Briefly about uranium - dustkhimkhabrprom. d. i. Mendeleev nuclear properties of uranium, occurrence in nature and radiotoxicity. Roman Kolyma kn3 ch5 Uranus of Kolyma ch1 Road to Hell Bill Herbst. Horoscope Houses
Appearance or clothing is something that distinguishes you from the crowd or demonstrates your belonging to any group. Uranus informs the character of independence, instability, originality. A person has a lively enterprising spirit, prone to adventures, ... about himself in a strange, from the point of view of decency, way. It is brash and harsh. Harmoniously Aspected Uranus creates conditions that favor improvisation, experiment, development of new ideas. Patronizes inventors, pioneers. Square...
https://www.site/magic/13393
A decisive influence on its fate, but affecting the fate of entire collectives or social groups. Uranus in houses Horoscope First house. Uranus In the first home- a messenger of chaos. Although the constellation of Aries suppresses the influence of Uranus, the planet will still incite ... with abilities. Sometimes there are serious relationship problems due to unwillingness to take responsibility. Eighth house. Uranus to be in the Sign of its exaltation - Scorpio. In this position, the planet enhances creativity...
https://www.site/journal/148662
Family, the desire to arrange a comfortable life on a grand scale, in accordance with the principle of the planet. Through the exaltation of Jupiter in home a person is strongly motivated to form a family and family life. Friendliness and support reign in this family... of a serious nature. Uranus at 4 home The family atmosphere is filled with power-hungry relationships, family members are in conflict because of the dissimilarity of characters. Quarrels in home dangerous by sharp and unexpected breaks with parents, escapes from their native Houses. Families can be shocked...
https://www.site/magic/13402
There may be elderly people, people in authority, representatives of the law. These enemies are hard to get around. Uranus in the seventh home External activity of a person has an uneven character, it is difficult to plan and foresee the course of development. It can... be compromised in a lawsuit, produce a big notoriety, the nature of which can be corruption. Interpretation of planets in the seventh home largely depends on the status of the planet in the sign, that is, on its potential energy, on the aspects that bind it ...
https://www.site/magic/13400
A person needs to retreat, to leave. If this desire is resisted, the fall can be fatal. Uranus at 10 o'clock home A career is associated with the latest modern professions, is possible through personal accumulation of experience in this area, or ... can provoke scandalous situations. The decisive phase of development develops by the age of 42. Neptune at 10 home Intuitive movement in the structure, indefinite intricate, mysterious way up, connected with semi-understandable, semi-spoken circumstances...
https://www.site/magic/13401
The house sleeps, in a dream a little, a little sighs.
And somewhere the floorboards creak.
He probably remembers in his sleep
How long has it been on the ground.
For the second hundred years, how many fates ...
Hopes, falls, ups and downs.
Kept warm, and again, again will be
Present...
https://www.site/poetry/1156475
They can last more than a month, and repeat several times a year due to the retrograde movement of this planet. The transit of Uranus Uranus occurs only once in a human life and falls on 83-84 years. If the native experiences this transit painlessly, then this ... this transit can manifest itself in the form of incurable diseases that must occur according to karmic laws. Uranus according to Neptune Literally, transit is interpreted as the loss of restrictions, which can be reflected in the growth of personality and expansion ...
5. PRODUCTION AND PURIFICATION OF URANIUM
5.1. Technologies of nuclear fuel The problem of using atomic energy required the creation of new industries associated with the production of initial nuclear fuel - uranium, materials for reactor building, processing of irradiated nuclear fuel. At present, the nuclear industry in the most developed industrial countries is a complex, multi-stage and extremely branched complex of a wide variety of industries (fuel cycle. Fuel cycle is a set of operations that include the following main stages of the general technological process: preparation of nuclear fuel from natural raw materials, burning it in a nuclear reactor, storage (storage) of irradiated nuclear fuel, regeneration (reprocessing) of spent fuel to obtain new, valuable products. production 2) mechanical processing of ores and obtaining uranium ore concentrates 3) obtaining rich chemical uranium concentrates 4) refining and obtaining nuclear-pure uranium compounds 5) production and processing of uranium fluoride salts 6) production of metallic uranium. Mines. Mining of uranium ore
↓ Enrichment plants. Obtaining uranium concentrates
↓ Uranium chemical plants. Obtaining rich uranium chemical concentrates
↓ Refineries. Obtaining nuclear-pure uranium compounds
↓
Plants for the production of uranium tetrafluoride
↓ ↓ Uranium metal production Uranium hexafluoride production
↓ ↓ Preparation of fuel rods based on metallic uranium and its alloys Plants for the separation of uranium isotopes
↓ ↓ ↓ Slow neutron nuclear reactors Uranium enriched Depleted
U to dump
46
↓ ↓ Radiochemical plants for plutonium recovery Processing into uranium dioxide or tetrafluoride
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ Uranium dioxide Production of enriched uranium metal
shards
Transura ny
Fabrication of items and fuel rods from plutonium Uranium Uranium regeneration
Production of fuel rods and products based on
235
U Fig. 6. Nuclear fuel technology complex
Due to the complex composition of most uranium ores and the low content of uranium in them, its extraction is a difficult problem for chemists. Indeed, uranium ores vary considerably in chemical composition. It may
there may be relatively simple uranium resins, which are accompanied by about 10 other minerals, and there may also be extremely complex and refractory titanates containing, along with uranium, rare earths and many other metals. Some ores contain up to 40 elements from which the uranium must be separated. Many uranium deposits are heterogeneous, which leads to an almost daily change in the composition of raw materials supplied for processing. Nevertheless, several options for the processing of uranium ores have been developed, including the following stages: 1) preliminary enrichment of the ore 2) leaching of uranium inlet phase with preliminary calcination (roasting 3) extraction of uranium from the resulting solutions using ion exchange resins, extraction, or direct precipitation 4) into In the case of ion-exchange separation and extraction, precipitation is carried out at the end to concentrate the separated uranium. The resulting highly enriched concentrate is sent for further purification to other plants.
