka (North Ossetia), as well as small cirque glaciers: Northern Karakaysky, in the south of the Karachay-Cherkess Republic, Tikhitsar and Yuzhny in the southeast Republic of Dagestan. The smallest changes are observed at the Fisht glacier in the far west of the Caucasus (south-eastern part of the Krasnodar Territory, on the border with the Republic of Adygea), this is the area with the highest annual precipitation.
Found in the Caucasus pulsating glaciers- one of the most dangerous glaciological objects. Pulsations occur more or less periodically, the period of each cycle is 10-70 (and sometimes more) years. A complete pulsation cycle consists of two main phases: stages of movement And recovery stage. During the movement stage, the glacier cracks into separate blocks, while the speed of ice movement increases by 1-2 orders of magnitude or more, the tongue of the glacier moves down the valley. The rapid sliding of ice along the bed is facilitated by water lubrication of the sliding planes.
The Kolka glacier, located 30 km south of Vladikavkaz, is best known for its pulsations. So, on September 20, 2002 in the river valley. Genaldon, under the slopes of the city of Dzhimarai-Khokh near the city of Kazbek, the largest glacial catastrophe recorded in the world in terms of volume of displaced material (up to 140 million m3) occurred, which was called the Karmadon catastrophe (after the name of the valley in which the pulsating Kolka glacier is located). Huge masses of ice, water and stones quickly swept down the valley for 17 km and formed a blockage 4 km long. Further down the gorge, a destructive glacial mudflow swept for another 19 km. As a result, the village was destroyed. Upper Gizeldon. History has also noted earlier catastrophic events associated with the Kolka glacier, in particular in 1902 and the winter of 1969/70. It is interesting that the old villages are located on seemingly inconvenient valley spurs from the point of view of construction. This indicates that local residents the possible danger had long been known, but decades of rest of the Kolka glacier lulled their vigilance.
Special attention deserve Elbrus and Kazbek, on the slopes of which there are many pulsating glaciers. These massifs are located in a seismically active zone, where the manifestation of spontaneous glacial processes can be triggered by the activation of endogenous processes.
On the southern slope of Elbrus there is one of the largest glaciers in the Russian Greater Caucasus - the Great Azau glacier (southwest of Kabardino-Balkaria). In the middle of the nineteenth century. glacier intrusion into a hundred-year-old pine forest was discovered. From the recollections of eyewitnesses: “Broken pine trees were piled up along with fragments of ice in front of the high front of the glacier, others were frozen into the ice, from which their green branches protruded.” The pulsating nature of the glacier is confirmed by data obtained as a result of radar sounding in 1989.
On the western slope of Elbrus there is the Kyukyurtlyu glacier (southeast of the Karachay-Cherkess Republic). Its movements were confirmed by the results of phototheodolite surveys carried out by MSU staff. The very structure of the glacier contributes to its pulsations. The western slope of Elbrus faces the wet air masses. And on the vast firn fields, starting from the very top of Elbrus, there is a concentration of huge masses of snow, the accumulation of which leads to glacier movements.
Among the glaciers of Kazbek, the Devdoraki glacier (southern North Ossetia; part of it in Georgia) is famous for its pulsations. Engineers encountered movements of this glacier during construction at the beginning of the 19th century. Georgian Military Road. Glacier pulsations caused congestion in the river. Terek: the glacier periodically threw ice there. These emissions blocked the flow of the Terek in 1776, 1778, 1785, 1808, 1817 and 1832. The dammed waters then burst through with catastrophic floods, with flow rates of more than 3-6 thousand m 3 /s, causing numerous destructions in the underlying villages. The most powerful movement of the glacier occurred in August 1832, when the glacier advanced 3190 m, and an ice blockage up to 100 m high and more than 2 km long formed in the gorge of the river. Terek dammed lake 80-95 m deep. The dam was broken by the river, and a destructive flood destroyed the road, buildings and crops in the gorge. The remnants of this ice block melted only after 2 years. And later glacier movements in 1842, 1843, 1855 and 1875. no longer reached the river bed. Terek.
Among the glaciers of the Greater Caucasus, the valley glacier Murkar with avalanche-landslide feeding, which is located on the northern slope of the city of Bazarduzu, is famous for its movements. As you know, this particular mountain of Dagestan is close to the most southern point Russia. Here in 1960, under the impact of huge masses of firn that fell from the summit part of the city of Bazarduzu, the tongue of the Murkar glacier was shifted several hundred meters. This pulsation was a consequence of overloading the rear part of the glacier with avalanches.

The area of ​​glaciers in Russia is about 60 thousand km 2. These are mainly the cover glaciers of Novaya Zemlya, Severnaya Zemlya, Franz Josef Land and other islands of the Northern Arctic Ocean. Only about 5% of the total area is covered by mountain glaciers of the Caucasus, Altai, Kamchatka and other mountain systems.

The bulk of Russia's glaciers are concentrated on the Arctic islands and mountainous regions. IN temperate latitudes mountain glaciers are common. They begin to form well below the climatic snow line. The climatic snow limit is considered as “level 365” (G.K. Tushinsky), at which snow lies on an unshaded horizontal surface all 365 days a year. Due to different slope exposures and blizzard redistribution of snow, glaciers in the mountains begin to appear at the “220–260 level.” The difference between the climatic and real snow limit is usually measured in hundreds of meters, but in some places it exceeds 1500 m (Kamchatka - 1650 m). The largest mountain glaciers in area are located in the Caucasus (over 1400; however, their area rarely exceeds 30 km 2 and their length is 10 km), in Kamchatka, Altai, in the northern and northeastern parts of Siberia.

The largest ice sheet in Russia is located on the Severny Island of Novaya Zemlya. Its length is 340 km and its width is 70 km (according to other sources, it is 400 km long and up to 75 km wide); The area of ​​the ice sheet is about 20,000 km2. The edge of the shield is partially floating, so it is difficult to accurately install coastline arctic islands. The average thickness of ice in the ice sheets ranges from 100 m on Franz Josef Land to 300 m on Novaya Zemlya. In some places (Novaya Zemlya) there are valley and cirque glaciers of the Alpine type.

About 5 million km 2 of Russian territory are areas with permafrost (permafrost), where ice dams are formed as a result of groundwater reaching the surface.

The glaciers contain 39,890 km 3 of fresh water, approximately 110 km 3 is formed annually. They contain large reserves of fresh water; they are the most important sources of nutrition for many rivers in arid regions. The main area of ​​modern glaciation (56,970 km2) falls on the islands of the Russian sector of the Arctic. The volume of ice in Arctic glaciers in terms of water is about 16,500 km 3, which is almost four times the annual flow of Russian rivers. The feeding limit of Arctic glaciers lies low, at an altitude of 200–700 m. Cover glaciation predominates in the form of ice sheets and domes with outlet glaciers.

