The most powerful weapon for hunting is pneumatic. Pneumatic ("Dynamite") Zalinsky gun Pneumatic gun

Modern air guns are intended primarily for sport and recreational shooting, as well as hunting birds and small animals, such as squirrels, rabbits or martens. Therefore, its power is usually low: the muzzle energy of sports and recreational pneumatics usually does not exceed 7.5 J, and that of hunting ones - 25 J. Meanwhile, there are no fundamental theoretical limits on the power of pneumatic weapons.

For example, in the 17th - first half of the 19th centuries, it was quite seriously considered as an alternative to firearms in the armament of the army, since it had a large number of advantages compared to primitive gunpowder guns with comparable power - in particular, a much higher rate of fire and accuracy, insensitivity to weather conditions, less noise, no smoke unmasking the shooter when firing, and so on.

Modern serial high-power hunting pneumatics have a caliber of up to 12.7 mm, a muzzle energy of the order of hundreds of joules and are suitable for hunting large game. In Russia, such powerful pneumatic weapons are not provided for by law, therefore they cannot be certified and de jure not allowed for civil circulation ( de facto is certified either as a “structurally similar product to a weapon” with a muzzle energy of up to 3 J, which is available for free sale, or as a hunting pneumatic of the category “up to 25 J”, since the design of the PCP-pneumatic, to which type this weapon belongs, allows you to vary it power within extremely wide limits).

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  The following types of pneumatic weapons are currently known:

  • Wind tubes, in which the projectile is thrown using the force of the shooter's lungs;
  • Spring-piston pneumatics, in which compressed air for throwing a bullet is generated immediately at the moment of the shot due to the movement of a massive piston inside the cylinder, accelerated by an expanding spring:
    • gas-spring pneumatics, which use a gas spring;
    • electro-pneumatic weapons - in which the mainspring is compressed using the energy stored in the battery;
  • Gas-balloon pneumatics, in which the gaseous phase of carbon dioxide (CO 2) is used to throw bullets:
    • with built-in refillable tank;
    • with a replaceable cylinder;

  The principle of operation of gas-cylinder pneumatics using CO 2 differs sharply from those using compressed air or other gas stored under pressure: the cylinder with liquid carbon dioxide that serves as an energy source in it is essentially a small steam boiler, operating due to the flow of heat from environment. If an ordinary steam boiler filled with water needs to be heated by burning fuel to produce water steam, then carbon dioxide begins to boil already at −57 ° C, so even room temperature is quite enough for CO 2 to form above the liquid phase contained in the cylinder saturated steam is a gaseous phase of carbon dioxide, which can be taken from a cylinder to perform mechanical work, in this case, throwing projectiles.

  At a temperature of 20°C, the pressure in the cylinder will be about 55 atmospheres, and its drop, which occurs as a result of the selection of the next portion of carbon dioxide vapor, provokes re-boiling of the liquid phase of CO 2. This, in turn, causes an increase in pressure in the cylinder until it reaches the initial value corresponding to the thermodynamic equilibrium of the system as a whole. The pressure in the cylinder will be restored as long as the liquid phase of carbon dioxide remains in it (unfired steam locomotives operate on the same principle, but using water as the working fluid).

  Thus, in contrast to a cylinder with compressed air, the pressure in which (and therefore the speed of the bullet fired by a weapon) irreversibly decreases after each shot, a cylinder with liquid carbon dioxide is, to a certain limit, a self-regulating system capable of maintaining the pressure of the gaseous phase by more or more less constant level. Achieving such stability of characteristics in pneumatic pneumatics requires the use of a special complex device - a gearbox.

  However, as with any steam boiler, if too much steam is released from a carbon dioxide cylinder, the pressure in it will drop to such an extent that it will take quite a significant amount of time to restore it to its original value. In addition, when carbon dioxide boils, the cylinder cools greatly due to the active absorption of heat from the environment, so that during active shooting, its temperature can drop so much that the boiling of carbon dioxide becomes sluggish for some time or even practically stops altogether. In other words, the repeatability of shots from gas-cylinder pneumatics largely depends on the rate of fire: if a pause is observed between shots, sufficient to restore pressure in the cylinder, it allows you to achieve high stability of the initial bullet speed over a large number of shots, however, with intense shooting, the initial bullet speed may drop significantly for a certain period of time.

  From this point of view, it is advantageous to use a cylinder of as large a volume as possible, the pressure in which drops less with each shot and recovers faster. However, the procedure for filling a cylinder with liquid carbon dioxide is significantly more complicated than with compressed air. Thus, before refilling, an empty cylinder must be cooled, since an attempt to use an uncooled cylinder will most likely result in the formation of a vapor lock from carbon dioxide gas in it, which prevents the cylinder from being filled completely. Therefore, in most cases, factory-filled disposable standard cylinders of small capacity are used - 8 or 12 grams of carbon dioxide, for example - intended for household siphons.

  From the point of view of the characteristics of pneumatic weapons, the use of carbon dioxide in it is of little benefit and does not allow achieving high performance. Thus, the speed of sound in CO 2 is only 260 m/s at 0°C, which significantly limits the maximum initial speed bullets. At low ambient temperatures, the pressure in the cylinder - and hence the initial velocity of the bullet - drops significantly, and the time it takes to recover after a shot increases significantly. Although in theory the boiling of carbon dioxide will continue until the ambient temperature reaches −57°C, in practice, even at a slightly negative temperature, prolonged shooting from carbon dioxide pneumatics becomes almost impossible. The liquid phase of carbon dioxide contained in the cylinder at a certain position of the weapon when firing (with the barrel raised upward, especially with the cylinder positioned horizontally) can penetrate through the release valve into the barrel and immediately solidify there, which leads to a loss of stability of the initial velocity of the bullet (when fired, this solid phase carbon dioxide is released from the trunk in the form of snow). In addition, carbon dioxide can destroy rubber seals, which require periodic replacement due to swelling.

  All of the above disadvantages, however, are relatively insignificant when using carbon dioxide in recreational pneumatic weapons, which is the main niche of carbon dioxide gas pneumatics.