5.2. Enrichment of uranium ores
Physical concentration methods and various sorting methods are used to enrich uranium ores, but unfortunately, only a few ores can be enriched using physical processes. If the uranium minerals are denser than most rock materials, then gravity separation methods can be used successfully. When extracting uranium from carbonate-containing ores by treatment with sulfuric acid, the flotation method is used. To increase the grade of uranium ores, both manual and mechanical sorting methods are used. In this case, individual large pieces of ore are sorted manually or using mechanical devices.
5.3. Leaching of uranium introductory phase Before leaching, the ore is subjected to high-temperature calcination. During oxidative annealing, it is possible to convert uranium into a soluble form, oxidize sulfur compounds, preventing poisoning of ion-exchange resins by it, and also remove reducing agents that interfere with the leaching stage. By reducing roasting, the uranium can be converted to the reduced form, preventing it from dissolving while the by-products are being recovered. Sodium chloride roasting is commonly used for ores containing vanadium, this process converts the vanadium into a soluble form. Leaching is the first chemical operation. All modern chemical processing methods include exposure of the ore to acidic or alkaline reagents. The choice of reagent in each individual case is determined by the chemical nature of the uranium compounds present in the ore and the ore rocks that accompany them. The acid reactant is usually sulfuric acid; hydrochloric acid is used as a by-product when the ore is roasted with NaCl. For uraninite and uranium tar during leaching, it is necessary to oxidize uranium to U(VI) by the action of such oxidizing agents as manganese dioxide, iron (III), chlorine or molecular oxygen. The most commonly used are manganese dioxide (5 kg per ton of ore) and chlorate ion (1.5 kg per ton of ore) in the presence of iron as a catalyst. The best-known form of acid treatment is kneading with water. The concentration of sulfuric acid at the same time by the end of the process corresponds to pH = 1.5; extraction times are typically up to 48 hours. Another option is percolation extraction, in which the solution is slowly filtered through the ore bed. One of the modifications of this method is full-scale trenching of low-grade ores through the ore in trenches 5–10 m deep and about 100 m long, the solution is slowly filtered, which is collected in a drainage channel. Another modification of percolation extraction in situ applied to ore masses having low permeability of the underlying rock and suitable porosity, consists in pumping an acidic solution into the ore wells, and pumping the enriched solution from other wells. This technology significantly reduces the cost of obtaining the final product. Thus, it is known that the cost of underground mining and transportation of ore to the plant is about 40% of the total cost of extracted uranium, while the cost of underground leaching and pumping of the production solution to the uranium plant does not exceed 5%. Up to the present time, methods developed in the USSR for underground leaching of uranium are used both from ores from deposits with hard rocks and from ores from sedimentary deposits. In the first case, leaching is carried out in underground blocks, in which ore, previously crushed by explosions, is stored. Blocks are irrigated with a solution of sulfuric acid. In the second case, the sulfuric acid solution is fed from the surface into the formation through one well, and the uranium-containing solution is removed from the formation through other wells equipped with airlift pumps. It should be noted that the in-situ leaching process is an extensive process that proceeds according to the laws of filtration leaching and has much in common with percolation in heap leaching. Uranium is extracted from solutions pumped to the surface using sorption-extraction technology, after which the solutions are again used for leaching. On fig. Figure 7 shows an in-situ leaching scheme at the Pinnacle Exploration Peach mine, which uses injection wells. This system is simple and efficient and provides safety, relatively low cost of U
3
O
8
and small investments. Leaching is typically carried out from a uranium-bearing sandstone formation at a maximum depth of 165 m.
3.6 m/year. In addition, the water near the uranium deposit has a high level of natural radioactivity and is undrinkable. This is often used to organize underground leaching of uranium, taking a number of measures to protect the environment and to prevent the penetration of uranium outside the leaching zone into sources of drinking water.