Toll Glacier is divided into two branches: eastern and western, or left and right. The western branch has a length of two kilometers. The eastern branch stretches for 3.9 kilometers. The height of the glacier reaches 2441 meters. In the western part the glacier is heavily eroded by sediments. The Tolla glacier is located in close proximity to two rivers: Tsaregradka and Lyunkide.

Smirnov Glacier(named in honor of the scientific mineralogist S. S. Smirnov) stretches for three kilometers. This is a glacier with small cracks. Its peculiarity is red spots in the ice. In some places on the glacier there are rocks up to 250 meters high. It has the Kaunas pass.

Glacier Double Satostobustsky under the influence of positive temperatures, it formed two glaciers: the left and right Satostobust glaciers. The left glacier is 3.5 kilometers long and its area reaches 2.6 square kilometers. There are three passes on it: Volga, Kapugina and Ural. The right glacier stretches 3.2 kilometers in length. The area of ​​the glacier is 2 square kilometers. On this glacier there are the Zalgiris and Satostobustskiy passes.

Looks like a horseshoe. The glacier is also called Egelyakh glacier. It stretches for 5 kilometers. The width of the glacier is 1.5 kilometers. There are cracks at the top of the glacier. The glacier is steep – up to 20–23 degrees. The Omsky and Zenit passes are located on the glacier. South part glacier are rocks.

Atlasov Glacier – This is a glacier with steep slopes. The top of the glacier at the Sovetskaya Yakutia pass reaches 2885 meters. In the south of the glacier there is the Kazansky pass. This glacier has no cracks .

Tsaregradsky Glacier located near the Tsaregradka River. It stretches 8.9 kilometers in length. The total area of ​​glaciation is 12 square kilometers. The highest point of the glacier is 3030 meters. The lowest point of the glacier is at an altitude of 1600 meters.

Very close to the Tsaregradsky glacier is located Oyunsky glacier. The Oyunsky glacier was named after the Yakut writer P. A. Oyunsky. The glacier is forked in its northern part, two kilometers from the center of the glacier. There are many cracks on the glacier. Some of them are up to 1.5 kilometers. There are rock formations on the slopes of the glacier. Sometimes there is a rockfall here. Stones can fly from a height of 3029 meters.

Schneiderov Glacier It is not located in a very wide gorge. It stretches 3–4 thousand meters in length. There are a lot of rocks on the glacier. Some slopes of the glacier are steep – up to 25 degrees. On the slopes of the glacier the steepness drops to 13 degrees. There are several passes on the glacier: Avangard, Slavutich, Krasnoyarsk passes and Surprise 2 pass.

Selishchev Glacier has a length of 5.1 kilometers. At the very bottom the glacier is heavily cluttered with stones. There is a step on the glacier at an altitude of 1.5 kilometers (an open, flat space). There are four passes on the glacier: Moskovsky, Oyunsky, Omsk Tourists Club Pass and Murmansky Pass.

Obruchev Glacier.

The glacier is located next to the Lyunkide River and stretches for 8.6 kilometers. The total area of ​​the ice masses is 7.6 square kilometers. The highest point of the glacier is the peak - 3140 meters. The glacier is quite steep to climb - 20 degrees on the left side of the glacier. On the right side the glacier is not so steep - 10 degrees. There are passes on the glacier: Leningradsky, Kyuretersky and Kazansky. The northern part of the glacier has steep slopes (up to 40 degrees).

Sumgin Glacier the length is 6.8 kilometers, the total area of ​​the glacier is 37 square kilometers. Most high point The glacier is covered with snow and stones at an altitude of 3140. The lowest altitude is 1500 meters, there is more rock here. This glacier borders the Obruchev glacier. Almost everywhere on the glacier the elevation is 20 degrees.

Isakov Glacier stretches for 2.5 kilometers. The glacier is divided by two bends. The left bend is not very steep - it is 20 degrees. The right bend is steeper - 35–40 degrees. On the glacier the UPI pass and the pass Blue bird. Next to the glacier there is a spring - Scout, which forms a small lake only in the warm season.

Schmidt Glacier, named after the scientist O. Yu. Schmidt, stretches for 2 kilometers. The glacier's steepness varies from 10 to 30 degrees. The glacier is divided in the north into two parts. In one part there is the Podarok pass. In the other - Chernivtsi and Kuvaev pass.

Glaciation on the islands of the Russian sector of the Arctic

On the Arctic islands there is mainly cover glaciation: ice sheets and domes with outlet glaciers. The thickness of the ice sheets of the Arctic islands reaches 100–300 m. The most extensive ice sheet is on the North Island Novaya Zemlya(Arkhangelsk region). The length of the glacier here is 400 km, and its greatest width reaches 90 km. The total glaciated area of ​​Novaya Zemlya is about 24 thousand km 2, of which 20 thousand km 2 are in Severny.

Glaciation of the Urals

Climatic and orographic features contribute to the development of small forms of modern glaciation in the Polar and Subpolar Urals, between 68° and 64° N latitude. There are about 140 glaciers here. Their total area is about 30 km2. The main morphological types of glaciers are: carts(⅔ of the total) and slope, There are also hanging And carovo-valley glaciers. The largest are the glaciers of IGAN (Institute of Geography of the USSR Academy of Sciences) and Moscow State University on the western border of the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug. The area of ​​distribution of modern glaciation is the highest part of the Urals.

Glaciation of the Caucasus

Caucasus – the largest center of mountain glaciation within Russia. There are more than 2,000 glaciers in the Russian Caucasus; the total area of ​​glaciation is more than 1400 km 2. The relief of the Caucasus is favorable for the development of glaciation. Almost three-quarters of the glaciers in the Caucasus are small glaciers with an area of ​​less than 1 km 2. Among them prevail hanging on mountain slopes and in the bottoms of carts, or circuses. The greatest glaciation is in the Central Caucasus, on the northern slope. Valley glaciers predominate here. The peaks of the extinct volcanoes Kazbek and Elbrus are covered with ice caps. The largest massif of modern glaciation in the Caucasus is the Elbrus ice complex (area 122.6 km 2). On the double-headed Elbrus there is a firn-ice cap with a diameter of about 10 km.

Glaciation of Northern and Northeastern Siberia

On the Taimyr Peninsula, in the north of the Krasnoyarsk Territory, in Byrranga mountains is the northernmost region of continental glaciation in Russia. Within the highest, northeastern part of the mountains, more than 90 small glaciers with a total area of ​​30 km 2 were discovered, the largest being the Unexpected glacier (4.3 km 2). Valley glaciers predominate; there are cirque, hanging, and slope glaciers. IN Chersky mountain system scattered and isolated centers of modern glaciation have a total area of ​​slightly more than 150 km 2. The USSR Glacier Catalog names 372 glaciers here. Most of them, and the largest ones, are concentrated in the central part of the mountain system, in the Buordakh massif, in the northeast of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia). The largest glacier, Obrucheva, has an area of ​​7.6 km2.