  • Compression pneumatics, in which compressed air for throwing a bullet is released at the moment of firing from a special storage chamber. Air is pumped into the storage chamber before each shot using a hand pump located on the weapon:
    • compression - with a single manual pumping (cocking), as a rule, these are low-power purely sports models;
    • multi-compression - with repeated manual pumping, it is distinguished by much greater power at a low rate of fire, since before each shot you have to work with a pump, and it is possible to regulate the initial speed of the bullet due to a different number of pumps; It is characterized primarily by high constancy of the initial bullet velocity, as well as a complete absence of recoil.
  • Pneumatics with pre-pumping or pneumatic balloon pneumatics, in which compressed air for firing is dosed from a reservoir located on the weapon, the cylinder is filled with compressed air from external sources: manual or electric high-pressure compressors, compressed air or helium cylinders;
  • Pneumatic weapons with pneumatic cartridges, which use special reusable cartridges filled with compressed air. Structurally, weapons with pneumatic cartridges are largely similar to firearms; there are special kits for adaptation firearms for pneumatic cartridges in order to reduce the cost of training with it and recreational shooting.
  • A pneumoelectric weapon, which additionally contains a flammable element located in contact with compressed gas, and when fired, burns in the compressed gas.
  • Pyropneumatic weapons, aka flammable gas pneumatic- is essentially a transitional stage from pneumatics to firearms. As a propellant it uses mixtures of propane and butane with air, and gasoline-air mixtures. Allows automatic fire. In many countries, it can be legally equivalent to a firearm.

  By muzzle energy and caliber

  Ammunition

  In English-speaking countries, bullets for pneumatics, as opposed to bullets for firearms ( bullets), usually denoted by the term pellets. In the Russian language, such a distinction is not made, but at the everyday level, in relation to pneumatic ammunition, the diminutive form “pulka” is often used.

  Most air rifle bullets are made from lead because they are designed to be fired from rifles and must be soft enough to follow the rifling properly. However, the shape of most bullets allows for firing from smoothbore pneumatics due to the presence of a hollow stabilizer shank. This bullet shape is designed only for subsonic flight speeds. Even if a powerful air rifle is capable of accelerating a bullet to supersonic speed, in flight it will tumble due to its shape, and the accuracy of such shooting will be extremely low. Therefore, when firing from powerful pneumatics, heavier bullets are used, which ensures that subsonic flight speed is maintained. An increase in bullet mass correspondingly leads to an increase in caliber. The mass of a bullet is usually measured in grains (Gr, lat. granum). In 4.5mm, most bullets range from 6 to 10.5 grains.

  Initial bullet speed

  The initial speed of a bullet in an air gun is limited by the speed of propagation of the expansion wave in the gas used as a working fluid, which is equal to the speed of sound in it and for air at room temperature is about 340 m/s. In fact, several can be achieved high speeds, especially in spring-piston rifles, in which the air becomes very hot when fired (the speed of sound increases), and part of the energy used for it is generated due to the combustion of lubricating oil (“dieseling”).

  For most pistols, the initial bullet speed does not exceed 100-150 m/s; for powerful rifles, it can reach and even slightly exceed the speed of sound in air (340 m/s). Pneumatics with multiple pumping allow you to accelerate bullets to transonic speeds - 250-300 m/s. Some models of spring-piston pneumatics (SPP) allow you to slightly exceed the speed of sound in air - 350-380 m/s, but at such speeds standard lead bullets for air guns are no longer used, since their shape does not ensure stable flight at such speeds, and after braking to sound speed, a sharp jump in compaction occurs in the air flowing around the bullet, disrupting the trajectory of its flight [specify] . Some models of pneumatic bellows pneumatics (PCP) allow you to achieve bullet speeds of up to 450 m/s and higher [ ] . Weapons used as a working fluid carbon dioxide, has more modest characteristics, since the speed of sound in it is only 260 m/s. On the contrary, the use of gases with a high speed of sound (for example, helium) makes it possible to achieve significantly more high speeds than when using atmospheric air- this is possible in some models of PCP pneumatics.

  To achieve high accuracy of fire, most pneumatic weapons fire at subsonic speeds, and increased power, if necessary, is ensured by using bullets of increased mass.

  When pumping gas from a cylinder, not only air can be used. The use of gases with a higher speed of sound allows you to increase the power of the shot.

  Kinetic energy of a bullet

  Pneumatic guns

  Currently, there are a large number of manufacturers of air guns. This list includes both domestic and foreign enterprises. The design of air pistols is invented by the manufacturer, or taken by copying from a firearm analogue (specific - for example, Colt 1911, Beretta M9, ​​Smith Wesson, Makarov Pistol, and so on - or prefabricated). Domestic air pistols are often [ ] are superior to imported models in terms of power and reliability. However, at a lower price, they often have manufacturing defects and require serious modifications.

  Air rifles and carbines

  Domestic air rifles are numerous and are represented mainly by models for recreational shooting and primary education shooting. The number of domestic hunting and sporting air rifles is small, which is partly due to legislative issues - a mass domestic manufacturer (IzhMekh) “honestly” certifies its hunting rifles as hunting weapons, which makes it possible to purchase them only with a license, while foreign weapons of the same power class (as well as the products of smaller private Russian firms) are on free sale and, even despite the higher cost, are in immeasurably greater demand. In fact, hunting rifles produced by IzhMekhZavod are usually not even represented in the assortment of specialized stores, since there are usually no people willing to take their place in the “firearms” license. By technical specifications they are inferior to the best imported analogues, but are valued for their reliability and simple design (true only before the mass introduction of plastics by IzhMash in the late 2000s). The range of imported pneumatic weapons significantly exceeds the range of domestic ones, but the cost of imported weapons is also much higher.

  Air guns

  Pneumatic artillery experienced a short burst of popularity immediately after the invention of the first powerful explosives, which could not be used in conventional gunpowder artillery shells because they were too sensitive, or when in contact with metal during storage of the shell, they formed particularly sensitive compounds, and when fired could spontaneously detonate directly in the bore. In such conditions, the ability of pneumatic weapons to smoothly regulate the increase in pressure, eliminating a sharp jolt when firing, turned out to be very attractive.

  The greatest success was achieved by the Americans, who in the 1880s developed and adopted smooth-bore 8-inch and 15-inch pneumatic guns for the fleet and coastal batteries in the 1880s, firing elongated, feathered high-explosive projectiles (often described as “outwardly resembling rockets”), which contained, respectively, , about 50 and 100 kg of explosive (wet pyroxylin). The initial velocity of the projectile reached 250 m/s, the maximum firing range was 4.5...5 kilometers, and a direct hit on the enemy ship was not required - in addition to the usual contact fuse, the projectiles were also equipped with an electrochemical one, which fired with a slight delay after the warhead hit projectile into the water, hitting the underwater hull of an enemy ship. The trajectory of the projectile was hinged, and the approach time to the target reached 12 seconds, so pneumatic guns were mainly considered as an alternative to the then torpedoes, which did not differ in any way. long range, nor high shooting accuracy. To power the gun, a 140-atmospheric compressor powered by a steam engine was used. The first version of the 15-inch gun was installed permanently in the ship's hull, so that guidance was carried out by the entire hull, but this turned out to be an unsuccessful solution, and later versions were developed as conventional pin deck installations.

