Literary studio at the Luhansk organization of small and medium-sized businesses. Poetic devices

Many researchers have repeatedly noted that stylistic devices are most clearly reflected in poetic texts. Stylistic devices are a means of connecting sentences in the structure of a complex poetic whole. By organizing the connection of the micro context with the surrounding context, stylistic devices perform a text-forming function, contribute to increasing the overall expressiveness of the poetic text, and the organization of its special rhythm and melody. In stylistics, there is also such a thing as poetic devices. According to Kvyatkovsky’s definition, poetic devices (tropes) are transformations of language units, consisting in the transfer of a traditional name to another subject area. Most often, imagery and expressiveness is achieved through the stylistic use of lexical units. The author uses words in a figurative sense (in the form of metaphors, metonymies, synecdoches or epithets), compares them with the meaning of other words (through comparisons), contrasts different meanings within the same word or the meaning of words - homonyms, etc.

The author includes among poetic devices: epithets, comparison, metaphor, personification, metonymy, litotes, hyperbole, oxymoron, pun, etc. An epithet is one of the tropes, a figurative definition of an object (phenomenon), expressed mainly by an adjective, but also by an adverb, a noun , numeral, verb. Unlike the usual logical definition, which distinguishes a given object from many (“quiet ringing”), an epithet either highlights one of its properties in an object (“proud horse”), or, like a metaphorical epithet, transfers the properties of another object to it (“a proud horse”). living trace").

Comparison is a figurative verbal expression in which the depicted phenomenon is likened to another according to some common characteristic in order to identify new, important properties in the object of comparison: Metaphor is a type of trope based on the transfer of the properties of one object to another, according to the principle of their similarity in in some way or by contrast. In metaphor, various features (what the object is likened to and the properties of the object itself) are presented in a new undivided unity of the artistic image.

Personification is a special type of metaphor based on the transfer of human traits (more broadly, the traits of a living being) onto inanimate objects and phenomena. The following types of impersonation are distinguished:

• 1) personification as a stylistic figure inherent in any expressive speech: “the heart speaks”, “the river plays”;
• 2) personification in folk poetry and individual lyrics as a metaphor, close in its role to psychological parallelism;
• 3) personification as a symbol that grows out of a system of private personifications and expresses the author’s idea.

Metonymy is a type of trope based on the principle of contiguity. Hyperbole is a stylistic figure or artistic device based on the exaggeration of certain properties of the depicted object or phenomenon: “The sunset burned with one hundred and forty suns...” (V. Mayakovsky).

Litota is a trope, the opposite of hyperbole: understatement of the attribute of an object (“little man-s-nail”, “boy-s-thumb”).

Irony (in stylistics) is an allegory expressing mockery or slyness, when a word or statement takes on a meaning in the context of speech that is opposite to the literal meaning or denies it, calling it into question. Irony is reproach and contradiction under the guise of approval and agreement.

An oxymoron is a compressed and therefore paradoxical-sounding antithesis, usually in the form of an antonymous noun with an adjective or a verb with an adverb.

A pun is a play on words based on their polysemy (polysemy), homonymy or sound similarity, in order to achieve a comic effect. A special role in the literary language, in its literary-book variety (in the written type of speech), is played by words and phraseological combinations, known as poetisms.

This concept is also often used in words with a high, solemn connotation. The term “poetism” itself indicates the limitation of the use of words to a certain style of language, namely the style of artistic speech. Contrasting the language of poetry with the language of prose, not in terms of the rhythmic-phonetic and figurative features of each of these types of literary speech, but in terms of a special vocabulary supposedly characteristic of poetry, has its own historical and literary tradition.

The special vocabulary and phraseology of poetic works, which are supposedly designed to maintain a special aura of poetry, tends to break away from the generally used vocabulary of the national language.

Academician S.I. Vinogradov characterizes the role of poetism in language as follows: “a web of “poetic” words and images envelops reality, “stylizing” it to fit given literary norms and canons. The word is divorced from the real object. Involved in the system of literary styles, words here were selected and grouped into images, into phraseological series, which froze, became stereotyped and became conventional symbols of certain phenomena or characters, certain ideas or ideas.”

Poeticisms represent a heterogeneous layer of words in the modern English language, including archaisms that are revived by poets in special stylistic tasks, for example, the use of words such as whilome, ne, leman and many others in the first stanzas of the first song of Childe Harold. These archaic poetisms also include forms that are obsolete for modern English, such as, for example, the forms of the 3rd person singular present tense - eth (casteth) and words, one of the meanings of which is obsolete.

So, for example, in the sentence “Deserted is my own good hall, its hearth is desolate” - the word “hall” has the meaning palace - palace, castle, house - a meaning that is now archaic.

Here are a few examples of the most commonly used poeticisms in the English language. Nouns: billow (wave), swain (peasant), main (sea). Adjectives: yon (there), staunch (firm), hallowed (holy). Verbs: quit (leave), fare (walk), trow (believe). Strong forms of the past tense are preferably used: wrought (worked), bade (bid), clad (clothed). Adverbs: haply (perhaps), oft (often), whilome (formerly). Pronouns: thee, ye, aught (anything), naught (nothing). Conjunctions: albeit `although), ere (before) o"er (over), etc.

In addition to archaisms, poetisms include words that, due to their frequent use in poetry, have not become archaisms, that is, have not become obsolete in their use, but have crystallized as a certain poetic terminology. In other words, they can be considered as poetic terms. These words include the words bard poet, woe grief, billow wave, steed and charger horse, etc.

Further, it is necessary to include words that can be called rarely used as poetism. These are usually words borrowed from different periods from French, Latin and other languages, such as robe, garment, apparel, adieu, joyaunce, pleasaunces, reverie, circumambient, matin, perchance, etc.

It is also necessary to include some neologisms created by the classics of English poetry and remaining in the sphere of their individual use as poetisms. Most often these are complex words. Here are some examples of such complex words from Byron's works: goar-faced, dew- drops, sea- mew, long- reluctant, wave- reflected, dark- glancing (daughters), sea- girt (citadel), blood- red, awe- struck (world) and many others.

Poeticism or poetic phraseology also refers to words and phrases that arose as a result of a periphrastic reflection of real reality.

The sphere of use of poetisms is not all poetry of the national English language, but the poetry of certain literary movements, certain historical stages development of literary language. We see the greatest use of poeticism in the literary movements of classicism and romanticism. It was the classicist poets who viewed poetry as “an art for the elite,” and the presence of special words in it that supported this poetic tradition of classicism was the norm. Currently, poeticisms are used in stylistics to create a satirical effect. The satirical function of poetisms is realized when poetism stands next to words whose stylistic characteristics are opposed to poetisms. In modern English, despite the absence of a special poetic style, a layer of vocabulary is preserved, which, due to associations with poetic contexts, has a component in the constant meaning of its words that can be called poetic stylistic connotation. This component is stable, and dictionaries mark it with a special label poet, and lexicologists call such words poetisms. These include not only those lofty words that were recognized by the classicists, but also archaic and rare words introduced into poetic use by the romantics.

Also in poetry there are phonetic stylistic devices, such as euphony, alliteration, rhyme. Rhyme is the repetition (usually at certain intervals) of the same or similar sound combinations at the end of words. The emergence of rhyme in the English language is associated with the development of quality versification. It is the result of the adaptation of classical versification to the English language. An attempt to adapt the Greek metrical system of versification to languages ​​with a different morphological structure led to some modification of the classical metrical system, in particular, to the appearance of rhyme. The rhymes of English poetry are rich and varied in both sound and structure. A rhyme is called masculine if the sound repetition is created by one stressed syllable ending the foot, for example: Palace - roof of cloudless nights! Paradise of golden lights! If one stressed and one unstressed syllable is repeated, then the rhyme is called feminine, for example:

• - Higher still and higher From the earth thou springest;
• - Like a, cloud of fire The blue deep thou wingest.

With the sound repetition of the latter in a line of stressed and two unstressed syllables, a so-called dactylic rhyme is formed: “They have a number, though they never exhibit `emFour wives by law, and concubines at libitum.”

Dactylic rhyme is more common in works written in three-syllable meter (dactyl, anapest). As Galperin writes, the most common rhymes in English are masculine and feminine, since they can be used in all poetic meters. Often in English authors you can find a special type of rhyme, the so-called “compound” rhyme (in English the term “broken rhyme” is used): two or more words are consonant with a word or part of it. upon her - honor - won her bottom - forgot ` em - shot him.

Composite rhymes are characteristic of humorous and satirical works. A rhyme is called complete when the vowel of the stressed syllable and all the following sounds (vowels and consonants) coincide, for example:

• - might - right;
• - heedless - needless.

If a consonant, vowel and all subsequent sounds are repeated, then the rhyme is called exact or identical:

• - hours - ours;
• - perfection - infection.

With incomplete rhyme, as the self-name indicates, not all sounds of rhyming syllables are repeated.

A.I. Efimov distinguishes two types of incomplete rhymes depending on the quality of the repeated sounds:

• - assonant rhyme, which is formed by repeating only vowels;
• - the consonants in such a rhyme do not coincide: tale - pain - flesh - fresh - guess;
• - consonant rhyme, based on the repetition of identical consonants with different vowels: tale -pull, worth -forth.

He believes that some rhymes in the English language are based not on sounds, but on letters, that is, not on the coincidence of final sounds, but of final letters. The author defines such rhymes as visual:

• - love - prove;
• - flood - brood;
• - have - grave.

The sound differences in these rhymes are the result of the many changes that the sound system of the English language has undergone in the process of its development. In more early periods the vowels in these rhymes sounded the same.

I.V. Gutorov distinguishes the following rhymes in the stanza:

• 1) paired - in adjacent lines (aa);
• 2) triple - (aaa);
• 3) cross - (abab);
• 4) covering (circular or framing), in which the outer lines of the stanza rhyme: (abba);
• 5) ternary - after two lines to the third (aabaab), etc.