Glaciation of Southern Siberia

Altai– the largest area of ​​terrestrial glaciation in southern Siberia. In total, there are 1,500 glaciers in Altai with a total area of ​​more than 900 km 2. The largest centers of glaciation in Altai are the Katunsky ridge (about 400 glaciers with a total area of ​​280 km2), the South Chuysky ridge (240; 220 km2), the North Chuysky ridge (200; 180 km2), the Kara-Alakhinsky ridge (25; 220 km2). 12.5 km 2). The Big Taldurinsky glacier, located within the South Chuya ridge, is the largest (28 km 2) glacier in Altai. A large glaciation center, already within the Katunsky Range, is on the Belukha Mountain massif. Several large valley glaciers descend from it.

In the Sayan Mountains the total area of ​​glaciation is about 33 km 2, small cirque glaciers predominate. In the Western Sayan, 52 very small glaciers with a total area of ​​just over 2 km² were discovered, and within the Eastern Sayan - 107 glaciers (30 km 2). Only 4 glaciers have an area of ​​more than 1 km2, the largest (Avgevich glacier in the southwestern part of the Republic of Buryatia) reaches 1.4 km2.

Glaciation of the Baikal region and Transbaikalia

The bulk of the glaciers of the Baikal region and Transbaikalia, in addition to the scattering of small glaciers of the Baikal (on the border of the Irkutsk region and the Republic of Buryatia) and Barguzinsky ridges (Republic of Buryatia), are confined to the Kodarsky ridge, which is in the north Trans-Baikal Territory. Currently, within the range. About 40 glaciers with a total area of ​​about 20 km 2 are known in Kodar. These are mainly cirque glaciers, there are also cirque-valley glaciers, saddlebags and near-slope, lying below the climatic boundary of the snow line.

Glaciation of the Far East

Within Koryak Highlands(Chukchi Autonomous Okrug and Kamchatka Territory) glaciers are scattered over a large area; the main glacial area is in the northeast. More than 1,330 glaciers with a total area of ​​about 300 km2 have been discovered here, among them cirque glaciers predominate (80% of the total number and 50% of the area), but there are also cirque-valley, valley and complex valley glaciers. Within the Yanranai, Yakanu and Koryaksky (Mainopilginsky mountain cluster) ranges there is the most powerful of the centers of modern glaciation in the north-east of Russia. The feeding boundary of glaciers in the Koryak Highlands runs everywhere below the climatic snow line.

On Kamchatka Peninsula About 450 glaciers with a total area of ​​900 km 2 were taken into account. More than 80% of glaciation is confined to the Sredinny Range (more than 240 glaciers, about 470 km 2) and the Klyuchevskaya group of volcanoes (about 50 glaciers, a little more than 270 km 2).

Altai is the highest part of the Altai-Sayan mountain system. It consists of many mountain ranges and massifs up to 3000–4000 m high, on which numerous mountain glaciers are located. Peaks topped with snow caps are called “squirrels” here. The climate of Altai is determined by three main factors: its position in the temperate latitudes of the northern hemisphere, the dominance of the western transport of air masses and the influence in winter of a powerful Asian anticyclone with partly cloudy frosty weather.

Cyclones coming from the Atlantic sharply intensify upon contact with the mountains and, under the influence of mountainous terrain, change the direction of movement from east to northeast. At the same time, the wind increases, the wind intensifies and heavy precipitation falls, mainly in the form of snow in the high mountain zone. As they move eastward, the air masses dry out, and on the eastern and southern outskirts of Altai the amount sharply decreases.

In Quaternary times, Altai experienced powerful glaciation, traces of which are well preserved in the form of glacial sculptural forms in the mountains and moraine deposits in the valleys. The main feature of the relief is a combination of extensive leveling surfaces and alpine-type high-mountain relief with sharp ridges, deep steep slopes, often merging into vast multi-chamber circuses, with valleys transformed into troughs.

Over the territory of the Altai mountainous country, glaciers are distributed very unevenly, which is associated with the height, dissection and orientation of mountain ranges relative to the main direction of moisture transfer. The vast majority of Altai glaciers have an exposure with a northern component, which is determined both by the conditions and conditions of snow accumulation, and by insolation features. According to the degree and regime of modern glaciation within the Altai Mountains, three regions are distinguished: Central, Southern and Eastern. In each of them there are more or less isolated centers of glaciation. The Central Altai includes the highest ridges - Katunsky, North Chuysky and South Chuysky with spurs extending from them. Most of the Altai glaciers are concentrated on these ridges. The glaciation areas in these areas are 283.1, 177.7 and 222.8 km2, respectively. Central Altai is characterized by alpine-type glaciation with a predominance of valley and cirque-valley glaciers. The largest glaciation site is the Belukha mountain massif (4506 m). A “constellation” of large valley glaciers descends from Mount Belukha and its spurs: Big and Small Berelsky, Katunsky, Sapozhnikov, Rodzevich, Tronov Brothers. To the west and east of the Belukha mountain massif, the heights of the Katunsky ridge and its spurs decrease, glaciation becomes more dispersed, and the predominance of typical valley glaciers passes to cirque-valley and cirque glaciers.

Kamchatka ranks first in the subarctic zone of Russia in terms of glaciation area: 405 glaciers with a total area of ​​874 km2. Perhaps the area of ​​glaciation is more significant, since many glaciers are covered with products of volcanic eruptions and are poorly recognized on aerial and satellite images. Kamchatka is located in mid-latitudes (its northern part is at latitude , and its southern part is at latitude Saratov), ​​but the climate is much more severe and intense cyclonic activity. This is an area of ​​subarctic maritime climate. Precipitation comes here from the Pacific Ocean. in the mountains, at altitudes above 1500 m, established in September. The main areas of glaciation are located on the Sredinny and Eastern ridges, separated by the vast Kamchatka depression, occupied by the Kamchatka River valley. Glaciation in these areas is approximately the same in area, but differs in morphological features and glacier regime. In the northern part of the Sredinny Range there are quite large nodes of cirque-valley glaciation. Its main centers are concentrated on the extinct volcanoes of the Sredinny Range and on the active volcanoes of South-Eastern Kamchatka. Volcanic forms of glaciation are developed there - glaciers of volcanic cones, often existing in combination with crater and caldera glaciers, as well as with Barrancos glaciers.