  The effect of air guns on their target was more than satisfactory, and in the literature of the late 19th century they were described as weapons of exceptional destructive power, capable of seriously changing the face of war at sea. The fact is that the enormous power of the explosion of their shells, unattainable for traditional artillery of that time, left no chance even for battleships, and the small mass and lack of recoil made it possible to install high-power pneumatic guns on small ships or even converted merchant ships:

  Meanwhile, explosives were rapidly improving, and already in Russo-Japanese War The Japanese with great success applied powerful high-explosive shells developed in England to conventional artillery large caliber, which, as expected, turned out to be very destructive weapons. The Japanese 12-inch (305 mm) high-explosive projectile contained about 50 kg of trinitrophenol (“lyddite”, “Shimose melinite”) in a special protective shell of tin foil, which did not form particularly sensitive chemical compounds upon contact with trinitrophenol. Russia also developed shells filled with specially stabilized pyroxylin, but their design was unsuccessful, the fuses were unreliable, and the explosive charge was too weak, which became one of the reasons for the Tsushima tragedy of the Russian fleet. Later, trinitrotoluene and tetranitropentaerythritol were also used in naval artillery shells. Finally, subsequently, after the advent of military aviation, the same principle of destroying a ship with the explosion of a large amount of explosive was used as the basis for the principle of operation of air bombs, which finally put an end to the era of the armored fleet.

  Pneumatic artillery did not keep up with the development of firearms, and after the firing range of the latter reached 10 kilometers or more at the beginning of the 20th century, it turned out to be uncompetitive - the coastal battery of pneumatic guns installed near New York by that time could easily be shot from ships located far beyond its maximum firing range. Added to this are also the specific problems of pneumatic artillery associated with the relatively low development of technology in turn of the 19th century and XX centuries - in particular, its constant companions were air leaks and unreliable operation of numerous valve devices.

  In the USA, there was also a field pneumatic gun of the Sims and Dudley system with a caliber of 2.5 inches (64 mm), in which, instead of a compressor, a powder gas generator was used, located in a pipe parallel to the barrel. The gun was mounted on a wheeled machine, which was common for artillery of that time. Its only advantage over a gunpowder weapon was its relative noiselessness, due to which it was used with limited success in the Spanish-American War of 1898 for sabotage purposes, and subsequently also fell out of use. True, in the First world war The French and Austrians widely used pneumatic mortars in trench warfare, which threw a mine with a caliber of up to 200 mm and a weight of up to 35 kg at a distance of about 1 km, but here, too, the air was eventually replaced by gunpowder.

  Hunting

  On the territory of the Russian Federation, in accordance with the Federal Law “On Weapons”, the use of pneumatic weapons in hunting is permitted. hunting weapons with a muzzle energy of no more than 25 J, which was also confirmed by the decision of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation dated August 26, 2005 No. GKPI05-987 On the recognition of clause 22.3 of the Model Rules of Hunting in the RSFSR, approved. Order of the Main Directorate of Hunting and Nature Reserves under the Council of Ministers of the RSFSR dated 01/04/1988 N 1, in part relating to the ban on the use of pneumatic hunting weapons with a muzzle energy of no more than 25 J in hunting, inoperative and not subject to application from the date of entry into force of the Federal Law " About weapons".

  Moreover, in fact, from 2005 to the present, no specific rules for hunting with pneumatics have been developed, and the admission or non-admission of hunters armed with it to hunting grounds is carried out de facto solely at the discretion of the rangers responsible for them. At their discretion, such a hunt can, in particular, be equated to poaching, by analogy with hunting with small-caliber rifles chambered for rimfire cartridges, which is prohibited in many localities by regulations that are in direct conflict with the federal Law “On Weapons.”

  Airgun hunting is widespread throughout the world, especially for birds and small mammals such as marmots. In fact, any commercially available pneumatic gun with a caliber of 5.5 mm and higher is, in its original purpose, hunting - a “standard” caliber of 4.5 mm is optimal as a sporting and recreational weapon. Large-caliber (9 mm or more) pneumatics are used for hunting large game, including deer and wild boar.

  AirForce ;

• Spain: Norica, Gamo, Cometa;
• Türkiye: Hatsan, Kral, Torun Arms;
• France: Cybergun;
• Mexico: Mendoza;
• China: Shanghai, BAM, BMK;
• Korea: Evanix, Sumatra;

It's not uncommon for Crosman to produce something for Umarex, as they do with the Beretta Elite II and Walther PPK/S pistols [ ] .

Umarex produces a large number of weapons under the brands: Ruger, Walther, Colt, Browning, Hammerli, Beretta, Magnum.

The idea that it would be good to create a weapon that uses compressed air as a force that drives a projectile has been thought about by aggressively progressive humanity for a very long time. And although the first design of this kind—a blowpipe—appeared back in time immemorial, thought was far ahead of the development of science and production.

The prototype of the trunk was a tube 20-50 centimeters long. A poisoned dart was used as a projectile. The tribes of South and North America, South India, and others used blow pipes to hunt small game. South-East Asia and Indonesia. The “Voroshilov shooters” of those times, judging by the hunting skills of their descendants, who have remained at the same level of development in our time, could hit a bird in the eye from a distance of 10-20 meters.

Sometimes the length of the tube reached 2.5 meters (and sometimes even more). There were even options when a wider closed cylinder was put on the end of the tube. When struck by hand on the end, it ran into the barrel, creating increased pressure in the system, and the projectile flew at a distance of up to 100 meters. Such a design can well be considered as an example (albeit primitive) of a manual piston system.