Each type of stanza is characterized by a specific arrangement of rhymes. Rhyme can be not only at the end of a line, but also inside it. This rhyme is called internal, in contrast to external rhyme, which is formed at the ends of lines. Internal rhyme appears more often in multi-foot lines: I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers.

Yu.S. Sorokin in addition gives a definition of girded rhyme: girded rhyme is the rhyming of verses according to the abba scheme, that is, when in a four-line stanza the first line rhymes with the fourth, as if encircling the second and third lines, mutually rhyming by contiguity.

The role of rhyme in poetry is extremely important. Rhyme clarifies the metric division of the verse into rhythmic units. It makes the rhythm of the verse more noticeable and makes it easier to perceive. This is the main role of rhyme. In addition to the rhythm-forming meaning, the importance of rhyme for the semantic highlighting of a word should be emphasized. A word based on sound repetition becomes especially noticeable and attracts attention. Another technique associated with the sound organization of an utterance is onomatopoeia (onomatopoeia). The essence of this technique is that sounds are selected in such a way that their combination reproduces any sound that we associate with the producer (source) of this sound.

For example: buzz, bang, cuckoo, tintinnabulation, to mew, etc., onomatopoeia can be direct or indirect.

Direct onomatopoeia is the creation of an independent word in which the combination of sounds is designed to reproduce the desired sound. Examples of direct onomatopoeia are the above onomatopoeic words. There are few such words in the language; their purpose is not only to name a phenomenon, but also to reproduce it in sound. For example: ting-tang, ping-pong, tap. These words can be called sound metaphors of language. They, just like ordinary metaphors, create an image. However, unlike a lexical metaphor, the image is created not visually, but audibly. The word to mew is the same as Russian word meowing not only objectively names an action correlated with its producer (cat), but also creates a sound image. Consequently, direct onomatopoeia, since it is realized in individual words, is impossible without the implementation of subject-logical meaning.

Indirect onomatopoeia is the reproduction of a sound in nature by combining different sounds in in different words.

Thus, indirect onomatopoeia is a special form of alliteration: sounds repeated in different words create an objectively existing sound, causing an association with the producer (source) of a given sound, in the individual perception of the author. For example, in the line of the motor of the sentinel tongue twister, the repetition of the sound [p] in different words of this line creates the impression of the sound of a motor. In the line: And the silken sad uncertain rustling of each purple curtain... (E.A. Poe) the alliteration of the sound [s] to some extent (in the individual perception of the poet) reproduces the rustling of a curtain moved by the wind.

Rhythm also plays an important role in poetry. L.I. Timofeev defines rhythm as follows: the rhythm of a verse is based on the correct alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables in a poetic line (tonic principle). The tonic system is divided into purely tonic, syllabic and syllabic-tonic. The latter can be considered as characteristic of Russian and English versification. An important feature of poetic speech is the ordered repetition of the rhythmic units that organize it, namely stops, lines, stanzas.

Thus, poetic devices include: epithet, comparison, metaphor, personification, metonymy, litotes, hyperbole, oxymoron, pun, as well as phonetic stylistic devices: euphony, alliteration, rhyme. Rhyme can be masculine, feminine, dactylic, complete, precise, identical, assonant, consonant, visual.

And there is also a girded rhyme, paired, triple, cross, encompassing, ternary. Another technique associated with the sound organization of an utterance is onomatopoeia. Its essence lies in the selection of sounds, the combination of which evokes certain associations. There are two types of this technique: direct onomatopoeia and indirect. In poetry, rhythm plays a very important role, which is based on the tonic principle. The tonic system is divided into purely tonic, syllabic and syllabic-tonic. The latter can be considered as characteristic of Russian and English versification.

The rhythmic units of poetic speech are foot, line, stanza, meter.

The sound and rhythm of a verse is determined by the poetic meter, which is a certain order in which stressed and unstressed syllables are placed in a foot in modern poems (or long and short-sounding syllables for ancient versification).

MODERN POETIC TECHNIQUES
ALLUSION

Allusion - artistic technique of quotation, using a reference to a well-known fact or person, a proverb, a saying, a quotation from a well-known work, the use of a popular expression in a poem.

Examples of allusion:

So will lie on the sleepers in Karenin style

Kyiv is like a Requiem for our separations.

(Irina Ivanchenko)

And lightning will come,

Like music, without words.

Like an impressionist

Into the grass, where you and breakfast are.

(Natalia Belchenko)

The last example of allusion plays on the title of the painting “Lunch on the Grass” by the French impressionist artist Claude Monet.

As you can see, citation often occurs in the form of comparison, although this is not necessary: ​​well-known images, parts of proverbs can naturally interspersed into the text, thus referring to its source and evoking lasting associations. Very often they are used as a joke:

What a quixote

did we forget there?

(Marina Matveeva)

This allusion uses the name of Cervantes’s literary hero Don Quixote, which in this case, softening the abusive expression “what the hell” (or “gosh”), gives the whole sentence an ironic connotation.

The artistic device of allusion is in very wide use among all modern “living classics”, since the original masters of words have always loved to conduct a dialogue with other poets - predecessors and contemporaries. Allusion is an artistic technique that is also popular among the intellectual reader, since it involves his memory and sense of linguistic harmony - in fact, the “center of aesthetic pleasure.”

However, all good things should be in moderation. An excessive abundance of allusions in a poem leads to a darkening of the meaning, distracts from the stated topic and actually turns the work into a set of beautiful phrases, a trinket devoid of original interesting thoughts. In such poems, allusion under the guise of demonstrating the author's erudition is intended to hide the fact that he has absolutely nothing to say.

APPLICATION

Application - citation technique, artistic technique inclusion in the text of a poem of a direct quotation or a quotation in a slightly modified form. The line with a direct quotation is not put in quotation marks, but is organically included in the text of the poem, often serving as a supporting line from which some conclusions about the stated thought follow, and often not supporting, but on the contrary, refuting the quote. In such cases, direct quotation must be used by everyone. famous work famous classic or proverb. Otherwise, if the quotation is direct and belongs to a not very well-known author, it must first be placed as an epigraph before the poem, always indicating who it belongs to.

Application examples:

An example of an application as a direct quotation technique. Based on a stanza in a poem by Evgeny Pugachev

And lost at the bottom

Love's last coin...

Of course, with Her there is no need for light,

But is there still light in me? –

Tatyana Gordienko places a line from there as an epigraph above her eight-line line:

But is there still light in me...

E. Pugachev

and ends his poem with a direct quotation, refuting the idea embedded in it:

"But is there still light in me..."

Or maybe there is no need for light?

The last coin shines!

At least at the very bottom.

An example of an application as a modified citation technique:

Put a leash on my mouth,

you will pull the Word by the melodious tongue.

(Irina Ivanchenko)

This applique plays on the saying “You can’t put a scarf on someone else’s mouth.”

In the application by Natalia Belchenko “ In a china shop eternal meaning elephant" the comparison proverb “like a bull in a china shop” is played on, and in Yuri Kaplan’s appliqué “ Later Danube delta sleeves" - the expression "carelessly."

Application by Irina Ivanchenko “Stop, strange driver, / my wandering around the countries, / mine walking in the dark"is based on the playful use of the titles of the works - "Walking across Three Seas" by Afanasy Nikitin and "Walking Through Torment" by Alexei Tolstoy.

Usually, the quotation included in the appliqué actually has no direct relation to the subject discussed in the poem, and is included deliberately - as a joke. Therefore, it should not be confused with contamination (see below). The artistic technique of appliqué is very popular among well-read readers, as it engages their sense of subtle irony, imagination, and creative thinking.

In many ways, it was precisely because of the artistic technique of applique - as a parody of the previous style of traditional poetry - in the 60s and 70s of the twentieth century. new directions grew - neomodernism, underground and conceptualism.

It is appropriate to recall here such a type of poetic error as phraseological confusion, when the beginning of one phraseological unit is unintentionally, out of ignorance, connected with the ending of another. This causes a completely unintended and undesirable humorous effect in a pathetic or emotional work.

Application of the artistic technique of appliqué testifies to a developed sense of language, since it requires the author to be able to play with the expression used, its sound, literal and figurative meanings.

CONTAMINATION

Contamination as an artistic technique of quotation- the inclusion of a well-known expression in the text of a poem not in the form of a quotation, but as an organically appropriate detail in this case.

Examples of contamination.

Mysterious digital codes

I want to put it in an iron verse...

(Natalia Belchenko)

This example of contamination goes back to Lermontov: “And boldly throw an iron verse into their eyes, / Doused with bitterness and anger.”

Not because it is necessary

But because next to him is another.

(L. Nekrasovskaya)

Compare this example of contamination with Innokenty Annensky: “Not because it makes it light, / But because there is no need for light with it.”

Get some ink and cry still...

It’s already March and there’s still no peace!

Compare this example of contamination and its literary source - B. Pasternak: “February. Get some ink and cry!..”

Is it memento mori?! What is it, uncle, memento,

when there are five sixes in your hand, and Vaska is in!

(Stanislav Minakov)

– an example of contamination in the description of a card game.

Contamination as a word creation and graphic device- combining several words into one.

My year! My tree! (S. Kirsanov) Significant whistling (Stanislav Minakov) - i.e. “whistle God knows what.”

What are you whispering, what are you whispering,

Branch-good-branch-evil?

Will I perish? barking,

Without crossing the Sabbath?

Particularly interesting here are the last two examples of contamination, which are graphic techniques, i.e. techniques that promote artistic expression through intentional changes in the accepted spelling of words and distortion of their standard form. The “Whisper” contamination is based on the intersection of two “sh” and the cutting off of the matching sound: whisper shush sh then you. Such a connection is a way, using continuous writing, to convey an indistinct muttering, a whisper in which individual words are difficult to distinguish, one can hear one dull shu-shu-shu. The verb “zavo-zalaya” is a playful author’s neologism. It is formed by writing together (but with a hyphen) two different verbs, cutting off the ending of the first of them. An unexpected and very funny effect.