There are many high volcanoes in the southeast of Kamchatka, most of which are active. This area is closer to the main source of moisture that feeds the glaciers. Glaciation here is also associated with high absolute heights of volcanic cones. In active areas, the existence and regime of glaciers depend not only on climate and topography, but also on volcanic activity. Craters, calderas, and explosive circuses are good containers for the accumulation of snow and ice, but the glaciers that occupy these niches can be partially or completely destroyed during volcanic eruptions. On the Klyuchevskaya Sopka volcano, the highest on the planet, during quiet periods between eruptions the peak is covered with an ice cap, the lower edge of which is controlled by climatic conditions. During periods of volcanic activity, the ice cap is destroyed, but the glacier does not completely disappear; it encircles the volcanic cone in the form of a ring, limited by ice-free surfaces at an altitude of 2400 to 3500 m. From the lower edge of this ring, ice tongues descend along the slopes of the volcano to 1200–1300 m. The glacial mass has a layered structure: layers of ice alternate with layers of ash and other products of volcanic eruptions. The surface of the glaciers of the Klyuchevskaya group of volcanoes, like others, is covered over large areas with pyroclastic material, the thickness of the layer of which increases so much towards the ends of the glaciers that surface melting practically stops and the ends of the glaciers turn into areas of buried dead ice. At Klyuchevskaya Sopka, side craters are formed on its slopes with lava flows pouring out of them, which with their heat affect the glaciers located there. The influx of heat causes an increase in melt water in the ice column, which, in turn, leads to the movement of the glacier and an increase in its area. The result of the interaction of volcanoes with glaciers and snow cover are powerful mud-pyroclastic flows - lahars, spreading down the valley for several tens of kilometers. Lahars can be both hot and cold, and sometimes they destroy glaciers or parts of them.

Over the past 60–70 years, the area of ​​glaciation in the Klyuchevsky massif has increased by 5%. During the same period, glaciation in other (non-volcanic) areas of Kamchatka decreased in accordance with the change climatic conditions.

Greater Caucasus is mountain system Caucasus. Its length is more than 1100 km, width up to 180 km. In its axial part rise the Main Caucasus, or Watershed Range and, located to the north, the Side Range, on which the highest peak of the Caucasus and the highest point of Russia are located - Mount Elbrus - 5642 m.

Moist air masses brought by southwestern and western air currents and cyclones serve as the main sources of precipitation on the ridges of the Greater Caucasus. The mountains here receive from 750 to 3000 mm of solid precipitation per year. The greatest amount of them falls on the southwestern slopes and gradually decreases to the northeast. As altitude increases, more and more of the precipitation falls in solid form, providing food for glaciers along with blown snow. with altitude it decreases by an average of 0.6°C for every 100 m of rise. In the glacial zone of the Greater Caucasus there is often cloudy weather, more cloudiness in the winter-spring months and less in the summer-autumn months. Due to the high transparency of the atmosphere in the mountains, the influx of direct solar radiation is very high, especially on glaciers.

In total, there are 2050 glaciers in the Greater Caucasus, with a total area of ​​1424 km2. There are more glaciers on the northern slope than on the southern slope, and they occupy more than twice the area there. Small glaciers predominate in number, with an area of ​​less than 1.1 km2 each, accounting for 85% of the total number of glaciers and 40% of the glaciated area. Glacial complexes and almost all large complex valley glaciers are located in the Central Caucasus. More than three-quarters of the entire glaciated area of ​​the Caucasus is concentrated there: 1,123 glaciers with a total area of ​​1,037 km2. In the Western Caucasus, due to the low altitude of the mountains (on average 2800 - 3000 m), modern glaciation is small. There are 567 glaciers with a total area of ​​278 km2. There are almost three times more glaciers on the northern slope of the Western Caucasus than on the southern slope. Glaciation in the Eastern Caucasus, despite the fact that it is higher than the Western Caucasus, is even less significant due to the drier climate: 360 glaciers with a total area of ​​109 km2. Of these, 332 glaciers with an area of ​​101 km2 are located on the northern slope.

The Elbrus glacier complex is the largest massif of modern glaciation in the Caucasus. Its basis is a firn-ice cap with a diameter of about 10 km, which covers the double-headed peak of the volcano and feeds the glacial streams radiating from it. They end with outlet glaciers, which look like ordinary valley glaciers, sometimes hanging glaciers. Most of them are characterized by a peculiar shape: narrow at the top, they expand within the relatively flat volcanic base, and descending along its steep slopes to the surrounding valleys, they take on the appearance of narrow glacial tongues. Ice divisions in the area of ​​glacier feeding are often unclear, and in some places it is possible for ice to flow from one glacier to another. The longitudinal profiles of glaciers are steep in the upper and lower parts, and flat in the middle. On the steep bends of the slopes from the volcanic plateau to the valleys there are many icefalls with an abundance of cracks and seracs. In some places, the sources of the glacier and the tongue, located in a deep valley, are separated by areas of exposed rock, and in this case the tongue is fed by snow avalanches and ice collapses. The thickness of Elbrus glaciers is small, from 50 to 100 m. On the eastern side the ice is almost twice as thin as on the rest of the complex, where feeding conditions are better. Currently, some glaciers, and there are quite a lot of them, are shrinking at varying rates, others are in a stationary state, and others are advancing. Elbrus glaciers feed the rivers: Kuban, Malka and Baksan.

According to the results of instrumental surveys carried out in 1887–1890, 1957–1959, 1979 and 1997, the glaciation area of ​​Elbrus was 145.7 km2, 132.5 km2, 127.8 km2 and 124.9 km2, respectively. This indicates the uniformity of its decrease since the end of the 19th century. and almost throughout the 20th century. The average annual rate at which the glaciation area is decreasing is 1.9 km2 per year. The largest reductions in both area and volume are observed in the southeastern part. The average decrease in surface height is 14 m, the maximum is 60–80 m on the frontal parts of the tongues. In the northwestern part, on the contrary, glaciation increases in size. The maximum increase in the frontal part of the Ulluchiran glacier is 40 m. Firn accumulation for 1957–1997. 20–40 m thick was also noted on the southwestern slope of Elbrus in the area of ​​accumulation of the Bolshoi Azau glacier. The average change in surface height of the entire Elbrus glacial system for the specified period is 5.4 m.

East of Elbrus, on the northern slope of the Main Caucasus Range and its spurs, forming the basins of the Chegem, Cherek and Urukh rivers, there are many large complex valley glaciers. Among them, the largest in the Caucasus is the Bezengi glacier. Its length is 17.6 km, area 36.2 km2. A significant share of its nutrition comes from avalanches from the Bezengi wall. The lower 5 km of the glacial tongue are covered with moraine. From 1888 to 1966 its end has retreated more than 1 km.

The Kazbek-Dzhimaraya glacier complex is the second largest after Elbrus, its area is 70.6 km2. Precipitation here is distributed unevenly: snow from convex relief forms is blown away by strong winds into depressions. Therefore, on the glaciers occupying cirques and cirques, snow accumulates by about 40% more than precipitation falls. Avalanches play a significant role in feeding valley and cirque glaciers. Of particular interest here are glaciers, which periodically advance rapidly, causing catastrophic mudflows and floods. This is the Devdoraki glacier, which became famous at the end of the 18th century. in connection with catastrophic blockages on the Georgian Military Road, and the Kolka glacier, the last catastrophic movement of which occurred in September 2002.