In 250 BC, the Alexandrian mechanic Ctesibius inserted a piston into a hollow cylinder, which first became the basis for the creation of a fire pump, and after some time - two types of throwing weapons, a catapult and a crossbow. When the bowstring of the crossbow was pulled, the levers rotating on the axles pressed the pistons in the air chambers. After releasing the arrow, compressed air returned the levers to their original position. The complexity of the design caused the loss of interest in such weapons. (Looking ahead, I will say that in the 19th century, engineers again thought about creating weapons systems that would use the energy of compressed air. Thus, on the US Navy ship Vesuvius, air guns designed by Edmund Zalinski were installed. To the idea of ​​​​throwing shells from the gun barrel The American inventor Zalinski came up with compressed air because shells filled with dynamite, when fired, often detonated and exploded in the bore of a gun.A pneumatic gun of 380 millimeters caliber and 15 meters long, with the help of air compressed to 140 atmospheres, could throw shells weighing 444 kilograms, containing 227 kilograms of dynamite, at a distance of up to 1550 meters, and a shell with 51 kilograms of dynamite - and at all 5000 meters. American admirals were delighted with the new gun: in 1888, money was allocated for the production of 250 dynamite guns for coastal artillery. But after a few years later, enthusiasm gave way to disappointment, and Zalinski's guns quietly but quickly disappeared from the scene.)



Renewed interest in air guns in Europe occurred during the Renaissance. Oddly enough, the development of pneumatic weapons was facilitated by firearms. The disadvantages of the latter, namely: the inability to fire a shot in bad weather, lower rate of fire, noise and the presence of unmasking clouds of powder smoke - all this prompted gunsmiths to look for an alternative to gunpowder in barreled weapons. And the possibility of using compressed air energy attracted their attention. One of the first pneumatic guns, information about which has survived to this day, was designed in 1430 by the gunsmith Hutter from Nuremberg.

Huge contribution to the creation various types weapons were introduced by Leonardo da Vinci. He is the creator of the first wheel locks, which appeared at the end of the 15th century. Like many other designs of the great master, the mechanism turned out to be extremely complex, and therefore was used mainly for hunting rifles. The first air pistol powered by compressed air is also credited to the authorship of this inventor. A description of an air gun designed by another prominent figure of the Renaissance, Benvenuto Cellini, has survived to this day.

The Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna houses a compressor-type air gun made in Germany around 1590, similar in appearance to a wheel-lock gun. (Drawings of that time show that many air guns have false flintlocks that completely imitate appearance firearm locks. Pneumatic guns were given a resemblance to flintlocks not only for camouflage. It is believed that this was done mainly for the convenience of shooters who were accustomed to the specific layout of the weapon and to certain techniques for handling it.) The trigger cocks the piston moving inside the air chamber. In 1600, an air gun was made for Henry VI, at about the same time the Nuremberg gunsmith Johann Oberländer made his gun.



At the beginning of the 17th century, a type of pneumatic weapon was created, the design of which was based on the principle of creating excess air pressure in a tank using a device shaped like a bicycle pump. To achieve the required pressure level, it was necessary to make from 100 to 2000 movements of the pump piston. This created a pressure of 35 to 70 atmospheres.

Pneumatic weapons had a rather complex design, and with the level of technology that existed at that time, it was very difficult to make such a weapon reliable. Besides, it was unsafe. Without precise instruments at hand to measure pressure, when filling tanks with compressed air, they often exceeded their strength threshold - as a result, the tank exploded, maiming or killing the shooter.

Since that time, various types of air rifles and pistols began to appear. For some rifles, the mechanism was located in the butt and consisted of air bellows that were compressed by a spring. The spring was cocked with a special key, which was inserted into a certain place in the butt. When the trigger was pressed, the spring was disengaged and compressed the bellows, creating increased air pressure. Of course, such a mechanism could not provide much power.

A mechanism of another type was also located in the butt. It consisted of a piston system and a flat spring. She also started with the key, and then trigger launched the spring, it pushed the piston and created increased air pressure in the cylinder.

But greatest distribution received systems with pre-inflated air, since they were easier to manufacture and more reliable and practical in combat conditions. In addition, balloon systems had more power and made it possible to fire not one, but several shots. Some cylinders were located in the butt, or rather, the cylinder was made in the form of a butt. Or the cylinder was attached to the bottom or side of the rifle, at the base of the forend.

A book on artillery published in Paris in 1607 describes the Marine le Bourgeot air gun. A cylindrical cylinder of compressed air was attached to the breech of the barrel. A lever-controlled valve was installed between the cylinder and the barrel. The device was simple: a barrel, an air tank and a valve. The reservoir could be located in the butt, in the handle, or under the barrel. Air was pumped into the balloon, as a rule, using a separate pump, but there were also samples with a non-separable pump. A filled cylinder was usually enough for several shots, which distinguished compression guns from conventional gunpowder guns. But since compression guns were also loaded from the muzzle, the increase in rate of fire was small. Taking into account the fact that the pressure and, accordingly, the speed of the bullet decreased with each shot, and it took a lot of time to refill the cylinder, the advantage of compression weapons over gunpowder weapons turned out to be very doubtful.

The beginning and middle of the 17th century were marked by significant discoveries in the field of physics. The German scientist Otto von Guericke, who lived in Magdeburg, was engaged in vacuum research (remember the famous Magdeburg hemispheres from the 6th grade physics course?) and designed an air pump. English physicist and chemist Robert Boyle and French physicist Denis Papin studied the expansion of air and worked to improve the design of the air pump. By the end of the 17th century, metalworking technology had reached the level necessary to create high-quality pneumatic mechanisms, and pneumatic weapons, although exotic, became not so rare. Interestingly, such weapons, which required high precision work, were made mainly in England and Central Europe, where mechanical crafts were most developed.

The improvement of pneumatic guns made it possible to use them for hunting already in the 17th century. Where once hunters who didn't want to deal with rattling, smoking, weather-sensitive firearms used crossbows, they now had a choice of air rifles. The museum in Stockholm houses two gas-cylinder hunting rifles made in the mid-17th century for Queen Christina Augusta by master Hans Köhler. A manual pressure pump was mounted in the butt of the gun, which created increased pressure in the air cylinder located in the middle part. Georg Fehr from Dresden in the years 1653-1655 made a pair of air guns and a pair of pistols - all of them had air cylinders and pumps.

The calibers of air rifles of this type that existed at that time were in the range of 10-20 millimeters. The supply of compressed air made it possible to fire up to 20 shots, and the initial speed of the bullet reached 330 meters per second.

In 1780, the Austrian master Bartelomeo Girandoni created a 13 mm caliber air rifle, called the Windbuchse. Magazine capacity - 20 lead bullets. The effectiveness of the gun can be judged by the fact that the bullet pierced an inch-thick board at 100 paces. The Girandoni gun was the most popular military air weapon of that time.