REMINISCENCE

Reminiscence (lat. reminiscentia, memory) is a citation technique, an artistic device in which the author reproduces rhythmic-syntactic structures from someone else’s poem.

Example of reminiscence

And we ourselves are still in good health,

And our children go to school in the morning

Along Kirov Street, Voykov Street,

Along Via Sacco-Vanceti.

(Konstantin Simonov)

Using a stanza from the classic of Soviet literature Konstantin Simonov, but describing the junction of the era of stagnation with the period of perestroika, when “new thinking” was introduced with difficulty, Yuri Kaplan writes:

After all, we ourselves are still in frail health,

And our children still go to school

Along Zhdanov and Voroshilov streets

And even on Brezhnev Square.

INTERTEXT

Intertext is an artistic technique in postmodernism, which consists in the implicit, hidden conscious construction by the author of his entire work on other people’s quotes or images of painting, music, cinema, theater and on reminiscences of other people’s texts that require solving. In this case, the quotation ceases to play the role of additional information, a reference to something, but, recalling the original meaning, serves to express a different meaning in a new context, sets dialogism, polyphony and makes the text open for multidimensional reader reading and understanding.

Osip Mandelstam wrote: “A quotation is not an extract. The quotation is a cicada - it is incessant." Anna Akhmatova expressed herself this way about the essence of twentieth-century poetry: “But perhaps poetry itself is One magnificent quote.” However, it is precisely the artistic technique of “intertext” that tends to suffer from the multidimensionality of supposedly embedded meanings and the deliberate demonstration of the author’s erudition in the real absence of any global, original differences between the author’s thoughts and the thoughts present in the quotation. Thus, this artistic technique may completely lose its meaning, since it ceases to be a technique and turns into its imitation. What is destructive for a poem that is overly replete with allusions creates fertile ground for intertexts flourishing in postmodernism, which no longer fulfill the role of dialogue and polyphony, because dialogue cannot be based on one-dimensional replicas laid down in one mental plane, only confirming what was known and before that. Thus, the declared “polyphony” gradually slides into literary cacophony.

An example of intertext in postmodernism

Ismar killed Hippomedon, Leades killed Eteocles...

note: different, not that, because: Polyneices and Eteocles

(Oedipal vision) in the morning they are fortunately dead, shining with the stones of their wrists,

This is the news about the onset of the last winter

in the groves of rare olives outside the black color, where it seems.

Forget. White stones or teeth in a dream, or lilies

tart falls in the ice of pebbles through the hair of displacement.

But Amphidiac kills Parthenopeus. However,

according to sources smoldering on both rivers from the archive,

It was not he who killed Partenopeus, but a certain Periclymenes, the son of Poseidon.

Oh, just the names!.. that also needs to be taken into account

in the light of future events rolling like millstones across the plain.

Hollow Troy with a parched Helen inside. Troy, where

Elena child-and-soldier-and-peas - who built your walls

to the children's city of sore throat? Sisters in white coats

under which there is nothing like the heart of ashmavedha,

bright mercury at the barrier of dreams known to everyone.

Meanwhile, Melanippus - Tydia is wounded in the stomach.

(Arkady Dragomoshchenko. Excerpt from “Theban” Flashback”)

There is no need to quote the entire text, since even this passage shows what awaits the reader ahead.

Thus, when using artistic methods of quotation, it is necessary to observe the measure so that the “pendulum effect” does not result, as with the direction of “poetry for poetry”, when at first it was absolutized and brought to a complete separation from life, from reality, and in later historical periods – precisely because of this – they were completely eliminated from the “ship of modernity”.

Poetic devices (tropes)– transformations of language units, consisting in the transfer of a traditional name to another subject area.

Epithet– one of the tropes, a figurative definition of an object (phenomenon), expressed mainly by an adjective, but also by an adverb, noun, numeral, verb. Unlike the usual logical definition, which distinguishes a given object from many (“quiet ringing”), an epithet either highlights one of its properties in an object (“proud horse”), or, like a metaphorical epithet, transfers to it the properties of another object (“a proud horse”). living trace").

Comparison- a figurative verbal expression in which the depicted phenomenon is likened to another according to some characteristic common to them in order to identify new, important properties in the object of comparison:

Metaphor- a type of trope based on the transfer of the properties of one object to another, according to the principle of their similarity in some respect or contrast: “enchanted stream” (V.A. Zhukovsky), “living chariot of the universe” (F.I. Tyutchev) , “a disastrous fire of life” (A.A. Blok). In metaphor, various features (what the object is likened to and the properties of the object itself) are presented in a new undivided unity of the artistic image.

The following types of metaphor are distinguished:

personification (“water runs”);

reification (“nerves of steel”);

distractions (“field of activity”), etc.

Personification- a special type of metaphor based on the transfer of human traits (more broadly, the traits of a living being) onto inanimate objects and phenomena. The following types of impersonation are distinguished:

personification as a stylistic figure inherent in any expressive speech: “the heart speaks”, “the river plays”;

personification in folk poetry and individual lyrics as a metaphor, close in its role to psychological parallelism;

personification as a symbol that grows out of a system of private personifications and expresses the author's idea.

Metonymy - a type of trope based on the principle of contiguity.

Types of metonymy and ways to create it :

whole and part (synecdoche): “Hey, beard! How can I get to Plyushkin?” (N.V. Gogol);

item and material: “It’s not like it’s on silver, it’s on gold” (A.S. Griboyedov);

contents and containing: “The flooded oven is cracking,” “The hissing of foamy glasses” (A.S. Pushkin);

bearer of property and property: “The city takes courage” (last);

creation and creator: “A man... He will carry Belinsky and Gogol from the market” (N.A. Nekrasov), etc.

Hyperbola- a stylistic figure or artistic device based on the exaggeration of certain properties of the depicted object or phenomenon: “The sunset burned with one hundred and forty suns...” (V. Mayakovsky).

Litotes– trope, the opposite of hyperbole: understatement of the attribute of an object (“little-man-nail”, “little-thumb”).

Irony (in style)- an allegory expressing mockery or slyness, when a word or statement takes on a meaning in the context of speech that is opposite to the literal meaning or denies it, casting doubt on it. Irony is reproach and contradiction under the guise of approval and agreement: “Where are you, smart [donkey], coming from?” (I.A. Krylov).

Oxymoron- a compressed and therefore paradoxical-sounding antithesis, usually in the form of an antonymous noun with an adjective or a verb with an adverb: “living corpse”; “poor luxury of attire” (N.A. Nekrasov); “a bad peace is better than a good quarrel”; “It’s fun for her to be sad, so elegantly naked” (A.A. Akhmatova).

Pun- a play on words based on their polysemy (polysemy), homonymy or sound similarity, in order to achieve a comic effect.

End of work -

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Basic and auxiliary literary disciplines
Literary criticism is a science that studies the specifics, genesis and development of verbal art, explores the ideological and aesthetic value and structure of literary works, studies social history

Specifics of art
Disputes about the specifics and essence of art, artistic creativity have been going on since antiquity. Aristotle associated the essence of artistic creativity with a person’s innate “passion” for imitation

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The world of arts and fiction is the cultural and spiritual heritage of humanity. Every nation is rich in its own culture, which bright images reflects his mentality

Types of artistic images
One of essential functions literary image - to give words the fullness, integrity and self-significance that things have. The specificity of the verbal image is also manifested in

Epilogue
The final component of a work, the ending, separated from the action unfolding in the main part of the text. COMPOSITION OF A LITERARY WORK Composition

Subjective organization of text
In a literary work, one should distinguish between the object of speech and the subject of speech. The object of speech is everything that is depicted and everything that is told about: people, objects, circumstances, events, etc. Subject

Artistic speech and literary language
Literary image can exist only in a verbal shell. The word is the material carrier of imagery in literature. In this regard, it is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of “artistic

Lexical resources of artistic speech
Fiction uses the national language in all the richness of its capabilities. This can be neutral, high or low vocabulary; outdated words and neologisms; foreign words

Poetic figures
Syntactic expressiveness is another important linguistic means fiction. What is important here is the length and melodic pattern of phrases, the arrangement of words in them, and various types of phrasing.

Rhythmic organization of artistic speech

Strophic
A stanza in versification is a group of verses united by some formal feature that is periodically repeated from stanza to stanza. Monostich - poetic

Plot, plot, composition of the work
C O M P O S I T I O N D E T A L D E T S of the work: 1. PLOT OF THE WORK - a chain of events that reveal the characters and relationships of the characters

Additional
Prologue. The introductory part of a literary work, which introduces the general meaning, plot or main motives of the work or briefly sets out the events preceding the main one

Composition of a literary work
The composition of a literary work plays a big role in expressing ideological meaning. The writer, focusing on those phenomena of life that currently attract him,

The ideological and emotional orientation of the literature. The concept of pathos and its varieties
The ideological world of the work is the third structural component content-conceptual level along with themes and issues. The ideological world is an area

Epic genres
Epic literary genres go back to the epic folklore genres, which are closest to fairy tales. From the point of view of the genre form, the fairy tale has its own quite stable structure: a repeating beginning

Epic as a type of artistic creativity. Types of epic. Characteristics of epic genres
The most ancient of these types of artistic creativity is epic. Early forms of the epic arose in the conditions of the primitive communal system and are associated with labor activity person, with peace

Lyrics as a type of artistic creativity. Lyric genres. The concept and controversy about the lyrical hero
Another type of artistic creativity is lyricism. It differs from epic in that it brings to the fore the poet’s inner experiences. In the lyrics we see a living, excited person

Drama as a form of artistic creativity. Characteristics of drama genres
Drama is an original form of artistic creativity. The specificity of drama as a type of literature is that it is usually intended for performance on stage. In drama

Cognitive function of literature
In the past, the cognitive capabilities of art (and literature as well) were often underestimated. For example, Plato considered it necessary to expel all true artists from the ideal state.