The Kolka Glacier is the most unusual pulsating glacier in the Caucasus, located on the northern slope of Mount Kazbek, in the Republic of North Ossetia–Alania.

It is known for its repeated movements at intervals of about 70 years (in 1835, 1902 and 1969). In 1902, a catastrophic ice outburst occurred, it covered the bottom of the valley with ice and stones for 8 miles and killed many people and thousands of livestock. In 1969–1970 in three months the tongue advanced 4 km, without catastrophic consequences. The last movement of the Kolka glacier occurred on September 20, 2002 and caused a catastrophe on a large scale. The glacier completely left its circus; a gigantic mass of ice, water and stones rolled along the valley of the Genaldon River with a terrible roar, destroying everything in its path, tearing off forest and loose sediments on the slopes up to a height of 100 m from the bottom of the valley. It was stopped by the entrance to the narrow gorge of the Rocky Ridge, and further down the valleys of the Genaldon and Gizeldon rivers a water-mud mudflow with ice fragments passed, causing destruction for another 12 km. The entire bottom of the Karmadon Basin was under a pile of ice and stones about 4 km long and up to 100 m thick. A dammed lake arose in a side valley near the village of Staraya Saniba, the level of which rose over the course of a month, and the volume of water in the lake reached 5 million m3.

The ice-rock avalanche was prepared by a large accumulation of water in and under the Kolka glacier. This played a major role in the loss of stability of the glacier, in its separation from the bed and ejection. The abundance of water was caused by a sharp rise in summer air temperatures and an increase in annual precipitation in the several years before the disaster. In the years before the last movement of the glacier, the volcanic activity of Kazbek intensified, which apparently caused additional melting at the bottom of the glacier, new stresses and destruction in the glacial body. The tectonic structure of the region plays an important role in the movements of the pulsating Kolka glacier: the glacier valley is located in a zone of large faults, where displacements of individual blocks and frequent earthquakes are possible.

Caucasus. Western, Central, Eastern

The Caucasus is a mountainous country located along the border of Europe and Asia within Russia, Azerbaijan and Georgia. The highest, axial part of the mountain system, stretching for 1100 km between the Black and Caspian seas in the northwest - southeast direction, is called the Greater Caucasus.

The Greater Caucasus Mountains are geologically young. Tectonic uplifts continue here, the relief is subject to intense destructive action of glaciers, rivers, and wind erosion. The tops of mountains made of hard rocks have the shape of peaks, towers, and pyramids. In soft rock areas there are peaks that are rounded or table-shaped, with flat tops and steep slopes. The profiles of river valleys are varied - from wide trough-shaped ones, carved out by ancient glaciers, to narrow, sometimes impassable canyons. The entire area is characterized by relatively high seismicity.

The main part of the Greater Caucasus mountain system is formed by two almost parallel ridges close in height: the Main, or watershed, and the Advanced, which turns into the Side in the east. Main Ridge stretches as a continuous mountain chain, while the Front and Side ranges located to the north of it are alternating mountain ranges separated by transverse river valleys. To the north of the Greater Caucasus there is a series of undulating mountain ranges descending towards the plain, the closest of which are called the Skalisty and Pastbishchny ridges, consisting of limestone massifs, gently sloping from the north and steeply plunging to the south. The southern slope of the Greater Caucasus is generally shorter and steeper than the northern one, especially in the eastern part. Closer to the west, it is expanded due to the side ridges-spurs: Kakheti, Kartli, Rachin, Svaneti, Kodori, Chkhalta, Bzyb, Gagra.The Greater Caucasus is divided into three parts: Western Caucasus, Central and Eastern (with conventional boundaries along the meridians crossing Elbrus and Kazbek).

The climate of the Greater Caucasus is determined by its southern location, the proximity of the Black and Mediterranean seas, as well as the significant height of the mountain ranges. The Greater Caucasus is a barrier to the movement of masses of moist warm air from the west. More precipitation falls on the southern slopes, the maximum amount is in the western part, where more than 2500 mm falls per year in the highlands (the most in our country). To the east, precipitation drops to 600 mm per year. The northern slope of the Greater Caucasus is generally drier than the southern one.

In the Greater Caucasus Mountains, in a relatively small area, there is a wide range of climatic zones with pronounced zonality in altitude: humid subtropics of the Black Sea coast; continental dry (in the east to semi-desert) climate with hot summers and short but cold winters on the plains of Ciscaucasia; moderate continental climate of the foothills with significant precipitation (especially in the western part) and snowy winters (in the Krasnaya Polyana area, on the watershed of the Bzyb and Chkhalta rivers, the snow cover reaches 5 m and even 8 m). In the alpine meadow zone, the climate is cold and humid, winter lasts up to 7 months, average temperatures in August, the warmest month, range from 0 to +10°C. Above is the so-called nival belt, where the average temperature of even the warmest month does not exceed 0°. Precipitation here falls mainly in the form of snow or pellets (hail).

Average January temperatures at the foot of the mountains are -5°C in the north and from +3° to +6°C in the south; at an altitude of 2000 m -7-8°С, at an altitude of 3000 m -12°С, at an altitude of 4000 m -17°С. Average July temperatures at the foot of the mountains in the west are +24°C, in the east up to +29°C; at an altitude of 2000 m +14°С, at an altitude of 3000 m +8°С, at an altitude of 4000 m +2°С.

In the Greater Caucasus, the height of the snow line, rising from west to east, ranges from 2700 m to 3900 m above sea level. Its northern elevation is different for the northern and southern slopes. In the Western Caucasus these are 3010 and 2090 m, respectively, in the Central Caucasus - 3360 and 3560 m, in the Eastern Caucasus - 3700 and 3800 m. The total area of ​​modern glaciation in the Greater Caucasus is 1780 km¤. The number of glaciers is 2047, their tongues descend to absolute levels: 2300-2700 m (Western Caucasus), 1950-2400 m (Central Caucasus), 2400-3200 m (Eastern Caucasus). Most of the glaciation occurs on the northern side of the GKH. The distribution of the glaciation area is as follows: Western Caucasus - 282 and 163 sq. km; Central Caucasus - 835 and 385 sq. km; Eastern Caucasus - 114 and 1 sq. km, respectively.

Caucasian glaciers are distinguished by a variety of forms. Here you can see grandiose icefalls with seracs, ice grottoes, “tables”, “mills”, deep cracks. Glaciers carry out large amounts of debris, which accumulates in the form of various moraines on the sides and at the tongue of glaciers. The population of the Greater Caucasus is relatively large. Settlements, industrial and agricultural enterprises can be found at an altitude of 2000-2500 m.