Rice. Scheme of underground leaching of uranium ore at the company's plant
Pinacle Exploration:
1
– pump 2
– recycled solution used for underground leaching
3
– uranium plant 4
– supply of saturated solution to the plant 5
– jumper On a 1 hectare site of a uranium deposit, up to 50 injection and 30 extraction wells can be drilled. The area is divided into squares. Injection wells are located along the periphery of the squares, and pumping wells are located in the center. The material for the pipes is PVC, which minimizes corrosion. Submersible type pumps are installed at the bottom of pumping wells. Equal flow rates of injection and pumping of solutions are very strictly controlled, as well as the possibility of migration of uranium-containing solutions outside the zone, which is carried out using a system of control wells along the outer contour of the site. All process control and management are concentrated on the central console. To increase the degree of extraction of uranium, oxygen is supplied to the reservoir. The solution after leaching, containing uranium in an amount of up to 200 mg/l, is transferred to a sorption plant located 3 km from the pumping cells, where, after control filtration on carbon filters, uranium is extracted using an anion exchanger. Desorption is carried out with a solution of NaCl, and the resulting uranium regenerate contains about 10 hl. It is passed through a column of charcoal to remove impurities, in particular molybdenum, and then sent to ammonia precipitation. The resulting pulp of the chemical concentrate is thickened, filtered, dried,
50
packaged in drums for shipment to a plant for the production of uranium hexafluoride. The solution after the sorption extraction of uranium, if necessary, is additionally strengthened with reagents and sent again to the injection wells of the natural environment, in particular, to restore the initial composition of formation waters in the aquifer and bring the surface of the site back to its original form. Engineering solutions for environmental protection are interesting. All generated liquid waste is stored in tanks lined with polyethylene. The volume and surface of evaporation in such tanks are calculated so that, taking into account rains, the amount of evaporated moisture is equivalent to the volume of chemical waste received annually. The final disposal of polluted wastes is carried out by pumping them into two wells with a depth of 1370 m. This allows the fresh water of the aquifer to flush the leaching zone and restore the composition of formation waters in the aquifer to its original value. Then the injection and extraction wells are filled with cement and all pipes are cut. The site is sown with grass and, as provided by the project, takes its original form in a short time. At uranium plants using traditional technology, up to 99.8% of the raw materials entering the plant are usually dumped into tailings. This amounts to approximately 0.9 tons of solid and liquid waste for every ton of ore processed, those. about 1 ton of waste per 1 kg of extracted uranium The volume of waste in in-situ leaching depends on the specifics of the process used, but in all cases it is significantly lower than in conventional leaching. It is especially low when carbonate leaching is used in the reservoir conditions of the ore body, when almost 100% return of spent solutions to the cycle is possible. In such cases, the amount of waste is no more than 1–2 kg per 1 kg of mined uranium, which is equivalent to only 1–2 tons of waste for every 1500 labor, which in this case remains almost completely in place underground. Of no small importance is the fact that due to the complete return to the production cycle of carbonate solutions, the volume of fluid in the reservoir under development remains constant, natural hydraulic gradients outside the working zone do not change. Thus, it can be stated that the method of underground leaching of uranium is becoming more widespread. As established at present, the use of in-situ leaching by the carbonate method is most effective for the extraction of uranium from ores of sedimentary deposits of the reservoir type. There is reason to believe that after the realization of the possibility of crushing ore bodies to the required degree and leaching of rock-type ores, the method of in-situ leaching will also be used for the development of poor ores composed of dense rocks. The in situ leaching method, however, has its drawbacks depending on the permeability of the reservoir and other uncontrolled mining and geological conditions, and in some cases
– the difficulty of achieving an acceptable degree of uranium recovery in complex multilayered reservoirs. In addition to those described, there are two more acid treatment methods for ores containing sulfides or sulfur. This is, firstly, the extraction of uranium into a solution under air pressure, which plays the role of an oxidizing agent at an elevated temperature (150 Civ); secondly, bacterial extraction (bacteria Thiobacillus ferrooxi-
dans single-celled organisms with a diameter of 0.25 µm and a length of 1 µm) under aerobic conditions at ambient temperatures. In both cases, the dissolution of uranium is accompanied by the oxidation of iron and sulfur compounds. Solutions for bacterial leaching are prepared in a special pool, where air is supplied and where, with the help of bacteria, part of the ferrous iron is converted into oxide. Then the solutions with pH = 2.5-2.9 containing needles are pumped by pumps into the wells, through which they enter the ore-bearing layer during in-situ leaching or into the irrigation system during heap leaching. After the extraction of uranium from the production solutions, the latter are returned to the bacterial pool for regeneration.
52
Bacterial leaching has not yet become widespread in the practice of uranium production, however, as a very promising direction, it is being persistently studied on a laboratory, pilot and small industrial scale. Although acidizing is an excellent method for many ores and almost the only suitable for basic refractory ores, such as euxinit, davidite and brannerite, its application has several limitations. Most uranium minerals are soluble in dilute sulfuric acid in the presence of oxidizing agents, but many ores contain other minerals such as calcite, dolomite, and magnesite, which consume significant amounts of acid and make acid treatment uneconomical. In such cases, carbonate solutions are used to extract uranium. Typically, carbonate leaching is carried out using 0.5–
1.0 M sodium carbonate solution. The use of carbonate solutions follows from the good stability of uranyl tricarbonate ions UO
2
(CO
3
3 4 - aqueous solution at a low concentration of hydroxide ions. As a result, uranium (VI) is soluble in carbonate solution, unlike a large number of other metal ions, which form insoluble carbonates or hydroxides. Thus sodium carbonate releases uranium substantially more selectively than sulfuric acid. Minerals containing uranium in lower oxidation states are insoluble in carbonate solutions and therefore require oxidizing agents for their processing. Oxygen (often under pressure) at a temperature of 95–120 C is usually used as an oxidizing agent in the process of carbonate leaching in apparatus with air mixing of the ore. Under oxidizing conditions, especially at elevated temperatures, it is possible to extract uranium from simple oxides and some other uranium(IV) minerals, such as coffinite. The disadvantages of the same method include a lower degree of extraction of uranium, compared with acid treatment, and its unsuitability for ores with a high content of gypsum and sulfides.