Function of anticipation (“Cassandrian principle”, art as anticipation)
Why the “Cassandrian beginning”? As you know, Cassandra predicted the death of Troy in the days of the city’s heyday and power. The “Cassandrian principle” has always lived in art and especially in literature.

Educational function
Literature shapes the way people feel and think. By showing heroes who have gone through difficult trials, literature makes people empathize with them and thus, as it were, cleanses their inner world. IN

The concept of direction, flow and style in modern literary criticism
But despite all the uniqueness of creative individuals, within artistic systems special varieties emerge in their own way. common features. To study these varieties, most of all

The concept of ancient literature
If Greece is the cradle of European culture, then Greek literature is the foundation, the foundation of European literature. The word “antique” translated from Latin means “ancient”. But not every d

The fate of ancient literature
The plots, heroes and images of ancient literature are distinguished by such completeness, clarity and depth of meaning that writers of subsequent eras constantly turn to them. Ancient stories find a new interpretation

Periodization and features of ancient literature
In its development, ancient literature went through several stages and is represented by classical examples in all literary forms: epic and lyric poetry, satire, tragedy and comedy, ode and fable, novel and

Ancient mythology
The most important element of Greek culture were myths, that is, tales, traditions, legends dating back to ancient times. They constitute a rich treasury of images and subjects. Reflected in myths

Ancient epic. Homer
The greatest monuments of the most ancient period of Greek literature are Homer’s poems “Iliad” and “Odyssey”. The poems belong to the genre of folk heroic epic, as they have folklore, folk

The rise of drama in the era of Pericles
5th-4th centuries BC. - a glorious era in the history of Greece, marked by the extraordinary rise of its literature and art, science and culture, and the flourishing of democracy. This period is called Attic, named after Attica

Ancient theater
It is human nature to imitate. A child in a game imitates what he sees in life, a savage dances to depict a hunting scene. Ancient Greek philosopher and art theorist Aristotle - all art

Ancient tragedy
The suffering and death of people who are objectively worthy of a better fate, capable of many glorious deeds for the benefit of humanity, who have gained immortal fame among their contemporaries and descendants, are experienced by us

Ancient comedy
People tend to laugh. Aristotle even elevated this characteristic inherent in people to a dignity that distinguishes man from animals. People laugh at everything, even at the most dear and close ones. But in one word

Greek lyrics
There is a pattern in the development of Greek literature: certain historical periods are marked by the dominance of certain genres. Ancient period, “Homeric Greece” - the time of heroic e

Greek prose
The heyday of Greek prose occurred in the Hellenic period (III-I centuries BC). This era is associated with the name of Alexander the Great. His conquests and campaigns in the eastern countries had a great influence on

Middle Ages
The Roman Empire collapsed in the 5th century. AD as a result of a slave revolt and barbarian invasion. Short-lived barbarian states arose from its ruins. The transition from the historically exhausted

A Word on Law and Grace" by Hilarion
4. The most ancient Russian lives (“Life of Theodosius of Pechersk”, lives of Boris and Gleb). Lives of the Saints. Monuments of the hagiographic genre - the lives of saints - also brought up

The story of the ruin of Ryazan by Batu
6. The genre of oratorical prose is one of the main genres in the system of ancient Russian literature in the 13th century. represented by the “words” of Serapion. Five “words” of Serapion have reached us. Main theme with

The concept of humanism
The concept of “humanism” was introduced into use by scientists of the 19th century. It comes from the Latin humanitas (human nature, spiritual culture) and humanus (human), and denotes ideology, n

Message from Archbishop Vasily of Novgorod to the ruler of Tfera Theodore about paradise"
The political struggle for primacy among the Russian principalities that took place during the period under review strengthens the journalistic focus and topicality of the literary works created at that time.

The Tale of Temir-Aksak
The main genres of literature, as in previous periods, are chronicle writing and hagiography. The walking genre is being revived. The genre of legendary historical tales is becoming widespread.

Historical narrative
In the 16th century all-Russian chronicle writing became centralized: chronicle writing was carried out in Moscow (most likely, by the joint forces of the grand ducal and metropolitan chancellery); chroniclers in other cities

Journalism (I. Peresvetov, A. Kurbsky, Ivan the Terrible)
In Ancient Rus' there was no special term to define journalism - just as there was none for fiction; the boundaries of the journalistic genre that we can outline are, of course, very conditional

Romanticism as a universal artistic system
Romanticism is a movement in literature at the beginning of the 19th century. ROMANTICISM. Several meanings of the word “romanticism”: 1. The direction in literature and art of the first quarter

Realism as a universal art system
Realism - in literature and art - is a direction that strives to depict reality. R. (real, real) – thin method, trace

Principles of socialist realism
Nationality. By this was meant the understandability of the literature for common people, as well as the use of folk speech patterns and proverbs. Ideology. Show

In literature
The literature of socialist realism was an instrument of party ideology. Writer, by famous expression Stalin, is an “engineer of human souls.” With his talent he should influence the cheat

Modernism as a universal art system
Literature of the 20th century developed in a climate of wars, revolutions, and then the emergence of a new post-revolutionary reality. All this could not but affect the artistic quest of the authors of this time.

Postmodernism: definition and characteristics
Postmodernism is a literary movement that replaced modernity and differs from it not so much in originality as in the variety of elements, quotation, immersion in

Blurring the boundaries between mass and elite art
This refers to the universality of works of postmodern literature, their focus on both prepared and unprepared readers. Firstly, it contributes to the unity of the public and

Features of Russian postmodernism
In the development of postmodernism in Russian literature, three periods can be roughly distinguished: The end of the 60s - the 70s. – (A. Terts, A. Bitov, V. Erofeev, Vs. Nekrasov, L. Rubinstein, etc.) 70s – 8

Symbolism and Acmeism
SYMBOLISM - a literary and artistic movement in European and Russian art of the 1870s-1910s, which considered the goal of art to be an intuitive comprehension of world unity through symbols

Futurism in Russia
In Russia, futurism first appeared in painting, and only later in literature. Artistic searches of the brothers David and N. Burlyuk, M. Larionov, N. Goncharova, A. Exter, N. Kulbin and

Cubofuturism
The program of Russian futurism, or more precisely that group of it, which at first called itself “Gilea”, and entered the history of literature as a group of cubo-futurists (almost all Hylean poets - in one degree or another

Ego-futurism. Igor Severyanin
The northerner was the first in Russia, in 1911, to call himself a futurist, adding another word to this word - “ego”. The result is egofuturism. (“Future self” or “future self”). In October 1911, an organization was organized in St. Petersburg

Other futurist groups
After Kubo and Ego, other futuristic groups arose. The most famous of them are “Mezzanine of Poetry” (V. Shershenevich, R. Ivnev, S. Tretyakov, B. Lavrenev, etc.) and “Tsen

Futurists and the Russian Revolution
The events of 1917 immediately placed the futurists in a special position. They welcomed the October Revolution as the destruction of the old world and a step towards the future they were striving for. "I'll accept

What was the general basis of the movement?
1. A spontaneous feeling of “the inevitability of the collapse of old things.” 2. Creation through art of the coming revolution and the birth of a new humanity. 3. Creativity is not imitation, but continuation

Naturalism as a literary movement
Along with symbolism, in the years of its emergence, another equally widespread trend in bourgeois literature was naturalism. Representatives: P. Bobory

Expressionism as a literary movement
EXPRESSIONISM (French expression - expression) is an avant-garde movement in literature and art of the early twentieth century. The main subject of the image in expressionism is internal experiences

Baedeker on Russian Expressionism
Terekhina V. On October 17, 1921, at the Polytechnic Museum, under the chairmanship of Valery Bryusov, a “Review of all poetic schools and groups” was held. Neoclassicists made declarations and poems

Declaration of Emotionalism
1. The essence of art is to produce a unique, unrepeatable emotional effect through the transmission in a unique form of a unique emotional perception. 2

Surrealism as a literary movement
Surrealism (French surrealisme - super-realism) is a movement in literature and art of the 20th century, which emerged in the 1920s. Originating in France on the initiative of the writer A. Breton, surre

About the merger of Oberiu
This is how representatives of a literary group of poets, writers and cultural figures called themselves, organized at the Leningrad House of Press, whose director N. Baskakov was quite friendly towards

Alexander Vvedensky
Guest on a horse (excerpt) The steppe horse runs tiredly, foam drips from the horse’s lips. Guest of the night, you are gone

A constant of fun and filth
The water in the river gurgles and is cool, and the shadow of the mountains falls on the field, and the light in the sky goes out. And the birds are already flying in dreams. And a janitor with a black mustache *

Existentialism as a literary direction
Existentialism. In the late 40s and early 50s. French prose is experiencing a period of “dominance” of the literature of existentialism, which had an influence on art comparable only to the influence of Freud’s ideas. Add it up

Russian existentialism
A term used to identify a set of philosophies. teachings, as well as (in a broader sense) spiritually related literary and other artistic movements, the structure of categories, symbols and

Self-destructive art
Self-destructive art is one of the strange phenomena of postmodernism. Paintings painted with paint that fades before the eyes of the audience... A huge eighteen-wheeled structure t

Figures of speech. Trails
Means of expressive speech. Correctness, clarity, accuracy and purity are such properties of speech that the syllable of every writer should be distinguished by, regardless of the form of speech.