The main means of transport in the region is the car. Most villages have high-quality paved roads, dirt roads lead to alpine pastures, and tractor tracks lead to areas of logging and geological exploration. There are only three operating roads crossing the GKH in the high mountainous part: the Georgian Military Road (via the Cross Pass - 2388 m), connecting Vladikavkaz and Tbilisi; under the Roki Pass a long tunnel has been dug through which a modern highway has been laid; The Ossetian Military Road (through the Mamison Pass - 2819 m), accessible to off-road vehicles and only in the warm season. Among the hiking trails across the watershed of the Greater Caucasus, crossings through the passes Sanchara (2600 m), Marukh (2740 m), Klukhor (2816 m), Donguzorun (3161 m), Tviber (3580 m), Gezevtsek (3465 m) have long been known.

Settlements are connected to regional centers by bus service, and some of them by small aircraft (Sukhumi-Pskhu, Mestia-Kutaisi, Telavi-Omalo, Makhachkala-Beja, Tlyarata, etc.). Helicopters are increasingly being used for this purpose.

Railways go around the foothills of the Greater Caucasus on all sides. Short branches lead to terminal stations in the cities of Maykop, Labinsk, Cherkessk, Kislovodsk, Nalchik, Vladikavkaz, Buynaksk, Chiatura, Tskhinvali, Telavi, which helps with access to the beginning of tourist routes and departure after their end.

The foothill part of the Greater Caucasus territory is well developed, agriculture and industry are developed. There are many cities here: Baku, Tbilisi, Kutaisi, Sukhumi, Sochi, Maykop, Cherkessk, Nalchik, Vladikavkaz, Grozny, Makhachkala. The convenient geographical location, the proximity of the largest cities in developed regions of the country, and the dense population of the foothills make the Greater Caucasus the most visited mountainous region by tourists. There are mountain routes for groups of any qualification and conditions for holding all tourist sports and educational events: competitions, rallies, training camps, schools, etc. The diversity of landscapes and the abundance of historical and cultural monuments make hiking in the Greater Caucasus particularly attractive. There are hundreds of different mountain routes of 1-6 difficulty categories, which, along with fulfilling sports requirements, allow you to get acquainted with the interesting region, its nature and history.

The most difficult routes are located in the Central Caucasus, where more than 20 low-grade passes, 135 passes from 1A to 2A difficulty categories and 82 passes from 2B to 3B difficulty categories are known to date. The high mountainous part of the Western Caucasus has more than 170 passes of 1A-2A difficulty categories and 25 passes of 2B-3B difficulty categories. The routes here are attractive due to the combination of highlands with lush vegetation and the proximity of the Black Sea coast. The Eastern Caucasus, with its longer approaches to key high-mountain passes, an abundance of historical monuments and unique nature, has over 336 passes of 1A-2A difficulty categories and 95 passes of 2B-3B difficulty categories.

The best time for sports hikes in the highlands is from June 1 to September 30, with the most favorable period from July 15 to September 15. In recent years, hikes of 1-2 difficulty categories in mountains less than 3000 m high in the first half of May have become popular, as well as mass ascents of mountain tourists to Elbrus and Kazbek. In winter (as well as early spring and autumn), due to unstable weather, snowfalls and high avalanche danger, only separate groups of experienced tourists appear in the highlands.

Western Caucasus

In geographical literature, the Western Caucasus is usually called the part of the Greater Caucasus west of Elbrus. In a narrower understanding, which is followed, in particular, in mountaineering and tourism literature, the Western Caucasus includes only the subregion (up to Mount Fisht) with the high-mountain, glaciated section of the GKH; the territory to the west is evicted to the North-West Caucasus.

Administratively, this region belongs to the Karachay-Cherkess Republic, Krasnodar Territory, and Abkhazia.

The core of the Western Caucasus mountain system is the GKH. The chain of massifs in the numerous northern spurs of the GKH, approximately 20 km from it, is called the Forward (Lateral) Ridge. Even further north, parallel to the GKH, stretches the Rocky Ridge. To the south of the GKH there are the Kodori, Abkhaz (Chkhalta), Bzyb, and Gagra ranges.

The Western Caucasus is largely a forested mid-mountain region. The GKH line in the middle of the region reaches the forest border (2000-2200 m above sea level), near Mount Chugush (3240 m) it goes beyond 3000 m, and reaches its highest point in the eastern part (Mount Dombay-Elgen - 4046 m). A characteristic feature of the Western Caucasus is the combination of lush forests along the valleys and mountain slopes with pointed peaks and towering peaks covered with snow. Many glaciers here descend almost to the forest line. In the stone bowls carved out by ancient glaciers there are many transparent blue and green lakes surrounded by flowering alpine meadows, mossy gloomy rocks and screes. Among them are the famous Lake Ritsa, high-mountain lakes Klukhorskoye, Kyrdyvach, Mtsra.

In the limestone massifs (Kodori, Bzyb, Gagra, Skalisty ranges) various forms of karst are widely developed: deep chasms, underground rivers, caves, sinkholes, and cirques. On the southern slope there are many outlets of underground water: Gegsky waterfall, Mchisht, Blue Lake, Aapsta.

The rivers of the northern slope of the GKH belong to the Kuban basin, which begins with the glaciers of Elbrus and in the upper reaches is called Ullukam. The largest of them are Uzunkol, Uchkulan, Daut, Teberda, Aksaut, Marukha, Zelenchuk, Bolshaya Laba, Malaya Laba. The main rivers of the southern slope are Nenskra, Kodor, Chkhalta, Bzyb, Mzymsta. The water in the rivers is transparent and has a bluish or greenish tint.

Of all the mountainous regions of the former USSR, the Western Caucasus is distinguished by the greatest natural contrasts - from the glaciers of the alpine highlands to the subtropics. The peculiarity of the climate is high humidity.

The Western Caucasus is the oldest and well-developed mountain tourism region. Both novice travelers and sports groups will find routes here. The simplest routes lie in the relatively low western part, starting from Arkhyz, where, both through the GKH and through its spurs, there are many passes of 1A and 1B difficulty categories (mostly scree and snow). This area is most suitable for non-category travel and hikes of 1-2 difficulty categories.

The eastern section of the GKH with adjacent spurs (Gwandra region) is characterized by passes of 1B-2A difficulty categories of various types (snow, ice, rock). Here, as in Arkhyz, there are rich opportunities for hiking of medium (up to category 3) complexity.

The main ridge in the Aksauta-Dombay area is relatively inaccessible. Most of the passes here belong to 2A-3A difficulty categories. The northern side of the passes is usually snowy and ice, the southern side is rocky. The southern slope is steep. The intersections of the GKH in this section can constitute the key elements of a hike of 4-5 categories of difficulty.

The entrances are short. There are roads along almost all the gorges, and there is a bus service to a number of points (from Mineralnye Vody, Cherkessk, Karachaevsk, Zelenchukskaya, Sukhumi, Gudauta, Adler). There are trails in the upper valleys and pastures along the ridges.