The air reservoir in the Girandoni rifle was a metal cylinder, which simultaneously served as a butt. The balloon was fixed with screws and could be easily replaced if necessary. Soldiers were given two spare cylinders per rifle. A special case was used to carry butt cylinders. The balloon was inflated with a hand pump. Approximately 1,500 swings were required, after which the air pressure in the cylinder reached 33 atmospheres.

Considering that the rate of fire of firearms in those days did not exceed 4-6 rounds per minute, and the hit accuracy left much to be desired, then the advantages air rifle if used for military purposes, they immediately become obvious. Austrian Emperor Joseph II calculated that 500 soldiers armed with such guns would have a total firepower of over 100,000 rounds per hour, which would be at least five times the firepower of the same number of soldiers armed with flintlock weapons.



However, the rearmament of the army with pneumatic weapons occurred with serious difficulties. This was due to the fact that air rifles were extremely expensive, and their production process was extremely labor-intensive. In total, about 1,500 of these rifles were produced in Austria.

The shooters of the Austrian border guard used Girardoni rifles from 1790 to 1815 - just during the wars with France. In battles with French troops, they hit officers and artillery personnel at a distance of 100-150 steps. It is clear that such an insidious weapon irritated the French very much, and Napoleon decided to give the order to shoot or hang on the spot shooters captured with an air gun in their hands.

Others have tried to use Girardoni's system. Thus, the Viennese gunsmith J. Kontriner modified it in his twenty-round hunting rifle of 13 mm caliber, but did not achieve commercial success. The attempts of Schember in Vienna (1830) and Staudenmaier in London (1800) were no more successful. Firearms entered a period of rapid development, while pneumatic weapons remained the domain of individual gunsmiths.



Pneumatic weapons have been successfully used in hunting. There is evidence that in the first half of the 18th century large-caliber air rifles were used during royal deer hunts. However, they hunted not only deer, but also those in power. The noiselessness of pneumatic weapons attracted the attention of not only hunters. When the “cavaliers” were preparing the next attempt on the life of the Lord Protector of England Oliver Cromwell in 1655, the conspirators purchased in Utrecht (Netherlands) an air gun that could shoot at 150 steps.

In the same 18th century, an original type of camouflaged weapon appeared - shooting canes. According to a number of historians, such weapons were created not so much for travelers fearing attacks, but for poachers. By hiding the butt and breech with a lock under clothing, and the barrel in a cane, it was possible to carry the weapon into private hunting grounds. Perhaps for the same purpose, or perhaps for self-defense purposes, the German master Joseph Prokop made, around 1750, a collapsible air gun, the bronze barrel of which was 9 millimeters caliber was hidden in the cavity of a walnut cane. The upper iron bushing attached the barrel to the breech with a lock. On the other side, a butt was threaded to the breech, which was an iron cylinder with compressed air, covered with a leather cover. The bullet was inserted into the barrel before it was attached to the breech. The weapon was designed for targeted shooting - the master not only made a sight on it, but for ease of aiming he even equipped the butt-cylinder with a cheek rest.

Around the beginning of the 90s of the 19th century, even among the islanders, pneumatic weapons acquired a sporting orientation. Competitions between shooters were held in Birmingham. The losing side paid the winners for lunch in a restaurant or tavern.

A revival of interest in pneumatic weapons and the possibility of their use in hunting occurred in the 20th century. A clear indication of the popularity of pneumatics is the fact that at the IWA exhibition in Nuremberg in March of this year, more than a hundred companies demonstrated new airguns, including hunting models.

The developments of Russian companies such as EDgun, Ataman (Demyan LLC) and others were also well presented at the exhibition. And it can be a shame to see in the catalog Russian company information that some models of air guns it produces are intended for sale only in EU countries.



In Russia, it is allowed to freely purchase pneumatic weapons with a muzzle energy of up to 3 joules, with a passport - up to seven and a half joules, and with a hunting license it is possible to purchase air rifles with a muzzle energy of up to twenty-five joules. One can only guess what the legislator was guided by when setting the threshold value at twenty-five joules. I have an assumption, but I don’t know to what extent it corresponds to reality. In Andrei Tutyshkin’s musical comedy “Wedding in Malinovka” there is a character - Popandopulo. In one scene he says: “You’re a prodigy!” And when asked what this word means, he answers: “Who knows! The word is beautiful." The threshold value, “a beautiful number,” was probably chosen in the same way. If you take a .177 caliber weapon, then the bullet mass is 0.68 grams. Knowing this value, it is easy to calculate the speed that provides muzzle energy equal to twenty-five joules. That turns out to be 272 meters per second. When large calibers, starting, say, p.25 and ascending - .357, .45, .50, .58, not to mention 20 millimeters and .87, the initial speed will tend to zero. Or, as always, the severity of Russian laws...

To be fair, it should be noted that hunting with pneumatic weapons is not permitted in all countries, and that restrictions on muzzle energy for pneumatic weapons are even more stringent than Russian ones and are present in the legislation of many countries.

And yet, in a number of countries they still hunt with large-caliber, high-power air rifles - and they hunt successfully. Both antelopes and wild pigs, and even bison. However, we will talk about the practice of hunting with large-caliber pneumatic weapons next time.

Russian hunting magazine, May 2015

1839

At the end of the 19th century, the emergence of new technologies made it possible to achieve a noticeable increase in the characteristics of artillery weapons. Attempts to use new ideas, solutions and technologies have led to the emergence of a mass of new designs, including unusual ones. Perhaps the most interesting direction development of artillery became the so-called dynamite guns. By original idea The brain behind such weapons was the American inventor David M. Mafford.

The future author of several samples of promising artillery systems worked as a school teacher, but showed great interest in weapons. Back in 1862, during Civil War, gunsmith enthusiast D.M. Mafford proposed an original design for an artillery gun. To save gunpowder, it was proposed to use the pneumatic principle of throwing a projectile. A steam system had to be interfaced with the gun barrel, providing required pressure behind the projectile. In theory, this could fire existing and special projectiles, working on a par with traditional gunpowder artillery.


As far as we know, D.M. Mafford built prototype his steam gun and introduced him to the military. The product was tested at the test site, revealing its positive and negative qualities. First of all, it was found that the proposed gun cannot show a high initial projectile velocity. As a result, the firing range left the best. The accuracy of hits was not high either. A product with such low characteristics was of no interest to the army, which is why the project was abandoned. An original, but not very successful idea, was forgotten for two decades.