54
5.4. Recovery of Uranium from Solutions Recovery of uranium from solutions after acid or alkali treatment can be carried out by various methods, including chemical selective precipitation, ion exchange and extraction. Processes for selective chemical precipitation of uranium were intensively used only at the dawn of uranium production in the late 1940s–1950s. The settling technology turned out to be cumbersome and complex, so it was later abandoned. In ion exchange schemes, uranium (VI) is extracted from sulfate or carbonate solutions on anion exchange resins. For the sulfate system, both weakly basic and strongly basic resins are used, and in the case of alkaline carbonate solutions, only strongly basic ones are used. In practice, the choice of resin is determined by several factors: sorption and desorption kinetics, resin particle size, its physical and chemical stability, selectivity, hydrodynamic characteristics and exchange capacity. Desorption of uranium from anion exchange resins in sulfate or carbonate processes is usually carried out using a M solution of NaCl or NaNO
3
. In the sulfate process, the eluent is acidified, and in the carbonate process, some carbonate or bicarbonate is added to it to prevent hydrolysis. Despite the selectivity of the process, vanadates, sulfate complexes of molybdenum, polythionates, cyanide complexes of cobalt and gold are retained as impurities in acidic media by ion exchangers. Among the "harmful" components that worsen the sorption of uranium, the carbonate process contains vanadate, arsenate, phosphate, silicate ions, as well as complexes of titanium, thorium, hafnium, niobium, and antimony. The extraction process has a certain advantage over the ion-exchange purification of uranium from primary ore extracts, since the extraction is quite simply carried out in a continuous countercurrent mode. The extraction purification of uranium from impurities was first used in his experiments back in the 19th century by E. Peligo, who first established the high solubility of uranyl nitrate in diethyl ether. These observations were used in early technological schemes for uranium refining. Later, diethyl ether began to be used as an extractant and in the reprocessing of irradiated nuclear fuel. It should be noted that diethyl ether is a very specific, extremely unpleasant substance from the point of view of technology due to its high fire and explosion hazard. Therefore, in the future, the efforts of researchers and technologists in many countries were directed to the selection and synthesis of other more promising extractants, which, having the advantages of diethyl ether, would not have its disadvantages. They were subject to the following requirements
high distribution coefficient of uranium during extraction, which is the most important characteristic of the extractant
selectivity and selectivity for uranium
low mutual solubility of the organic reagent inlet and water in it, also fast and complete phase separation
chemical, oxidative and radiation resistance of the extractant minimal volatility, viscosity, toxicity
the highest possible flash point, and even better, complete incombustibility;
relatively low cost, availability and ease of synthesis. As a result of systematic research, extractants that meet these requirements were selected and synthesized. It should be noted that this work turned out to be extremely important in the future for the development of extraction schemes for separating plutonium from irradiated uranium in the framework of the uranium project. It is known that the extraction of uranium from the aqueous into the organic phase during extraction occurs as a result of the chemical interaction of hydrated metal ions with extractants with the formation of new compounds soluble in the organic phase. The reverse process, the re-extraction of uranium, is associated with the destruction of the extracted form and the transition of uranium to the introductory phase.
Extractants are divided into three groups according to the mechanism of their interaction. The first group includes neutral extractants - alcohols, ethers and esters, aldehydes, ketones and neutral organophosphorus compounds. The extraction of metals is accompanied by the formation of solvates and occurs due to their complex formation with the displacement of water from the inner coordination sphere of the H + 2(C
2
H
5
2
O=
=
2
(N0 3
2
+ H. These extractants extract uranium and a number of other elements mainly from nitric acid solutions and are characterized by a very high solubility (capacity) of the resulting solvates in excess solvent. It reaches in some cases the solubility of uranyl nitrate in the input for diethyl ether up to 51
%, TBP up to 25%, isoamyl alcohol up to 44%. The main characteristics of some neutral extractants are given in table. 6. Table 6 Characteristics of the properties of some neutral extractants Extractant
T
kip
, C Injection solubility, g g
Density,
g/cm
3
T
vsp
, С Viscosity, cP Diethyl ether
(WITH
2
H
5
2
O
Methyl isobutyl ketone
(CH
3
2
CH–CH
2
CO–CH
3
Tributyl Phosphate
(WITH
4
H
9
3
RO
4
Diisoamyl ester of methylphosphonic acid
[CH
3
(CH
2
4
O
2
]=RO–CH
3 34,5 73,6 289 256 7,5 3,7 0,6 0,045 0,71 0,81 0,97 1,0
–41
–7 145 Not combustible
0,24
–
3.45 3–4 The second group is a series of organic acids, for example, acetylacetone, thenoyl trifluoroacetone, acid alkyl phosphates (Table 7), which are of great importance in uranium technology. Acid alkyl phosphates, phosphonates and phosphinates form with uranyl ion (a
Resolution (for 8*8 cm format, on Isopanchrome type 22 film – according to photohistory.ru data) center/edge: 44/8 lines/mm;
Field of view angle in native format (8*8 cm): 54 degrees;
Aperture limits: F / 2.5-F / 16;
Diaphragm design: twelve-bladed, rounded, non-blackened, without preset mechanism and ratchet;
Thread diameter for filters: no, smooth nozzles 76 mm;
Fastening: cast flange for fastening to an aerial camera;
Focuser: none;
Features: applicable to all visible light, orthoscopic.