Paths (Greek tropos - turnover)
Quite a lot of words and entire phrases are often used not in their own meaning, but in a figurative one, i.e. not to express the concept they designate, but to express the concept of another, having some

Artistic speech and its components
Literary speech (otherwise the language of fiction) partially coincides with the concept of “literary language”. Literary language is a normative language, its norms are fixed

Versification systems (metric, tonic, syllabic, syllabic-tonic)
The rhythmic organization of artistic speech is also associated with the intonation-syntactic structure. The greatest measure of rhythmicity is distinguished by poetic speech, where rhythmicity is achieved through uniform

Dolniki. Accent verse by V. Mayakovsky
1. DOLNIK - a type of tonic verse, where only the number of stressed syllables coincides in the lines, and the number of unstressed syllables between them ranges from 2 to 0. The interval between stresses is n

G.S. Skripov On the main advantages of Mayakovsky’s verse
What is remarkable and dear to us about the creative image of V.V. Mayakovsky? His role in Soviet art and in the life of the Soviet people as an “agitator, loudmouth, leader” is well known and deserves

Meter, rhythm and size. Types of sizes. Rhythmic determinants of verse
The basis of poetic speech is, first of all, a certain rhythmic principle. Therefore, the characteristic of a specific versification consists primarily in determining the principles of its ri

Rhyme, ways of rhyming
Rhyme is the repetition of more or less similar combinations of sounds that connect the endings of two or more lines or symmetrically located parts of poetic lines. In Russian classical

Types of stanzas
A stanza is a group of verses with a specific rhyme arrangement, usually repeated in other equal groups. In most cases, the stanza is a complete syntactic whole

The sonnet is available in Italian and English
An Italian sonnet is a fourteen-line poem divided into two quatrains and two final tercets. In quatrains, either a cross or a ring is used

Philosophical and literary critical thought in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome
Literary studies as a special and developed science arose relatively recently. The first professional literary scholars and critics appeared in Europe only at the beginning of the 19th century (Saint-Beuve, V. Belinsky). D

Development of literary critical thought in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance
In the Middle Ages, literary critical thought completely died out. Perhaps some glimpses of it can be found in the short period of the so-called Carolingian Renaissance (late 8th - early 9th centuries). B with

Literary critical thought of the Enlightenment
Voltaire's compatriot Denis Diderot (1713–1784), without attacking the followers of Aristotle and Boileau, already expressed something new in comparison with them. In the article “Beautiful” Diderot talks about relative

Biographical method of literary criticism

Mythological school, mythological and ritual-mythological criticism in literary criticism
In the nineteenth century, literary criticism took shape as a separate science, dealing with the theory and history of literature and including a number of auxiliary disciplines– textual criticism, source studies, bi

Cultural-historical school. The main ideas of A. Veselovsky about the art of words
Another outstanding literary critic, Hippolyte Taine (1828–1893), considered himself a student of Sainte-Beuve, whose ideas and methodology were decisive for European literary criticism in the second half of the 19th century.

Comparative-historical method of literary criticism
It is not surprising that the largest Russian literary critic of the 19th century, A. Veselovsky, who in his youth was influenced by the cultural-historical school, later overcame its limitations and became the founder of or

Psychoanalytic criticism
This school, influential in literary criticism, arose on the basis of the teachings of the Austrian psychiatrist and psychologist Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1939) and his followers. Z. Freud developed two important psychologists

Formal schools in literary criticism. Russian formal school
Formal schools in literary criticism. Literary studies of the second half of the 19th century are characterized by an interest in the content side of literature. The largest research schools that time

Structuralism and the New Criticism
New Criticism The most influential school in Anglo-American literary criticism of the twentieth century, the origin of which dates back to the period of the First World War. Methods of literary criticism of the twentieth century

Post-structuralism and deconstructivism
Poststructuralism An ideological movement in Western humanitarian thought that has had a strong influence on literary studies in Western Europe and the United States in the last quarter of a century. Poststructural

Phenomenological criticism and hermeneutics
Phenomenological criticism Phenomenology is one of the most influential movements of the twentieth century. The founder of phenomenology is the German idealist philosopher Edmund Husserl (1859–1938), who sought

Contribution from Yu.M. Lotman in modern literary criticism
Yuri Mikhailovich Lotman (February 28, 1922, Petrograd - October 28, 1993, Tartu) - Soviet literary critic, culturologist and semiotician. Member of the CPSU(b)

Contribution of M.M. Bakhtin into the modern science of literature
Mikhail Mikhailovich Bakhtin (November 5 (17), 1895, Orel - March 6, 1975, Moscow) - Russian philosopher and Russian thinker, theorist of European culture and art. Issle

Genres and internal dialogue of the work
Bakhtin saw literature not only as “organized ideological material,” but also as a form of “social communication.” According to Bakhtin, the process of social communication was imprinted in the text of the work itself. AND

The use of various techniques for strengthening sound expressiveness of poems.

Sound recording (instrumentation) - a technique of enhancing the visual quality of a text by repeating stressed and unstressed syllables, vowels and consonants. The most common form of sound writing is poetic repetitions, which form a special structure of the text. This gives the text a kind of symmetry.

Sound recording is created using a variety of techniques:

1. Alliteration-repetition of consonants.

Evening. Seaside. Sighs of the wind.

The majestic cry of the waves.

The storm is near, it's hitting the shore

Alien to the charms of the black shuttle...

Alien to the pure charms of happiness,

The boat of languor, the boat of anxiety

Abandoned the shore, fights the storm,

The palace is looking for bright dreams...

(K. Balmont)

V.V. Mayakovsky in the article “How to make poetry?” wrote about alliteration:

Alliteration must be dosed with extreme caution and, if possible, repetitions that do not stick out. An example of clear alliteration in my Yesenin verse is the line: “Where is it, the ringing of bronze or the edge of granite... I resort to alliteration for framing, for even greater emphasis on a word that is important to me

Onomatopoeia is considered one type of alliteration.

Above, German engines roar:

We are the Fuhrer's submissive slaves,

We turn cities into coffins,

We are death... You will no longer be there soon.

(“Pulkovo Meridian” V. Inber)

The repetition of the sound “er” creates the illusion of the sound of a German plane engine, the terrible sound of bombing.

2. Assonance- repetition of vowels. Sometimes assonance is an imprecise rhyme in which the vowels coincide, but the consonants do not coincide (enormous - I’ll come to my senses; thirst - sorry). Assonance enhances the expressiveness of speech.

Our ears are on top of our heads,

A little morning the guns lit up

And the forests have blue tops -

The French are right there.

I jammed the charge into the gun tightly

And I thought: I’ll treat my friend!..

(“Borodino”, M. Lermontov)

Repeated repetition of the sound “u” helped the poet convey the echo of the early morning; the roar echoing across the field before the battle.

Here is how Alexander Pushkin uses the same “u” sound:

Do I wander along the noisy streets,

I enter a crowded temple,

Am I sitting among crazy youths,

I indulge in my dreams.

(A. Pushkin)

The assonance of the sound "u" is used to depict the roar of a city street.

And here is an example of the use of assonance by K. Balmont.

I am the free wind, I blow forever,
I wave the waves, I caress the willows,
In the branches I sigh, sighing, I grow dumb,
I cherish the grass, I cherish the fields
(K. Balmont)


Repetition of vowels “o” and “e”

3. Pun rhymes- rhymes based on wordplay and sound similarity. They are often used for comic effect. In a punning rhyme, polysemantic words are used, as well as homonyms - when only sound identity is established between words, and there are no semantic associations.

You puppies! Follow me!

It will suit you

Look, don't talk,

Otherwise I’ll beat you up.

(A.S. Pushkin)

He was careless for twenty years,

Without giving birth to a single line.

(D. D. Minaev)

4. Anaphora- a stylistic device that consists of repeating similar sounds, words, syntactic or rhythmic structures at the beginning of adjacent verses or stanzas.

Sound anaphora is a feature of alliterative verse, which must have an equal number of logically strong stressed words in certain places, but it is also sometimes found in metrical verse built on the basis of meter.

Bridges demolished by thunderstorms,

A coffin from a washed-out cemetery.

(A. Pushkin)

Lexical anaphora, repetition of the same words:

Wait for me and I will come back.

Just wait a lot

Wait when they make you sad

Yellow rains,

Wait for the snow to blow

Wait for it to be hot

Wait when others are not waiting,

Forgetting yesterday.

Wait when from distant places

No letters will arrive

Wait until you get bored

To everyone who is waiting together.

(K. Simonov)

Syntactic anaphora, (anaphoric parallelism) repetition of syntactic constructions:

I'm standing at the high doors

I'm watching your work.

(M. Svetlov)

Strophic anaphora, repetition of words or syntactic constructions in adjacent stanzas: in the following example, the anaphoric word, although highlighted in a separate typographical line, forms the beginning of an iambic verse, which ends with the following line:

Earth!..
From snow moisture

She's still fresh.
She wanders by herself
And breathes like deja.

Earth!..
She's running, running

5. Epiphora- a stylistic device that consists of repeating similar sounds, words, syntactic or rhythmic structures at the end of adjacent verses or stanzas.

They made noise and sparkled

and were drawn to the distance,

and drove away sorrows,

and sang in the distance...

(K. Balmont)

6. Onomatopoeia- words that imitate their own meaning. Such words are the words “Snore”, “Crunch”, and derivative words “snore”, “crunch”, etc.

And the crunch of sand and the snoring of a horse

Puddles drunk by frost

crunchy and fragile like crystal

(I. Severyanin)

There are many other sound writing techniques: dissonance, joint, ring, etc. But the six mentioned above are the most popular and are more often used by Russian poets.

Genres (types) of literature

Ballad

A lyric-epic poetic work with a clearly expressed plot of a historical or everyday nature.

Comedy

Type of dramatic work. Displays everything ugly and absurd, funny and absurd, ridicules the vices of society.

Lyric poem

A type of fiction that emotionally and poetically expresses the author's feelings.

Peculiarities: poetic form, rhythm, lack of plot, small size.

Melodrama

A type of drama in which the characters are sharply divided into positive and negative.

Novella

A narrative prose genre characterized by brevity, a sharp plot, a neutral style of presentation, lack of psychologism, and an unexpected ending. Sometimes used as a synonym for story, sometimes called a type of story.

A poetic or musical-poetic work characterized by solemnity and sublimity. Famous odes:

Lomonosov: “Ode on the capture of Khotin, “Ode on the day of accession to the All-Russian throne of Her Majesty Empress Elizabeth Petrovna.”