General diagram of the weapon. Patent page

In the late sixties of the century before last, Alfred Nobel invented dynamite. This explosive mixture was noticeably more powerful than existing gunpowders, which is why it was of great interest to the military. In particular, equipment artillery shells dynamite instead of gunpowder made it possible to significantly increase their power. However, the use of such shells with existing guns was not possible. Along with the high power of the explosion, dynamite and mixtures based on it had high sensitivity. Thus, the detonation of a propellant charge could provoke an explosion of a projectile with destruction of the gun and fatal consequences for the crew.

The solution to the existing problem appeared only in the early eighties. It was proposed by its inventor D.M. Mafford, whose air gun had previously been rejected by the military. According to the gunsmith's calculations, a pneumatic gun should be used to throw a dynamite shell without a strong push that could lead to detonation. With the correct selection of pressure creation systems, it was possible to achieve the required parameters for projectile speed and firing range, as well as get rid of existing risks.

Based on the original idea of ​​D.M. Mafford developed a full-fledged design for an artillery piece, which soon became the subject of a patent. The inventor's rights to this development were secured by American patent number US 279965, issued on June 26, 1883. Around the same time as receiving the patent, the inventor proposed his project to the American army, which showed some interest in promising weapons.

A promising weapon designed by D.M. Mafford had to consist of several main components. To send a projectile in the direction of the target, an artillery unit consisting of a barrel and a carriage was proposed. The pneumatic part was supposed to be responsible for transferring energy to the projectile. The design of the artillery unit had to be developed in accordance with the customer's requirements, receive a barrel of the required caliber and ensure its guidance in two planes. In this case, it was possible to use a variety of options for mounting the barrel and other parts that meet strength and other requirements.

A characteristic feature of the dynamite gun was to be the long barrel length. According to the calculations of the author of the project, the acceleration of the projectile using compressed gas was carried out more slowly than in the case of a powder propellant charge. For this reason, an increased barrel length was required to transfer the required energy to the projectile. For example, a 12-inch (305 mm) gun needed a 50-foot (15.24 m) barrel—approximately 50 calibers. With a shorter barrel length, the characteristics of the projectile could be insufficient.

The artillery part of the gun was supposed to use loading from the breech. To achieve this, the barrel could be equipped with a bolt of any suitable design. An important feature of the shutter was to be a compressed gas supply system. Through a through hole in the bolt, the internal volume of the barrel bore was supposed to be connected to a flexible hose. The latter was intended to connect the artillery unit and the gas cylinder.

Patent US 279965 proposed using a cylinder of the required volume with a set of fittings for connection with other units of the gun as the basis of the pneumatic part. The drawing attached to the patent showed a cylinder with two hose connections and one for installing a pressure gauge. Using the latter, it was proposed to control the pressure in the cylinder. Manually controlled shut-off valves were placed on both cylinder fittings to control the operation of the pneumatic part and fire the shot.

It was planned to connect a compressor based on a steam engine to the inlet pipe of the gas cylinder. In the "patent" version, this device was a system of two components. The first was a small-sized steam engine that needed steam from separate boiler. The second element was the actual piston-type compressor with a horizontal cylinder arrangement. The task of the compressor was to supply atmospheric air into the gas cylinder to create the pressure necessary to fire the shot.

The operating principle of a pneumatic / dynamite gun designed by D.M. Mafford's was simple enough. To prepare the gun for firing, it was necessary to supply steam to the compressor engine and wait for the latter to create the required pressure in the gas cylinder. After this, the compressor could be turned off or the air supply to the cylinder could be shut off, which allowed the pressure in it to be maintained at the desired level. From the point of view of loading, the gun differed little from other artillery systems of the time. You had to open the bolt, place the bolt in the chamber, then lock the barrel and aim. In this case, there should have been a small empty space between the bottom of the projectile and the front of the bolt.

When the “combat” valve was opened, compressed air from a gas cylinder with the required pressure had to enter the rear part of the barrel and push the projectile. Due to the cavity between the projectile and the bolt, the pressure in the barrel should have risen without sudden jumps. Passing along the barrel, the ammunition had to develop the required speed and acquire the rotation necessary for stabilization in flight. An important feature of this method of throwing a projectile, as the inventor argued, should have been the absence of significant shocks that could lead to the detonation of a dynamite charge.

The proposed design of the artillery gun had several main advantages. First of all, positive feature there was no significant risk of the projectile exploding in the barrel. It was also stated that the gun would not show any noticeable recoil. In addition, the developed architecture could be adapted to different calibers and types of projectiles. To do this, it was necessary to create an appropriate artillery unit and connect it to the cylinder required capacity and durability, equipped with a compressor. Thus, it became possible to develop high-power coastal and naval guns with high-power projectiles.

At the same time, there were certain disadvantages. the main problem The project involved the use of a large and heavy pneumatic part. The presence of a cylinder and a compressor requiring steam supply limited the scope of application of the new weapons. In particular, the possibility of developing lightweight towed systems for ground forces. However, such a drawback was not considered critical. Inaccessible to D.M.’s dynamite gun. Mafford’s niche could still be occupied by “powder” guns.

In 1883, the inventor built a prototype of his gun, which was planned to be demonstrated to a potential customer, the American army. The prototype was not required high performance and the significant power of the projectile, which is why it had a fairly modest size and small caliber. However, despite this, the experienced dynamite gun D.M. Mafford got the whole set necessary equipment, from a barrel with a carriage to a steam-driven compressor.

The experimental gun received a 2-inch (50.8 mm) caliber barrel and a length of 28 feet (8.53 m) - 168 calibers. Due to the lack of high pressure in the bore and the explosive growth of loads inherent in gunpowder artillery, the barrel was made of brass and had walls only 0.25 inches (6.35 mm) thick. Thus, the gun barrel was much lighter and easier to manufacture compared to similar units for guns of a “traditional” design. However, to avoid bending, the brass barrel had to be equipped with a long, rigid support.


E. Zalinski's gun being tested. Photo Zonwar.ru

It was proposed to store the compressed air necessary for the shot in a metal cylinder with a volume of 12 cubic meters. ft (339.8 l). Using the existing compressor, the cylinder had to be pressurized to 500 psi. inch (34 atmospheres). The pneumatic and artillery parts were connected by a simple rubber hose. A simple gate-type valve was used as a means of firing control. Turning the control handle led to the gas supply being cut off or to its resumption.