Uran-27 is an infrequent technical lens that was used for aerial photography with cameras of the AFA-39 type. Produced, apparently, at the Kazan OMZ, judging by the nameplates of early lenses.
Design and key features of Uran-27 adaptation
Uran-27 is a massive metal lens block with a diaphragm with a large cast flange of an unusual shape.
The indecent dimensions of the lens, especially its non-removable flange, complicate adaptation. But Uran-27 has a fairly large rear section, which allows you to put it on any small-format CZK. But for medium format DSLRs, the segment may well not be enough.
My lens had oil condensate inside (it came from the diaphragm over many years of storage), which required complete disassembly and cleaning. It is worth noting here that, like any product of the Soviet military-industrial complex, this lens has a simply monumental foolproof design - each retaining ring is seated on 1-3 locking screws; each part is thick, strong and metal, the lens blocks have their own numbers and are planted in accordance with the risks applied. It is immediately felt that the lens is assembled extremely high quality.
After service, adaptation was carried out:
- Dremel neatly sawed off the mounting flange - we do not need it. Again, I take my hat off to the engineers - there is as much metal in this flange as there is in a dozen G-44-2s.
- A threaded focuser was ordered due to the heavy weight of the lens. The focuser consists of two glasses - on the inner thread (like a screw, with a pitch of 36 mm, 1 mm high and 2 mm wide) and another round of a similar thread (groove), only in the manner of a “nut” (depth and other parameters are those same) - for the stock. The outer glass is a counterpart ("nut") to the thread of the inner one, it has a bottom with an M42 thread for attaching to the camera.
- Details were ground, painted, assembled. The Uran-27 lens was fixed in the inner glass.
In the end, we got such a heavy barrel that can be fastened to any modern small-format camera:
Optical properties of the Uran-27 lens
Despite the fact that the lens is designed for a medium format - an 8 * 8 cm frame, it has enough resolution even on a modern digital crop) on which we use only the center of the coverage spot). This means that we have a stable 44 lines/mm across the frame.
An open aperture can be safely called a working one.
By the way, about the diaphragm - in Uranus-27 it is beautiful, large and even:
Uran-27 uses the old palette of optical glasses and the old type of enlightenment - single-layer, "blue". Due to this, it is very yellow in the light:
It seems to me that this is the main drawback of the lens, because blue coating not only distorts colors (leads to the green-yellow area), but also introduces its own reflections and blue highlights. As a result, it is very difficult to correct a picture distorted by a blue veil and an excess of yellow light. By the way, the lens does not digest flare - the slightest backlight plunges it into the "blue abyss".
However, this is solved by high-quality blackening of the back of the focuser and, of course, an 8 cm hood (which is planned to be made). In addition, you can apply a pink Sky-Light filter to reduce the effect of green light on the image - as a result, the lens will simply warm the image by ~ 500K, but no more.
Of the aberrations, chromatism affects the picture the most - it often appears in contrasting details at an open aperture. Spherical aberrations are quite small.
With aperture already at a stop or two, the sharpness becomes very, very high.
Uran-27 has, in my opinion, a very nice picture - it has excellent bokeh, good sharpness. Even distorted color reproduction on a sunny day is appropriate, giving the picture an interesting effect.
Donetsk Business Lyceum
student 11MIP
Bien B class
teacher Alfimov D.V
Donetsk 2010
Definition of uranium
Uranium (obsolete version - uranium) - a chemical element with atomic number 92 in the periodic system, atomic mass 238.029; denoted by the symbol U (lat. Uranium), belongs to the family of actinides.