Derzhavin: “Felitsa”, “To Rulers and Judges”, “Nobleman”, “God”, “Vision of Murza”, “On the Death of Prince Meshchersky”, “Waterfall”.

Feature article

The most authentic type of narrative, epic literature, depicting facts from real life.

Song or chant

Most ancient look lyric poetry. A poem consisting of several verses and a chorus. Songs are divided into folk, heroic, historical, lyrical, etc.

Tale

An epic genre between a short story and a novel, which presents a number of episodes from the life of the hero (heroes). By volume of the story more story and depicts reality more broadly, drawing a chain of episodes that make up a certain period in the life of the main character. It contains more events and characters than a short story. But unlike a novel, a story usually has one storyline.

Poem

A type of lyric epic work, a poetic plot narrative.

Play

The general name for dramatic works (tragedy, comedy, drama, vaudeville). Written by the author for performance on stage.

Story

Small epic genre: a prose work of small volume, which, as a rule, depicts one or more events in the hero’s life. The circle of characters in the story is limited, the action described is short in time. Sometimes a work of this genre may have a narrator. The masters of the story were A.P. Chekhov, V.V. Nabokov, A.P. Platonov, K.G. Paustovsky, O.P. Kazakov, V.M. Shukshin.

Novel

A large epic work that comprehensively depicts the lives of people during a certain period of time or during an entire human life.

Characteristic properties of the novel:

Multilinearity of the plot, covering the fates of a number of characters;

The presence of a system of equivalent characters;

Covering a wide range of life phenomena, posing socially significant problems;

Significant duration of action.

Examples of novels: “The Idiot” by F.M. Dostoevsky, “Fathers and Sons” by I.S. Turgenev.

Tragedy

A type of dramatic work telling about the unfortunate fate of the main character, often doomed to death.

Epic

The largest genre of epic literature, an extensive narrative in verse or prose about outstanding national historical events.

There are:

1. ancient folklore epics different nations- works on mythological or historical subjects, telling about the heroic struggle of the people against the forces of nature, foreign invaders, witchcraft, etc.

2. a novel (or a series of novels) depicting a large period of historical time or a significant, fateful event in the life of a nation (war, revolution, etc.).

The epic is characterized by:
- wide geographical coverage,
- a reflection of the life and everyday life of all layers of society,
- nationality of content.

Examples of epics: “War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy, “Quiet Don” by M.A. Sholokhov, “The Living and the Dead” by K.M. Simonov, “Doctor Zhivago” by B.L. Pasternak.

Literary movements Classicism Artistic style and movement in European literature and art of the 17th - early 19th centuries. The name is derived from the Latin "classicus" - exemplary. Features: 1. Appeal to the images and forms of ancient literature and art as an ideal aesthetic standard. 2. Rationalism. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. 3. Classicism is interested only in the eternal, the unchangeable. He discards individual characteristics and traits. 4. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. 5. A strict hierarchy of genres has been established, which are divided into “high” and “low” (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strict boundaries and clear formal characteristics. The leading genre is tragedy. 6. Classical dramaturgy approved the so-called principle of “unity of place, time and action,” which meant: the action of the play should take place in one place, the duration of the action should be limited to the duration of the performance, the play should reflect one central intrigue, not interrupted by side actions . Classicism originated and received its name in France (P. Corneille, J. Racine, J. Lafontaine, etc.). After the Great French Revolution, with the collapse of rationalistic ideas, classicism went into decline, and romanticism became the dominant style of European art. Romanticism One of the largest movements in European and American literature of the late 18th - first half of the 19th century. In the 18th century, everything factual, unusual, strange, found only in books and not in reality, was called romantic. Main features: 1. Romanticism is the most striking form of protest against the vulgarity, routine and prosaicness of bourgeois life. The social and ideological prerequisites are disappointment in the results of the Great French Revolution and the fruits of civilization in general. 2. General pessimistic orientation - ideas of “cosmic pessimism”, “world sorrow”. 3. Absolutization of the personal principle, the philosophy of individualism. At the center of a romantic work there is always a strong, exceptional personality opposed to society, its laws and moral standards. 4. “Dual world”, that is, the division of the world into real and ideal, which are opposed to each other. To the romantic hero subject to spiritual insight and inspiration, thanks to which he penetrates into this ideal world. 5. "Local color." A person who opposes society feels a spiritual closeness with nature, its elements. This is why romantics so often use exotic countries and their nature. Sentimentalism A movement in European and American literature and art of the second half of the 18th – early 19th centuries. Based on Enlightenment rationalism, he declared that the dominant of “human nature” is not reason, but feeling. He sought the path to an ideal-normative personality in the release and improvement of “natural” feelings. Hence the great democracy of sentimentalism and its discovery of the rich spiritual world of ordinary people. Close to pre-romanticism. Main features: 1. True to the ideal of a normative personality. 2. In contrast to classicism with its educational pathos, he declared feeling, not reason, to be the main thing in human nature. 3. The condition for the formation of an ideal personality was considered not by the “reasonable reorganization of the world,” but by the release and improvement of “natural feelings.” 4. Sentimentalism opened up the rich spiritual world of the common people. This is one of his conquests. 5. Unlike romanticism, the “irrational” is alien to sentimentalism: he perceived the inconsistency of moods, the impulsiveness of mental impulses as accessible to rationalistic interpretation. Characteristic features of Russian sentimentalism: a) Rationalistic tendencies are quite clearly expressed; b) Strong moralizing attitude; c) Educational trends; d) Improving the literary language, Russian sentimentalists turned to colloquial norms and introduced vernaculars. The favorite genres of sentimentalists are elegy, epistle, epistolary novel (novel in letters), travel notes, diaries and other types of prose in which confessional motifs predominate. Naturalism A literary movement that developed in the last third of the 19th century in Europe and the USA. Characteristics: 1. Striving for an objective, accurate and dispassionate portrayal of reality and human character. The main task of naturalists was to study society with the same completeness with which a scientist studies nature. Artistic knowledge was likened to scientific knowledge. 2. A work of art was considered as a “human document”, and the main aesthetic criterion was the completeness of the act of cognition carried out in it. 3. Naturalists refused to moralize, believing that reality depicted with scientific impartiality was in itself quite expressive. They believed that there were no unsuitable subjects or unworthy topics for a writer. Hence, plotlessness and social indifference often arose in the works of naturalists. Realism A truthful depiction of reality. A literary movement that emerged in Europe at the beginning of the 19th century and remains one of the main trends in modern world literature. The main features of realism: 1. The artist depicts life in images that correspond to the essence of the phenomena of life itself. 2. Literature in realism is a means of a person’s knowledge of himself and the world around him. 3. Cognition of reality occurs with the help of images created by typing the facts of reality. Character typification in realism is carried out through the “truthfulness of details” of the specific conditions of the characters’ existence. 4. Realistic art is life-affirming art, even with a tragic resolution to the conflict. Unlike romanticism, the philosophical basis of realism is Gnosticism, the belief in the knowability of the surrounding world. 5. Realistic art is characterized by the desire to consider reality in development. It is capable of detecting and capturing the emergence and development of new social phenomena and relationships, new psychological and social types. Symbolism Literary and artistic movement of the late 19th - early 20th centuries. The foundations of the aesthetics of symbolism were formed in the late 70s. gg. 19th century in the works of French poets P. Verlaine, A. Rimbaud, S. Mallarmé and others. Symbolism arose at the junction of eras as an expression of the general crisis of Western-type civilization. He had a great influence on all subsequent development of literature and art. Main features: 1. Continuity with romanticism. The theoretical roots of symbolism go back to the philosophy of A. Schopenhauer and E. Hartmann, to the work of R. Wagner and some ideas of F. Nietzsche. 2. Symbolism was primarily aimed at the artistic symbolization of “things in themselves” and ideas that are beyond sensory perceptions. A poetic symbol was considered as a more effective artistic tool than an image. The symbolists proclaimed an intuitive comprehension of world unity through symbols and the symbolic discovery of correspondences and analogies. 3. The musical element was declared by the Symbolists to be the basis of life and art. Hence the dominance of the lyrical-poetic principle, the belief in the suprareal or irrational-magical power of poetic speech. 4. Symbolists turn to ancient and medieval art in search of genealogical relationships. Acmeism A movement in Russian poetry of the 20th century, which was formed as the antithesis of symbolism. The Acmeists contrasted the mystical aspirations of symbolism towards the “unknowable” with the “element of nature”, declared a concrete sensory perception of the “material world”, and returned the word to its original, non-symbolic meaning. This literary movement was established in the theoretical works and artistic practice of N.S. Gumilyov, S.M. Gorodetsky, O.E. Mandelstam, A.A. Akhmatova, M.A. Zenkevich, G.V. Ivanov and other writers and poets . All of them united into the group "Workshop of Poets" (operated from 1911 - 1914, resumed in 1920 - 22). In 1912 - 13 published the magazine "Hyperborea" (editor M.L. Lozinsky). Futurism (Derived from the Latin futurum - future). One of the main avant-garde movements in European art of the early 20th century. The greatest development has occurred in Italy and Russia. The general basis of the movement is a spontaneous feeling of the “inevitability of the collapse of old things” (Mayakovsky) and the desire to anticipate and realize through art the coming “world revolution” and the birth of a “new humanity.” Main features: 1. Break with traditional culture, affirmation of the aesthetics of modern urban civilization with its dynamics, impersonality and immorality. 2. The desire to convey the chaotic pulse of a technicalized “intensive life”, an instantaneous change of events and experiences, recorded by the consciousness of the “man of the crowd”. 3. Italian futurists were characterized not only by aesthetic aggression and shocking conservative taste, but also by a general cult of power, an apology for war as “hygiene of the world,” which later led some of them to Mussolini’s camp. Russian Futurism arose independently of Italian and, as an original artistic phenomenon, had little in common with it. The history of Russian futurism consisted of a complex interaction and struggle of four main groups: a) “Gilea” (cubo-futurists) - V.V. Khlebnikov, D.D. and N.D. Burlyuki, V.V. Kamensky, V.V. Mayakovsky, B.K. Lifshits; b) “Association of Ego-Futurists” - I. Severyanin, I. V. Ignatiev, K. K. Olimpov, V. I. Gnedov and others; c) “Mezzanine of Poetry” - Khrisanf, V.G. Shershenevich, R. Ivnev and others; d) “Centrifuge” - S.P. Bobrov, B.L. Pasternak, N.N. Aseev, K.A. Bolshakov and others. Imagism A literary movement in Russian poetry of the 20th century, whose representatives stated that the goal of creativity is creating an image. The main expressive means of imagists is metaphor, often metaphorical chains that compare various elements of two images - direct and figurative. The creative practice of Imagists is characterized by shocking and anarchic motives. The style and general behavior of Imagism was influenced by Russian Futurism. Imagism as a poetic movement arose in 1918, when the “Order of Imagists” was founded in Moscow. The creators of the “Order” were Anatoly Mariengof, who came from Penza, former futurist Vadim Shershenevich, and Sergei Yesenin, who was previously part of the group of new peasant poets. Imagism virtually collapsed in 1925. In 1924, Sergei Yesenin and Ivan Gruzinov announced the dissolution of the “Order”; other imagists were forced to move away from poetry, turning to prose, drama, and cinema, largely for the sake of making money. Imagism was criticized in the Soviet press. Yesenin, according to the generally accepted version, committed suicide, Nikolai Erdman was repressed