For testing, the experimental gun was delivered to Fort Hamilton, located in New York Harbor. Edmund Louis Gray Zalinski was appointed responsible for the tests. The inventor and the military mounted an experimental gun and conducted test firing. Checks have shown that the presented prototype is indeed capable of solving the tasks assigned to it. The compressed gas from the cylinder successfully carried the projectile down the barrel and threw it out. The fundamental possibility of using new weapons has been proven in practice.

However, the prototype failed to show high performance. Almost all components of the D.M. gun Mafford had certain shortcomings that negatively affected the characteristics of the entire system as a whole. Thus, a single-stage steam-driven compressor turned out to be too difficult to operate and unsuitable for quickly creating the required pressure in a cylinder. In addition, the layout of the gun turned out to be unsuccessful, and the existing barrel could not be used in practice.

Based on the test results, it was decided to refuse D.M.’s proposal. Mafford. The sample he presented could not satisfy the military for a number of reasons. Further development of the project was considered inappropriate. The enthusiastic inventor again did not receive military approval, and was also left without a contract for the further development of an air/dynamite gun. With such sad results he had to return home to Ohio.

Project D.M. Mafford was not interested in a potential customer and did not receive direct development. Nevertheless, work on creating promising weapons of an unusual class continued. During the tests, Lieutenant E. Zalinski became familiar with the original proposal, showed interest in it, and then began improving the original design. Over the next few years, he proactively improved the design of D.M. Mafford and gradually increased the characteristics of the gun. Already in 1885, he was able to build a prototype with an 8-inch (203.2 mm) barrel, capable of sending a 100-pound (45.4 kg) projectile over a distance of 2 miles. Unlike the first development, which was tested in 1883, new sample had every chance to interest the army and get out of the project development stage.

Based on materials:
http://douglas-self.com/
http://dawlishchronicles.com/
http://heliograph.com/
http://google.ru/patents/US279965

Hunting and gathering are precisely those actions that helped man become intelligent and survive in not too friendly world. Today collecting has reached new level its development and began to be called collecting, and its objects are now not roots and fruits, but artistic and other values. Hunting has also accompanied humanity at all times of its existence and has moved from the category of necessity to the state of hobby.

Today, in order to satisfy your natural needs for survival, there is no need to sharpen spears and tighten the bowstring. Even firearms, which have helped game hunters for so long, are gradually becoming obsolete, as they have been replaced by pneumatic hunting weapons.

Operating principle of pneumatics

If in the old days hunting was a way of survival for poor people, and entertainment for rich people, today it is a way of satisfying an ancient instinct. Since the advent of the first firearms, firearms manufacturers have been making guns for hunting animals.

As the demand for killing grew, so did the rifles until they were put into production. By this time, hunting rifles had been improved, made cheaper, and they became available to many game lovers.

When the first hunting weapon (pneumatic) appeared, its manufacturers did not discover anything new, but applied principles that had been known since ancient times. The prototype of modern pneumatics was used by the natives of South America to catch animals.



The modern one was based on 2 types of wind pipes:

• in the first, the direction of flight and the speed of the projectile were determined by the strength of the hunter’s lungs;
• in the second, they used two tubes threaded into one another, and the dart was sent flying with a powerful blow from the trapper on the outer tube, closed at the end.

In the first case, a more accurate shot was obtained, but to make it, the shooter had to get as close as possible to the prey. In the second, it was possible to shoot from a long distance, but the accuracy of the hit was much lower.

The same principle is embedded in modern weapons for hunting - a pneumatic gun. It was simply improved.

Advantages of pneumatics

The first air guns appeared back in the 17th century and immediately showed an advantage over firearms:

• firstly, they could be used in any weather, while gunpowder guns stopped firing even with slight dampness;
• secondly, it was possible to fire a series of shots one after another;
• thirdly, the hit rate of pneumatic weapons turned out to be higher, and there were no accompanying loud sounds and puffs of smoke.



Today you can hear the opinion that the most powerful for hunting is more expensive than the weakest firearm. In fact, this is not true. It is this type of gun that has become popular among many trappers due to a number of significant advantages:

1. Pneumatic hunting weapons are recognized as environmentally friendly. The British were the first to introduce its use on a regular basis. Their scientists found that, for example, a high level of mutations and mortality of birds in one of the reservoirs is associated with the influence of lead compounds, which large quantities settled on its bottom after many decades of shooting game here.
2. Cost per shot similar weapons It's cheaper than using a firearm.
3. The procedure for obtaining a license has been simplified, and for some types of pneumatics it is not required at all.

The lack of noise and light weight of air hunting weapons with a high hit rate makes them more attractive in the eyes of many trappers.

Types of air guns



Modern arms factories produce pneumatics, both for self-defense and for sports and hunting. All of them may differ in size, caliber and weight, but work according to one of four principles:

1. Spring-piston is distinguished by reliability and low cost. In this type of pneumatics, a sealed container with a gas mixture contained in it is directly connected to the barrel. When the weapon is cocked, its spring is compressed, and when the trigger is pulled, it is released and hits the piston, resulting in a shot.
2. Compression pneumatics are based on the preliminary injection of compressed gas into a special hermetically sealed compartment of the rifle. To fire a shot, you must turn a lever, which moves a piston connected to a container of compressed gas. It is considered to be the best for hunting, as it has high accuracy and bullet speed, and has no recoil. Such a rifle can have a one-time or multiple injection, which allows you not only to fire several shots with one injection, but also to control their power.
3. LPG weapons use carbon dioxide in liquid and gaseous states. This is a fairly powerful and accurate type of pneumatic, the only drawback of which is the inability to use at temperatures from 0 degrees and below.
4. Weapons with air cartridges are the most powerful and expensive. Its accuracy and bullet speed are the highest. In such a gun, it is located in a special container, which is filled with an air compressor before going out hunting. Depending on what caliber is used, you can fire from 50 to 200 shots. Most manufacturers make the container with compressed gas an integral part of the gun, but there are examples where it is connected to the barrel with a special hose.

All types of weapons are used for hunting, except those using liquefied CO2. To get maximum results when shooting, you should know in advance which caliber to choose for your gun.

Caliber of air bullets

When a hunter asks about the quality of a weapon, he is interested in how much power the bullet develops at the moment of firing. It is influenced by energy, which is measured in joules, and the caliber of the air gun used for hunting.