History of uranium
Even in ancient times (I century BC), natural uranium oxide was used to make yellow glaze for ceramics. Research on uranium has evolved like the chain reaction it generates. At first, information about its properties, like the first impulses of a chain reaction, came with long breaks, from case to case. The first important date in the history of uranium is 1789, when the German natural philosopher and chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth restored the golden-yellow "earth" extracted from the Saxon resin ore to a black metal-like substance. In honor of the most distant planet then known (discovered by Herschel eight years earlier), Klaproth, considering the new substance an element, called it uranium (by this he wanted to support the proposal of Johann Bode to name the new planet "Uranus" instead of "Georg's Star", as Herschel suggested). For fifty years, Klaproth's uranium was considered a metal. Only in 1841, the French chemist Eugene Melchior Peligot (fr. Eugene-Melchior Péligot (1811-1890)) proved that, despite the characteristic metallic luster, Klaproth's uranium is not an element, but an oxide UO 2 . In 1840, Peligo succeeded in obtaining real uranium - a heavy steel-gray metal - and determining its atomic weight. The next important step in the study of uranium was made in 1874 by D. I. Mendeleev. Based on the periodic system he developed, he placed uranium in the farthest cell of his table. Previously, the atomic weight of uranium was considered equal to 120. The great chemist doubled this value. After 12 years, Mendeleev's prediction was confirmed by the experiments of the German chemist Zimmermann. The study of uranium began in 1896: the French chemist Antoine Henri Becquerel accidentally discovered Becquerel rays, which Marie Curie later renamed radioactivity. At the same time, the French chemist Henri Moissan managed to develop a method for obtaining pure metallic uranium. In 1899, Rutherford discovered that the radiation of uranium preparations is non-uniform, that there are two types of radiation - alpha and beta rays. They carry a different electrical charge; far from the same range in the substance and ionizing ability. A little later, in May 1900, Paul Villard discovered a third type of radiation - gamma rays. Ernest Rutherford conducted in 1907 the first experiments to determine the age of minerals in the study of radioactive uranium and thorium based on the theory of radioactivity he created together with Frederick Soddy (Soddy, Frederick, 1877-1956; Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1921). In 1913, F. Soddy introduced the concept of isotopes (from other Greek ἴσος - “equal”, “same”, and τόπος - “place”), and in 1920 predicted that isotopes could be used to determine the geological age of rocks. In 1928 Niggot realized, and in 1939 A. O. K. Nier (Nier, Alfred Otto Carl, 1911 - 1994) created the first equations for calculating age and applied a mass spectrometer for isotope separation. In 1938, German physicists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann discovered an unpredictable phenomenon that occurs with a uranium nucleus when it is irradiated with neutrons. Capturing a free neutron, the nucleus of the uranium isotope 235 U is divided, while a sufficiently large energy is released (per one uranium nucleus), mainly due to the kinetic energy of the fragments and radiation. Later, the theory of this phenomenon was substantiated by Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch. This discovery was the source of both peaceful and military use of intra-atomic energy. In 1939-1940. Yu. B. Khariton and Ya. B. Zeldovich for the first time theoretically showed that with a slight enrichment of natural uranium with uranium-235, it is possible to create conditions for the continuous fission of atomic nuclei, that is, to give the process a chain character ..
Isotopes of uranium
Isotopes of uranium are varieties of atoms (and nuclei) of the chemical element uranium, which have a different content of neutrons in the nucleus. At the moment, 26 isotopes of uranium and 6 more excited isomeric states of some of its nuclides are known. Three isotopes of uranium occur in nature: 234 U (isotope abundance 0.0055%), 235 U (0.7200%), 238 U (99.2745%). The nuclides 235 U and 238 U are the founders of the radioactive series - the actinium series and the radium series, respectively. The nuclide 235 U is used as a fuel in nuclear reactors, as well as in nuclear weapons (due to the fact that a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction is possible in it). The nuclide 238U is used to produce plutonium,239 which is also extremely important both as a fuel for nuclear reactors and in the production of nuclear weapons.
Physical properties
Uranium is a very heavy, silvery-white, shiny metal. In its pure form, it is slightly softer than steel, malleable, flexible, and has slight paramagnetic properties. Uranium has three allotropic forms: alpha (prismatic, stable up to 667.7 °C), beta (quadrangular, stable from 667.7 °C to 774.8 °C), gamma (with a body-centered cubic structure existing from 774, 8 °C to melting point).
Chemical properties
Chemically, uranium is a very active metal. Rapidly oxidizing in air, it is covered with an iridescent oxide film. Fine uranium powder spontaneously ignites in air; it ignites at a temperature of 150-175 °C, forming U3O8. At 1000 °C, uranium combines with nitrogen to form yellow uranium nitride. Water is capable of corroding metal, slowly at low temperatures, and quickly at high temperatures, as well as with fine grinding of uranium powder. Uranium dissolves in hydrochloric, nitric and other acids, forming tetravalent salts, but does not interact with alkalis. Uranium displaces hydrogen from inorganic acids and salt solutions of metals such as mercury, silver, copper, tin, platinum and gold. With strong shaking, the metal particles of uranium begin to glow.
Application
Nuclear fuel. The uranium isotope 235U has the greatest application, in which a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction is possible. Therefore, this isotope is used as fuel in nuclear reactors, as well as in nuclear weapons. Separation of the isotope U235 from natural uranium is a complex technological problem. The isotope U238 is capable of fission under the influence of bombardment with high-energy neutrons, this feature is used to increase the power of thermonuclear weapons (neutrons generated by a thermonuclear reaction are used).