Literary and poetic devices

Allegory

Allegory is the expression of abstract concepts through concrete artistic images.

Examples of allegory:

The stupid and stubborn are often called the Donkey, the coward - the Hare, the cunning - the Fox.

Alliteration (sound writing)

Alliteration (sound writing) is the repetition of identical or homogeneous consonants in a verse, giving it a special sound expressiveness (in versification). In this case, the high frequency of these sounds in a relatively small speech area is of great importance.

However, if entire words or word forms are repeated, as a rule, we are not talking about alliteration. Alliteration is characterized by irregular repetition of sounds, and this is precisely the main feature of this literary device.

Alliteration differs from rhyme primarily in that the repeating sounds are not concentrated at the beginning and end of the line, but are absolutely derivative, albeit with high frequency. The second difference is the fact that, as a rule, consonant sounds are alliterated. The main functions of the literary device of alliteration include onomatopoeia and the subordination of the semantics of words to associations that evoke sounds in humans.

Examples of alliteration:

"Where the grove neighs, guns neigh."

"About a hundred years
grow
we don't need old age.
Year to year
grow
our vigor.
Praise,
hammer and verse,
land of youth."

(V.V. Mayakovsky)

Anaphora

Repeating words, phrases, or combinations of sounds at the beginning of a sentence, line, or paragraph.

For example:

« Not intentionally the winds were blowing,

Not intentionally there was a thunderstorm"

(S. Yesenin).

Black ogling the girl

Black maned horse!

(M. Lermontov)

Quite often, anaphora, as a literary device, forms a symbiosis with such a literary device as gradation, that is, an increase emotional nature words in the text.

For example:

“Cattle die, a friend dies, a man himself dies.”

Antithesis (opposition)

Antithesis (or opposition) is a comparison of words or phrases that are sharply different or opposite in meaning.

Antithesis makes it possible to make a particularly strong impression on the reader, to convey to him the strong excitement of the author due to the rapid change of concepts of opposite meanings used in the text of the poem. Also, opposing emotions, feelings and experiences of the author or his hero can be used as an object of opposition.

Examples of antithesis:

I swear first on the day of creation, I swear by it last in the afternoon (M. Lermontov).

Who was nothing, he will become everyone.

Antonomasia

Antonomasia is an expressive means, when used, the author uses a proper name instead of a common noun to figuratively reveal the character of the character.

Examples of antonomasia:

He is Othello (instead of "He is very jealous")

A stingy person is often called Plyushkin, an empty dreamer - Manilov, a man with excessive ambitions - Napoleon, etc.

Apostrophe, address

Assonance

Assonance is a special literary device that consists of repeating vowel sounds in a particular statement. This is the main difference between assonance and alliteration, where consonant sounds are repeated. There are two slightly different uses of assonance.

1) Assonance is used as an original tool that gives an artistic text, especially poetic text, a special flavor. For example:

Our ears are on top of our heads,
A little morning the guns lit up
And the forests are blue tops -
The French are right there.

(M.Yu. Lermontov)

2) Assonance is widely used to create imprecise rhyme. For example, “hammer city”, “incomparable princess”.

One of the textbook examples of the use of both rhyme and assonance in one quatrain is an excerpt from the poetic work of V. Mayakovsky:

I won’t turn into Tolstoy, but into a fat man -
I eat, I write, I’m a fool from the heat.
Who hasn't philosophized over the sea?
Water.

Exclamation

An exclamation can appear anywhere in a work of poetry, but, as a rule, authors use it to intonationally highlight particularly emotional moments in the verse. At the same time, the author focuses the reader’s attention on the moment that particularly excited him, telling him his experiences and feelings.

Hyperbola

Hyperbole is a figurative expression containing an exorbitant exaggeration of the size, strength, or significance of an object or phenomenon.

Example of a hyperbole:

Some houses are as long as the stars, others as long as the moon; baobabs to the skies (Mayakovsky).

Inversion

From lat. inversio - permutation.

Changing the traditional order of words in a sentence to give the phrase a more expressive shade, intonation highlighting of a word.

Inversion examples:

The lonely sail is white
In the blue sea fog... (M.Yu. Lermontov)

The traditional order requires a different structure: A lonely sail is white in the blue fog of the sea. But this will no longer be Lermontov or his great creation.

Another great Russian poet, Pushkin, considered inversion one of the main figures of poetic speech, and often the poet used not only contact, but also remote inversion, when, when rearranging words, other words are wedged between them: “The old man obedient to Perun alone...”.

Inversion in poetic texts performs an accent or semantic function, a rhythm-forming function for building a poetic text, as well as the function of creating a verbal-figurative picture. In prose works, inversion serves to place logical stresses, to express the author’s attitude towards the characters and to convey their emotional state.

Irony

Irony is a powerful means of expression that has a hint of mockery, sometimes slight mockery. When using irony, the author uses words with opposite meanings so that the reader himself guesses about the true properties of the described object, object or action.

Pun

A play on words. A witty expression or joke based on the use of words that sound similar but have different meanings or different meanings of one word.

Examples of puns in literature:

A year for three clicks for you on the forehead,
Give me some boiled food spelt.
(A.S. Pushkin)

And previously served me poem,
Broken string, poem.
(D.D. Minaev)

Spring will drive anyone crazy. Ice - and that got under way.
(E. Meek)

Litotes

The opposite of hyperbole, a figurative expression containing an exorbitant understatement of the size, strength, or significance of any object or phenomenon.

Example of litotes:

The horse is led by the bridle by a peasant in big boots, a short sheepskin coat, and large mittens... and he himself from marigold! (Nekrasov)

Metaphor

Metaphor is the use of words and expressions in a figurative sense based on some kind of analogy, similarity, comparison. Metaphor is based on similarity or resemblance.

Transferring the properties of one object or phenomenon to another based on their similarity.

Examples of metaphors:

Sea problems.

Eyes are burning.

Boiling desire.

Noon was burning.

Metonymy

Examples of metonymy:

All flags will be visiting us.

(here flags replace countries).

I'm three dishes ate.

(here the plate replaces the food).

Address, apostrophe

Oxymoron

A deliberate combination of contradictory concepts.

Look, she it's fun to be sad

Such elegantly naked

(A. Akhmatova)

Personification

Personification is the transference of human feelings, thoughts and speech to inanimate objects and phenomena, as well as to animals.

These signs are selected according to the same principle as when using metaphor. Ultimately, the reader has a special perception of the described object, in which the inanimate object has the image of a certain living being or is endowed with qualities inherent in living beings.

Impersonation examples:

What, a dense forest,

Got thoughtful,
Sadness dark
Foggy?

(A.V. Koltsov)

Be careful of the wind
From the gate came out,

Knocked through the window,
Ran on the roof...

(M.V.Isakovsky)

Parcellation

Parcellation is a syntactic technique in which a sentence is intonationally divided into independent segments and highlighted in writing as independent sentences.

Parcelation example:

“He went too. To the store. Buy cigarettes” (Shukshin).

Periphrase

A paraphrase is an expression that conveys the meaning of another expression or word in a descriptive form.

Examples of paraphrase:

King of beasts(instead of a lion)
Mother of Russian rivers(instead of Volga)

Pleonasm

Verbosity, the use of logically unnecessary words.

Examples of pleonasm in everyday life:

In May month(suffice it to say: in May).

Local aborigine (suffice it to say: aborigine).

White albino (suffice it to say: albino).

I was there personally(suffice it to say: I was there).

In literature, pleonasm is often used as a stylistic device, a means of expression.

For example:

Sadness and melancholy.

Sea ocean.

Psychologism

An in-depth depiction of the hero’s mental and emotional experiences.

Refrain

A repeated verse or group of verses at the end of a song verse. When a refrain extends to an entire stanza, it is usually called a chorus.

A rhetorical question

A sentence in the form of a question to which no answer is expected.

Example:

Or is it new for us to argue with Europe?

Or is the Russian unaccustomed to victories?

(A.S. Pushkin)

Rhetorical appeal

An appeal addressed to an abstract concept, an inanimate object, an absent person. A way to enhance the expressiveness of speech, to express an attitude towards a particular person or object.

Example:

Rus! where are you going?