In the mountains of the Western Caucasus there are many historical monuments of interest to tourists: Stone Age sites, in the meadows there are numerous traces of ancient shepherding - the remains of cats, paddocks, trails; along ancient trade routes there are chains of ruins of medieval fortresses and temples, mainly from the Alanian period and the heyday of Apsilia, a number of places are associated with the events of the Caucasian War (19th century), the stay of outstanding cultural figures in the Caucasus, the GKH passes contain evidence of the battles of the Great Patriotic War.

Central Caucasus

The Central Caucasus is the highest and most inaccessible part of the Greater Caucasus. The peaks of Shkhara, Dykhtau, Koshtantau, Dzhangitau, Kazbek exceed 5000 m. The highest point of the Caucasus is also located here - Mount Elbrus (5642 m) - a two-headed cone of an extinct volcano, towering gigantically above the snow-capped ridges, visible for 100 kilometers or more. The most impressive glaciers are also located in the highlands of the Central Caucasus. The Bezengi wall, the slopes of Elbrus and Kazbek bear almost continuous ice cover. There are all types of glaciers here, including valley ones. Among the original peaks of the region are the famous Ushba, Shkhelda, Tikhtengen, Tetnuld, Shkhara, Ailama.

The valleys of the Central Caucasus are larger and more rugged than those in the Western Caucasus. The rivers bursting out from under the glaciers are turbulent and quite muddy.

The Central Caucasus in its axial, highest part is composed of hard rocks - granites, crystalline and clayey shales, sandstones. The peripheral parts are composed of sedimentary, younger and softer rocks - limestones, margels and dolomites. The volcanic cones of Elbrus and Kazbek, rising on the links of the Side Range, are located on highly elevated bases of their granites and shales. To the west of Cross Pass, the Kel volcanic plateau contains many inactive volcanoes.

In orographic terms, the Central Caucasus consists of the Watershed Range of a complex pattern, where individual sections have a direction that differs by 90-120° from the general one, and a number of significant ridges-spurs - Elbrus, Adylsu, Adyrsu, Bodorku, Kargashil, Bokovoy, Sugan, Tsey, Saudorsky, Tepli, Dzhimaraisky in the north and Shtavlersky, Nakrinsky, Ushbinsky, Svetgaro-Gvaldinsky, Kulak, Zagari, Chkhunder, Svanetsky, Lechkhumsky, Rachinsky in the south. Sections of the watershed ridge located to the southwest and south of the Tepli and Dzhimarai-Kazbek subdistricts, which belong to the Side Range, are called the Dvaletsky and Mtiuleti ridges.

For the middle and low mountains of the Central Caucasus, mountain-erosive relief is typical; in the highlands, mountain-glacial relief prevails, represented by jagged ridges with steep slopes, carlings, karas, trough valleys, etc. The climatic features of the region are determined by the altitudinal zonality and the mountain barrier formed by the Vodorazdelny Range, which is oriented at an angle to the main moisture-bearing air flows coming from the west. The amount of precipitation ranges from 2000 mm in the western to 1500 m in the eastern.

The Central Caucasus experiences significant glaciation, 70% of the area of ​​which falls on the northern slope and about 30% on the southern slope, which is explained by the transfer of snow by westerly winds beyond the barrier of the Dividing Range and increased insolation of the southern slope. About 40 glaciers in the region have an area exceeding 5 sq. km, and five of them (Dykhsu, Bezengi, Karaugom, Lekzyr and Tsanner) have an area of ​​approximately 40 sq. km. The Elbrus ice cap is more than 140 km¤.

The weather in the region is not stable: sunny days, even in summer, are often replaced in the highlands by severe and long-lasting bad weather, up to 3-5 days. The Central Caucasus has rich opportunities for holding any sports trips and events. Hikes for beginners, hikes for parents with children, local and away mass gatherings and competitions, educational events (for both primary and advanced training), hikes in the off-season and in winter are practiced here. Within the region, mountain hikes of 1-6 grades can be carried out.

Subregions with technically simple pass routes, including the passes through the GKH indicated in brackets, include the Elbrus region (Donguzorun-1A), the upper reaches of the Chegem River (Tviber-1B) and Cherek Balkarsky (Sharivtsek-1A and Gezevtsek-1B), Digoria (Gebivtsek-1B) 1A and Gurdzivek-1B), Tepli-Dzhimarai-Kazbek (more than 10 passes of difficulty n/k and 1A) and the Svaneti ridge. The most technically complex sub-regions and mountain nodes are the section of the GKH between the peaks of Yusengi Uzlovaya and Ortokara, the Main and Side ridges in the Bezengi area, the Dykhtau-Koshtantau group, and Tsey-Karaug.The mountains of the Central Caucasus have convenient road access from Mineralnye Vody, Nalchik and Vladikavkaz. Routes can be started from points with bus service: Bylym, Tyrnyauz, Upper Baksan, Elbrus, Terskol, Bulungu, Bezengi, Upper Balkaria, Tashly-Tala, Matsuta, Dzinaga, Upper Zgid, Buron, Fiagdon in the north.

Eastern Caucasus

The Eastern Caucasus extends 480 km from Kazbek west to the Absheron Peninsula. It can be roughly divided into four regions. From the upper reaches of the Terek and Belaya Aragvi, the Ingushet-Khevsuret mountains, composed of very strong diabases, porphyrites, clayey and crystalline shales, stretch 50 km to the east. Here are the Kuro and Shavana ridges, popular with tourists and climbers, with technically difficult ridges, and the Chaukhi massif.

From the sources of Chantyargun and Khevsuret Aragvi, the Checheno-Tusheti mountains stretch 60 km to the east. They border a mountain cauldron open to the drainage of the Andiyskoe Koisu River. The GKH here is composed of clayey shales, which in some places are complemented by sandstones, porphyrites and diabases.

To the east, up to the Caspian Sea, the Azerbaijani mountains stretch for 150 km. The rocks that make up the region are shales, limestones, and tertiary clays. The Eastern Caucasus is lower than the Central Caucasus, many of its peaks exceed 4000 m. Mount Tebulosmta (4493 m) is the highest point of the region. The ridges of the Eastern Caucasus are composed mainly of soft rocks, which are relatively easily destroyed by erosion and weathering, creating characteristic landscapes with labyrinths of rugged ridges and deep gorges. The rivers are muddy, wild, and break through the mountains in deep canyons.

The height of the snow line in the Eastern Caucasus starts from 3700-3800 m, i.e. 700 m higher than in the Western Caucasus, and 300-400 m higher than in the Central Caucasus. The number of glaciers, despite the higher heights of ridges and peaks than in the Western Caucasus, is significantly less in the Eastern Caucasus. They are usually found on the highest mountain ranges, almost exclusively on their northern exposure. The glaciation area in the eastern Caucasus for the northern and southern slopes, respectively, occupies 114.4 sq. km and 1 sq. km. Most glaciers are cirque and valley glaciers.