Uranium-233, artificially produced in reactors from thorium (thorium-232 captures a neutron and turns into thorium-233, which decays into protactinium-233 and then into uranium-233), may in the future become a common nuclear fuel for nuclear power plants (already now there are reactors using this nuclide as fuel, for example KAMINI in India) and the production of atomic bombs (critical mass of about 16 kg). Uranium-233 is also the most promising fuel for gas-phase nuclear rocket engines.
Geology. The main application of uranium in Geology is the determination of the age of minerals and rocks in order to determine the sequence of geological processes. Geochronology does this.
The solution of the problem of mixing and sources of matter is also essential. Due to the fact that rocks contain different concentrations of uranium, they have different radioactivity. This property is used in the selection of rocks by geophysical methods. This method is most widely used in petroleum geology for geophysical well surveys, this complex includes, in particular, γ-logging or neutron gamma-ray logging, gamma-gamma ray logging, etc. With their help, reservoirs and seals are identified.
Other applications
A small addition of uranium imparts a beautiful yellow-green fluorescence to the glass (see Uranium glass).
Sodium uranate Na 2 U 2 O 7 was used as a yellow pigment in painting.
Uranium compounds were used as paints for painting on porcelain and for ceramic glazes and enamels (colored in colors: yellow, brown, green and black, depending on the degree of oxidation).
Some uranium compounds are photosensitive.
At the beginning of the 20th century, uranyl nitrate was widely used to enhance negatives and stain (tint) positives (photographic prints) brown.
Uranium-235 carbide in an alloy with niobium carbide and zirconium carbide is used as a fuel for nuclear jet engines (the working fluid is hydrogen + hexane). Alloys of iron and depleted uranium (uranium-238) are used as powerful magnetostrictive materials.
The higher planets act on the spiritual plane if they stand strong. On the material plane, they act in other cases. The strength of the higher planets must be looked at not by signs, because. this is the position of a whole generation, but at home.
A weak position is considered if the planet / this applies to all planets / is in the included sign, because. there is no exit to the top of the house and its action is not directly, but through neighboring signs, and it occurs with delays and is weakened. The action of the planet takes place more on an unconscious level, with great difficulty, because. it is difficult for her to find her natural way out and she does not act directly, introducing indignation into neighboring signs. The action is karmic. Anxiety and stress spill out into a neighboring house.
A higher planet is strong if it is in a house with a significator, the ruler of ASC, in conjunction with the Sun or the Moon, if the Sun is its dispositor, is the lord of the horoscope. If she stands in the pen, but in a weak position, then she only creates difficulties. The higher planets act directly if a person is developed enough for this.
On the material plane, Uranus acts badly if it is not connected with uranium activity.
When Uranus aspects a house, it is the same as that he is standing there, because. is the cause of change. For example: 5th house in one and a half squares 7th house - a feeling destroyed by marriage. 4th house - abrupt changes in the house. 10th house - uranium abilities that manifest themselves in this area. Non-standard circumstances in the house where it stands, but professional houses must be excluded.
In ordinary life, the higher planets act destructively. They are cramped in the Saturn framework, but they need a way out. If a person does not understand this, then it is crowded everywhere and he is discharged.
Uranium misfortunes are easily transformed if a person is engaged in occult practice, philosophy.
In thinking, he does not like to be smeared. Frequent shifts in thinking. Consider the conjunction of Uranus with the planets:
With Mercury - exact connection / 1, 2 house / not good for thinking, speech impairment, but a tendency to non-standard thinking.
With Venus - a person hardly creates a family, goes to other areas. He seems to be thrown out of the sphere of Venus, gives unexpected turns in feelings, emotional instability. Seeking a more spiritual or platonic relationship. Uranus, as it were, "dries up" Venus.
With Mars - a traumatic aspect, a person is impulsive, assertive.
Aspects with social planets - reformers, social reformers. They create secret societies / in the 12th house /. Conjunction with Jupiter and Saturn is difficult, much depends on the house in which it is located. Such people stabilize very late. Detachment from society. A tense image of the father.
With Jupiter - non-standard, associative people. The desire to be the best in the professional field. Social romanticism, good for religious, philosophical, spiritual practice.
With Saturn - unwillingness to obey external norms.
With Pluto - energy aspect.
Uranus gives late maturation.
U R A N V 1 D O M E
This is noticeable on the outside. Body type shape:
1.ASC;
2. Moon by sign;
3. The position of the lord of the horoscope according to the sign;
4. Rising planet.
The face is affected by the planet aspecting the ASC.
If Uranus is in the 1st house, then a thin, tall body is characteristic of a person / but not always /. A strong higher planet is visible in the eyes. Uranus gives a dark sheen, a direct look - point-blank, concentrated, a manner of looking directly into the eyes, slightly tilting the head / unconsciously using the third eye /. The forehead catches the eye.
Usli Neptune on ASC - the look floats, the sea in the eyes, blur. Buoyancy in motion.
If Pluto is on ASC - a steely gleam in the eyes, a feeling of inner concentration.
1st house enhances intuition if the higher planets are in it. Color the character with their own color.