(N.V.Gogol)

Comparisons

Comparison is one of the expressive techniques, when used, certain properties that are most characteristic of an object or process are revealed through similar qualities of another object or process. In this case, such an analogy is drawn so that the object whose properties are used in comparison is better known than the object described by the author. Also, inanimate objects, as a rule, are compared with animate ones, and the abstract or spiritual with the material.

Comparison example:

then my life sang - howled -

Buzzed - like the autumn surf –

And she cried to herself.

(M. Tsvetaeva)

Symbol

Symbol- an object or word that conventionally expresses the essence of a phenomenon.

The symbol contains a figurative meaning, and in this way it is close to a metaphor. However, this closeness is relative. Symbol contains a certain secret, a hint that allows one to only guess what is meant, what the poet wanted to say. The interpretation of a symbol is possible not so much by reason as by intuition and feeling. The images created by symbolist writers have their own characteristics; they have a two-dimensional structure. In the foreground there is a certain phenomenon and real details, in the second (hidden) plane there is the inner world of the lyrical hero, his visions, memories, pictures born of his imagination.

Examples of symbols:

dawn, morning - symbols of youth, the beginning of life;

night is a symbol of death, the end of life;

snow is a symbol of cold, cold feeling, alienation.

Synecdoche

Replacing the name of an object or phenomenon with the name of a part of this object or phenomenon. In short, replacing the name of a whole with the name of a part of that whole.

Examples of synecdoche:

Native hearth (instead of “home”).

Floats sail (instead of “a sailboat is sailing”).

“...and it was heard until dawn,
how he rejoiced Frenchman..." (Lermontov)

(here “French” instead of “French soldiers”).

Tautology

Repetition in other words of what has already been said, which means it does not contain new information.

Examples:

Car tires- these are tires for a car.

We have united as one.

Trope

A trope is an expression or word used by the author in a figurative, allegorical sense. Thanks to the use of tropes, the author gives the described object or process a vivid characteristic that evokes certain associations in the reader and, as a result, a more acute emotional reaction.

Types of trails:

metaphor, allegory, personification, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, irony.

Default

Silence is a stylistic device in which the expression of a thought remains unfinished, is limited to a hint, and the speech that has begun is interrupted in anticipation of the reader’s guess; the speaker seems to announce that he will not talk about things that do not require detailed or additional explanation. Often the stylistic effect of silence is that unexpectedly interrupted speech is complemented by an expressive gesture.

Default examples:

This fable could be explained more -

Yes, so as not to irritate the geese...

Gain (gradation)

Gradation (or amplification) is a series of homogeneous words or expressions (images, comparisons, metaphors, etc.) that consistently intensify, increase or, conversely, reduce the semantic or emotional significance of the conveyed feelings, expressed thoughts or described events.

Example of ascending gradation:

Not I'm sorry Not I'm calling Not I'm crying...

(S. Yesenin)

In sweetly misty care

Not an hour, not a day, not a year will leave.

(E. Baratynsky)

Example of descending gradation:

He promises him half the world, and France only for himself.

Euphemism

A neutral word or expression that is used in conversation to replace other expressions that are considered indecent or inappropriate in a given case.

Examples:

I'm going to powder my nose (instead of going to the toilet).

He was asked to leave the restaurant (instead, He was kicked out).

Epithet

A figurative definition of an object, action, process, event. An epithet is a comparison. Grammatically, an epithet is most often an adjective. However, other parts of speech can also be used, for example, numerals, nouns or verbs.

Examples of epithets:

velvet leather, crystal ringing

Epiphora

Repeating the same word at the end of adjacent segments of speech. The opposite of anaphora, in which words are repeated at the beginning of a sentence, line, or paragraph.

Example:

“Scallops, all scallops: a cape from scallops, on the sleeves scallops, Epaulettes from scallops..." (N.V.Gogol).

Poetic meter Poetic meter is a certain order in which stressed and unstressed syllables are placed in a foot. A foot is a unit of verse length; repeated combination of stressed and unstressed syllables; a group of syllables, one of which is stressed. Example: A storm covers the sky with darkness 1) Here, after a stressed syllable, one unstressed syllable follows - a total of two syllables. That is, it is a two-syllable meter. A stressed syllable can be followed by two unstressed syllables - then this is a three-syllable meter. 2) There are four groups of stressed-unstressed syllables in the line. That is, it has four feet. MONOSYLLABLE METER Brachycolon is a monocotyledonous poetic meter. In other words, a verse consisting of only stressed syllables. Example of brachycolon: Forehead – Chalk. Bel Coffin. Pop sang. Sheaf of Arrows – Holy Day! Crypt Blind. Shadow - To hell! (V. Khodasevich) BISYLLABLE METERS Trochaic A two-syllable poetic foot with stress on the first syllable. That is, the first, third, fifth, etc. syllables are stressed in a line. Main sizes: - 4-foot - 6-foot - 5-foot An example of a tetrameter trochee: A storm covers the sky with darkness ∩́ __ / ∩́ __ /∩́ __ / ∩́ __ Whirling snow whirlwinds; ∩́ __ / ∩́ __ / ∩ __ / ∩́ (A.S. Pushkin) Iambic A two-syllable poetic foot with stress on the second syllable. That is, the second, fourth, sixth, etc. syllables are stressed in a line. A stressed syllable can be replaced by a pseudo-stressed one (with secondary stress in the word). Then the stressed syllables are separated not by one, but by three unstressed syllables. Main sizes: - 4-foot (lyrics, epic), - 6-foot (poems and dramas of the 18th century), - 5-foot (lyrics and dramas of the 19-20th centuries), - free multi-foot (fable of the 18th-19th centuries ., comedy 19th century) Example of iambic tetrameter: My uncle has the most honest rules, __ ∩́ / __ ∩́ / __ ∩́ / __ ∩́ / __ When he is seriously ill, __ ∩́ / __ ∩́ / __ ∩ / __ ∩́ / He Respect forced myself __ ∩ / __ ∩́ / __ ∩́ / __ ∩́ / __ And I couldn’t think of anything better. __ ∩́ / __ ∩́ / __ ∩ / __ ∩́ / (A.S. Pushkin) An example of iambic pentameter (with pseudo-stressed syllables, they are highlighted in capital letters): We are the result of the interference of the state of the Gorod, __ ∩ / __ ∩ / __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ But, sowing, we are to look at ... __ __ ∩ / __ ∩ / __ __ __ __ / __ ∩́ (A.S. Pushkin) THREE-SYLLABLE METERS Dactyl Three-syllable poetic foot with stress on the first syllable. Main sizes: - 2-foot (in the 18th century) - 4-foot (from the 19th century) - 3-foot (from the 19th century) Example: Heavenly clouds, eternal wanderers! ∩́ __ __ /∩́ __ __ / ∩́ __ __ / ∩́ __ __ / The azure steppe, the pearl chain... ∩́ __ __ /∩́ __ __ / ∩́ __ __ / ∩́ __ __ / (M.Yu .Lermontov) Amphibrachium A three-syllable poetic foot with stress on the second syllable. Main dimensions: - 4-foot ( early XIX century) - 3-foot (from the middle of the 19th century) Example: It is not the wind that rages over the forest, __ ∩́ __ / __ ∩́ __ / __ ∩́ __ / It is not the streams that run from the mountains - __ ∩́ __ / __ ∩́ __ / __ ∩́ / Frost-voivode on patrol __ ∩́__ / __ ∩́ __ / __ ∩́ __ / Walks around his possessions. __ ∩́ __ / __ ∩́ __ / __ ∩́ / (N.A.Nekrasov) Anapest A three-syllable poetic foot with stress on the last syllable. Main sizes: - 4-foot (from the middle of the 19th century) - 3-foot (from the middle of the 19th century) Example of a 3-foot anapest: Oh, spring without end and without edge - __ __ ∩́ / __ __ ∩́ / __ __ ∩́ / __ Without end and without edge dream! __ __ ∩́ / __ __ ∩́ / __ __ ∩́ / I recognize you, life! I accept! __ __ ∩́ / __ __ ∩́ / __ __ ∩́ / __ And I greet you with the ringing of the shield! __ __ ∩́ / __ __ ∩́ / __ __ ∩́ / (A. Blok) How to remember the features of two- and three-syllable meters? You can remember using this phrase: Dombai is walking! Lady, lock the gate in the evening! (Dombay is not only a mountain; translated from some Caucasian languages ​​it means “lion”). Now let's move on to three-syllable feet. The word LADY is formed from the first letters of the names of three-syllable feet: D– dactyl AM– amphibrachium A– anapest And in the same order, the following words of the sentence belong to these letters: You can also imagine it this way:

Plot. Plot elements

Plot A literary work is a logical sequence of actions of the characters.

Plot elements:

exposition, beginning, climax, resolution.

Exposition- introductory, initial part of the plot, preceding the plot. Unlike the plot, it does not affect the course of subsequent events in the work, but outlines the initial situation (time and place of action, composition, relationships of characters) and prepares the reader’s perception.

The beginning- the event from which the development of action in the work begins. Most often, conflict is outlined in the beginning.

Climax- the moment of the highest tension of the plot action, in which the conflict reaches a critical point in its development. The climax can be a decisive clash between the heroes, a turning point in their fate, or a situation that reveals their characters as fully as possible and especially clearly reveals a conflict situation.

Denouement– final scene; the position of the characters that has developed in the work as a result of the development of the events depicted in it.

Elements of Drama

Remarque

An explanation given by the author in a dramatic work, describing how he imagines the appearance, age, behavior, feelings, gestures, intonations of the characters, and the situation on stage. Directions are instructions for the performers and the director staging the play, an explanation for readers.

Replica

An utterance is a phrase a character says in response to the words of another character.

Dialogue

Communication, conversation, statements of two or more characters, whose remarks follow in turn and have the meaning of actions.

Monologue

The speech of a character addressed to himself or to others, but, unlike dialogue, does not depend on their remarks. A way to reveal the character’s state of mind, show his character, and introduce the viewer to the circumstances of the action that were not embodied on stage.

Related information.