The climate of the Eastern Caucasus is much drier than the climate of the Western and Central. In the highlands of the Eastern Caucasus, an average of 1000-1250 mm of precipitation falls per year, and on the southern slope of the GKH and in the mountains of Dagestan - 400-600 mm. This is due to the presence of condensers that block the path of moisture-saturated air flows coming from the Black Sea. First of all, this is Kazbek and the highest point of the Eastern Caucasus - Tebulosmta. The air flows suspended by these giants give rise to a large number of foggy days in Khevsureti and contribute to the occurrence of frequent summer thunderstorms with grain or hail with gusty winds of hurricane force.

The next high-altitude capacitor-barrier is the powerful Bogossky ridge. Here, humid currents of Black Sea air complete their journey to the east. Falling onto the ridge, they produce a large number of thunderstorms, fogs, and snow storms. Everywhere in the Eastern Caucasus, summers are hot, and winters are relatively mild, but unstable in the northern half and, as a rule, persistently warm in the southern half.Spring in the mountains is colder than autumn. In May, the rivers begin to fill with melt water, and it is time for rafting on tourist boats. But for cyclists, hikers and especially mountain tourists, even June is not the best time to travel. Autumn in the mountains of the Eastern Caucasus begins at the end of August. This is the safest, in terms of bad weather, sunny period for traveling in the local mountains. Often, September and the first half of October are the cloudiest, driest and warmest.The potential for tourism in the Eastern Caucasus is wide. About 20 passes of the highest category of difficulty and many simpler ones allow you to make mountain hikes of any difficulty category.

Armenian Highlands

The Armenian Highlands within the former USSR are located in the south of Transcaucasia, mainly on the territory of Armenia. It consists of lava-tuff plateaus with individual volcanic cones (Aragats and others) and small ridges separated by intermountain valleys. The highest point is Mount Aragats (4090 m). The average altitude of the territory is 1800 m above sea level. The Armenian Highlands are often called the land of extinct volcanoes. The echoes of mountain-building processes and volcanism are high seismicity and the release of numerous hot springs, the heralds of deep thermal sources. For mountain tourists in Armenia, the powerful Zangezur ridge and the Aragats massif are of significant interest.

The Zangezur ridge is one of the longest and highest ridges in Transcaucasia. Its peak Kaputdzhukh (3908 m) is second only to Aragats. The ridge is located in the southeast of Armenia. It has a meridional extension from the upper reaches of the Terter and Arpa rivers to the Araks and is a gigantic pile of folded mountains. This is the most mountainous, rugged part of not only Armenia, but the entire Transcaucasus.

The main waterway of Zangezur is the Vorotan River. It originates from the western slopes of the Karabakh Highlands, from the small Lake Zolos. flowing from northwest to southeast, at the 119th km of its course the river leaves the borders of Armenia and, joining the Akera River in Azerbaijan, flows into the Araks. Within Armenia, Vorotan makes a dizzying launch - from a height of 3045 m, where its sources are located, it descends to 700 m, i.e. at 2345 m.

The gorge, beautiful throughout the entire length of Zangezur, south of the small town of Sisian, amazes with its wild nature. The Vorotan River cut its channel through the rocky rocks here, creating deep canyon-like gorges, reaching 500-700 m in depth in places. Numerous historical monuments adorn this unique corner. The western slopes of the Zangezur ridge are occupied by steppe and semi-desert landscapes, on the eastern slopes there are partly broad-leaved forests, and ridge-mountain meadows.

Zangezur accounts for 20% of the republic's forests. The forests are dominated by Georgian oak, hornbeam and eastern oak. Chestnut and yew are found in places. In some places of Zangezur there are a lot of wild cherries, cherry plums, rose hips, pears, and there are hawthorn and rowan. In the vicinity of Kafan, wild grapes grow in places along the edges. The Zangezur region is the most remote and inaccessible region of the republic. The railway, running along the border river Araks, bypasses it, “touching” only the southern tip. The insurmountable Meghri ridge, a spur of the Zangezur ridge, fences off the railway from the interior parts of the region. The Minjevan-Kafan railway line is only 3-4 km within the district.

Zangezur is connected to other regions of the republic and its capital by highways. The most important of them connects it with Yerevan. It begins on the plain, enters the boundaries of Zangezur in the west and, crossing its territory, reaches the Araks River in the south. This road is laid through the Vorotan Pass with a height of 2344 m. Near the city of Goris, a highway leading to Nagorno-Karabakh branches off from it. From the side of Sevan, you can get to Zangezur along the Martuni-Elegnadzor highway, laid through the Hayots Dzor Pass at an altitude of 2500 m, which is slightly higher than the Cross Pass on the Georgian Military Road leading through the GKH.

Aragats massif. Aragats is the highest peak of the Armenian Highlands on the territory of Armenia. the peak has the shape of an oval shield topped with a convex shield with a circumference of about 200 km. The base of the mountain in the south lies at an altitude of 1000-1100 m, in the west - 1400-1500 m, in the east and north - 2000-2400 m. In the middle of the shield there are peaks located in a circle. The northernmost and highest of them reaches a height of 4090 m. The three other main peaks are only a few tens of meters lower than the first. All of them are remnants of the crater rims of an extinct volcano. The peaks of Aragats drop steeply to the crater lying between them in an oval valley measuring 2 x 1.6 km.

Most of the year the crater is covered with snow. Only by the end of July - mid-August does the snow melt, leaving snowfields and firn fields on the shaded slopes. At this time, in the center of the basin you can see the crater of the volcano, hidden between vertical rocks.

From the base of the peak, Aragats is composed of volcanic rocks (andesites, basalts, tuffs, dacites). The climate of the highland part of Aragats is harsh. In September it snows here, and in November winter is already in full swing. The duration of winter, heavy with snow, severe and blizzardy, is 6-7 months; during the rest of the year, frosty days are also not uncommon. Even in summer, in August, temperatures often drop below zero. In the pre-summit zone, the absolute minimum reaches -40°C. The snow melts off the slopes in May-June. The slopes of Aragats, facing the Ararat Plain, are more dry and continental than the northern ones.

The Aragats massif is an inexhaustible reservoir and source of water. Huge masses of snow accumulate on its slopes, giving birth to numerous streams and rivers. The summit belt has preserved clear traces of ancient glaciation. Here you can find carts, troughs, and various moraine accumulations. On Aragats there are several lakes of cirque origin - Kari, Baku, Lessinga. In glacial cirques there are traces of modern glaciation - patches of eternal snow, firn glaciers with an area of ​​​​about 5 sq. km. Climbing to the top is possible from different directions. The usual and most convenient route runs from the villages. Aragats, along the valley of the Gerakhot river and its left tributary.