Uranus gives greater independence, strengthens the will. A sharp unexpected turn in behavior is possible. Uranus does not give pronounced events /injuries, etc./. It is necessary to look if it is located near the 2nd house, then it can give diseases: nervous, concussions, gallbladder, injuries. Intuition of Uranus through thought.
If there are tense aspects, then impulsivity, a violation of the nervous system, exalted speech and demeanor are possible. Man has a rare inner strength. Bumping into obstacles breaks, overcomes with pressure. Risk causes a feeling of joy. The transformation of energy goes through effort, not relaxation.
U R A N V O 2 D O M E
He does not give money, rather destroys. He can give means / uranium / to earn money. Inventive thinking / or Uranus aspects the 2nd house /. Gives ingenuity and riskiness. A person can receive energy from uranium things /ionizer in the room, mountains, starry sky, etc./. When the sky is open and the stars are visible, the energy is open and they can feed on it.
Uranus at the top of the second house - birth trauma, nervous instability are possible. If it is positively aspected, then the energy is stable. Uranus located in the 1st and 2nd houses speaks of the nature of childbirth / quick or premature /.
Tense aspects can lead to the destruction of well-being, health, unexpected shock situations, injuries, operations.
U R A N V 3 D O M E
Contact, sociability, a large circle of acquaintances, love of reading. At a more mature age, attraction to uranium spheres. Situations with relatives /injuries, etc./. Success is possible in the field of uranium sciences.
U R A N V 4 D O M E
Nervousness, especially in childhood, instability / emotional / in the house, irascibility of relatives or the person himself. Frequent moving, at some time will not be at home. tendency to travel abroad. Tension aspects - troubles with relatives / with whom a person lives /, injuries, death, break / not with him /.
Chaos in the house. Uranus has a great influence on the emotional sphere.
The angular position of Uranus is shock / especially in childhood /, non-standard shocks are possible: moving from a quiet place to a noisy city. Such people, even when everything gets better, carry them somewhere. They often get electrocuted.
In the synastry, if Uranus is in the 4th house of the partner, then this is not very good.
U R A N V 5 D O M E
Vivid emotionality, emotional jolts, love interests / unexpected, sudden /. Instability in feelings, but a tendency to great depth, despite the irrepressibility of the heart. Talks about the nature of children. In the female chart indicates the danger of miscarriage, abortion, trauma during childbirth / when she will give birth /. It is not advisable for such people to risk money - they lower everything at once.
U R A N V 6 D O M E
May indicate a uranium profession, a person can use electronics or a computer in their activities. Greater independence at work, or work in a free mode. Irregularity in health, especially during transits.
U R A N V 7 D O M E
Independence in marriage, or a uranium partner, or uranium circumstances when meeting, or a sharp break. Opposition with 1 house - partners unexpectedly let down. It is necessary that there be something uranium that will fill a person.
U R A N V 8 D O M E
Good for occult studies, deep scientific abilities, if associated with the house of knowledge - occult abilities / sometimes after trauma /. Uranus in the 8th house - a shock experienced in childhood / clinical death, etc. /. Danger of accidents /automobile/, injury. Neurosis, especially if there is an aspect to the 12th and 6th houses. Unusual circumstances when a person faces death. Death by suffocation. Thoughts of suicide. For a female card - danger with a child if the 5th house is affected.
U R A N B 9 D O M E
Close to MS strong occult abilities, astrological abilities. Non-standard understanding of the world. They are cramped in the church. In the sphere of worldview they appear late. Unusual abilities of parents / uranium type /. Someone in the family had unusual uranium abilities and passed them on by inheritance. In the professional sphere - uranium type of thinking. Love for travel, non-standard circumstances on trips. If there is an aspect with Venus - unexpected acquaintances, with Mercury - violations of the schedule, with Mars - conflicts. Indicates a move, a profession, something will happen in a person’s life that will affect his worldview. Unexpected solutions, ideas.
With high Uranus, a person feels the authority of the Absolute, and everyone else is equal.
U R A N B 10 D O M E
Indicates a specific childhood trauma /head, skull/. Many contactees /with Uranus in the 10th house/ - more in forms. The aspect with Mercury strives to get to the bottom, to understand the structure of the overall structural picture. Unusual behavior at work.
When Uranus is close to the MC from the side of the 9th or 10th house, then a person feels well the energy, cosmic flows, vertical energy.
A serious manifestation of Uranus in opposition to its radical position, and in childhood traumatism, moving, conflicts with parents, with superiors.
U R A N B 11 D O M E
Idealists. High susceptibility to uranium ideas /spiritual/. Indicates a sharp change in life. A wide circle of friends, at least once in a lifetime, drastically change the circle of their friends. Idealists in love. Carriers of social ideas. Authoritarianism, travel. Uranium enthusiasm is characteristic - one idea that completely absorbs a person can capture.
U R A N B 12 D O M E
Indicates severe shock in childhood. Trouble with relatives. Forced relocations. social instability. Good home for astrology. Proximity to secret structures /6.8, especially 12th house/, but you need to look at the aspects of Pluto. It influences a person's character. The 12th house is the place of clamped Uranus and if a person is not engaged in the occult, then it is very difficult for him to find a way out.