There are several types of ammunition for hunting:

• The most popular caliber is 4.5 mm. A standard bullet has a weight of 0.48 g, and the energy can develop up to 40 J. The most effective hit for a weapon of this caliber is 55-60 m. It is most suitable for hunting game weighing up to 1.5 kg.
• for hunting - caliber 5.5 mm - designed for standard bullets weighing 0.88 g. The energy that such a projectile develops is 75 J, and the distance to the target reaches 70 m. Excellent for hunting game weighing up to 4 kg (hare, pheasant and others ).
• Pneumatic weapons for hunting - caliber 6.35 mm - generate energy up to 110 J at a distance of up to 70 meters. Recommended for hunting wolves and foxes.
• For big game lovers, a 9 mm caliber weapon is suitable. It develops energy up to 300 J and is capable of hitting a target weighing up to 80 kg.

Weapons companies produce pneumatics of all the listed calibers, but in terms of the type of hunting rifles, the most popular are those equipped with air cartridges.

The choice of professionals

The greatest demand, despite the high price, among big game hunters is an air gun called the Dragon Career Slayer from a South Korean manufacturer.



Exactly this powerful weapon similar type with a barrel diameter of 12.7 mm. It was originally intended for special forces and was even used in the South Korean army. The energy with which a bullet is fired from this rifle is 400 J, which is the highest power in the world. Other weapon parameters:

• weight 3.99 kilograms;
• bullet speed at departure 220 m/s;
• the length of the gun is 1.49 meters;
• uses bullets weighing from 16 to 20 g;
• There is only one charge in the chamber.

This rifle is designed for shooting large game, and professional American hunters use it to hunt bison. The gun has high accuracy, and its compressed gas tank is enough for 4 shots.

Second place

The next most popular is the “graduate” of the South Korean company - the Sam Yang Big Bore 909S rifle, which has a caliber of 11.5 mm.

With an energy of up to 250 J and a bullet weight of 11 g, its projectile speed is also 220 m/s. The supply of compressed air is enough for 5 shots, and the main purpose is boar hunting, which can be done from a distance of 50 m.

Third place

Among the pneumatic models with a caliber of 5.5 mm, the most powerful and popular is the representative of the products of the American company Air Force Guns. Their Air Force Condor rifle is considered the best innovative achievement in pneumatics due to its simplicity and reliability of design, while the speed of the bullet can be adjusted from 70 to 390 m/s.



It is also equally popular because its caliber and power can be changed by purchasing the appropriate tuning kits. The linings available on this rifle allow you to maintain excellent alignment when assembling any components, and the air supply is enough for 200 shots. This gun can shoot both bullets and syringes with sleeping pills and darts.

You can attach trunks from 4.5 mm to 11.5 mm in diameter to the purchased basic model. This transforming rifle is great for both small game and animals weighing up to 4 kg.

Domestic pneumatics

Among domestically produced guns, products from the Izhevsk arms factory are in demand. Although their air rifles are not reliable and powerful, they have quite decent performance:

• weapon weight 3 kg;
• power 25 J;
• projectile speed at departure 220 m/s;
• There is 1 shell in the magazine.

Domestic pneumatics are suitable for beginners just learning the basics of hunting.

Rare caliber

Pneumatic weapons for hunting, caliber 9 mm, are rare, because with all the advantages in the form of power and great destructive power, they have disadvantages. The weight of such a rifle is considered inconvenient, and if you add to this poor accuracy and an extremely limited number of shots, it is clear why they are not in demand.

Features of pneumatics

No matter how much manufacturers praise their product, you can only know the quality of an air rifle in action. The only drawback of this type of weapon is its rapid wear and tear if proper care is not taken. At the same time, all the indicators declared by the company are reduced, and some parts require not just cleaning or lubrication, but complete replacement.

In 1862, the American Mefford designed and presented to the military a gun that fired using compressed air, which was produced by a special compressor. However, the army was not satisfied with the insufficient range and low accuracy of fire.
A little more than two decades passed, and the same Mefford guns, improved by the American artilleryman Zalinsky, appeared on coastal batteries located near New York. A little later, Zalinsky’s air guns were adopted by the navies of some states. How can one explain the rebirth of pneumatic artillery?




The main reason for the modernization of Mefford guns and the appearance of Zalinsky guns was the invention in the 1860s of dynamite, an explosive more powerful than gunpowder. Specialists from many countries tried to equip artillery ammunition with it. However, such experiments had to be stopped - the new explosive turned out to be too sensitive to the sharp shocks that shells experience when fired.
So Zalinsky advised the artillerymen of the US Army and Navy to fire dynamite shells from air guns. In their barrels, the projectile was accelerated smoothly by compressed air, receiving increasing acceleration. Zalinsky's proposal was accepted, and by 1888 the US Navy received 250 pneumatic coastal defense guns. These artillery systems looked quite solid (caliber 381 mm, cast iron barrel length - 15 m). Using air compressed to 140 atmospheres, the cannon could throw 3.35 m long projectiles with 227 kg of dynamite at 1800 m. And a 1.83 m long projectile with 51 kg of dynamite at 5000 m.

Each Zalinsky gun was equipped with a powerful compressor unit that provided air compression. Before firing, air was supplied to the gun through a pipeline system and filled a special chamber. At the command “Fire!” the crew opened the valve, compressed air rushed into the barrel and ejected the projectile.




Of course, such complex and cumbersome installations could only be placed on a stationary, land position, so the Americans limited themselves to arming coastal batteries with Zalinsky cannons. For mobile, highly maneuverable field artillery air guns were no good. And the sailors did not express a desire to acquire such systems, which took up too much bridge space on warships. As an experiment, only the cruiser Vesuvius, armed with pneumatic guns, was built in the United States.

American admirals were delighted with the new gun in 1888. But the strange thing is: after a few years, enthusiasm gave way to deep disappointment. “During the Spanish-American War,” American artillerymen said about this, “these guns never hit the right place.” And although the point here was not so much the guns as the artillerymen’s ability to shoot accurately, Zalinsky’s guns quietly but quickly disappeared from the scene. Artillery ammunition At this time, they began to equip them with picric acid, pyroxylin and other new explosives, no less powerful than dynamite, but safe for calculations. And Zalinsky’s guns were eventually removed from service, replacing them with conventional large-caliber coastal defense fire mounts. And in other countries, artillery scientists and inventors stopped working on “wind artillery.”