Events in Spain 19th century. The beginning of the first bourgeois revolution in Spain

5. Bourgeois revolutions in Spain in the 1850–1870s.

(Fourth Revolution: 1854 - 1856;

Fifth Revolution: 1868 – 1874)

Spain's economic development is in the middle XIX century. In the mid-19th century, the pace of capitalist development in Spain accelerated. Spain experienced an industrial revolution that began in the 1830s and included the mining and manufacturing industries. The industrial revolution spread to all leading sectors of the economy. The textile industry, primarily the cotton industry, developed most rapidly, concentrated mainly in Catalonia. The production of coal, lead, copper, zinc, and iron ore increased. Due to insufficient capacity of metallurgical plants, b O Most of the mined ores were exported abroad. New metallurgical plants were built in the area of ​​Malaga, Asturias, and the Basque region. The light and food industries, textile, leather, tobacco, and sugar industries developed rapidly. Old soda production enterprises in Alicante, Cartagena, Malaga were expanded and modernized; sugar factories in Valencia and Granada; breweries - in Madrid and Santander; cork - in Catalonia; ceramic manufactories in Talavera, Alcor and Madrid; lace - in Almagro.

The first industry to switch to machine production was the cotton industry of Catalonia. By the early 1860s, hand spinning wheels were completely forced out of production. The first steam engines were installed in the textile factories of Barcelona already in the 1830s. Following the cotton industry, machines were used in the production of silk and woolen fabrics.

Spain has achieved significant success in the development of transport. Since 1848, railways and highways began to be built in the country. First Railway from Barcelona to Mataro was opened in 1848, after which the construction of new roads began. By 1868, their length was already five thousand (5 thousand) kilometers. By the end of the 1860s, railways connected Madrid with the country's largest cities. The total length of highways reached seventeen and a half thousand kilometers (17.5 thousand km) by 1868. In 1802, their length was only three thousand two hundred kilometers (3.2 thousand km). Work was carried out to deepen river beds, canals were built, and new merchant ships were built. The volume of foreign trade has increased significantly. Spain exported (exported) wines, citrus fruits, olive oil, non-ferrous metal ores (lead, copper, zinc), cork; imported coal, cotton, cars, tobacco. Spain's main trading partners were France, England, Germany, Portugal, and Cuba. However, Spain's foreign trade balance remained passive. To cover the growing deficit, the government introduced new taxes and increasingly resorted to foreign and domestic loans.

In general, despite undoubted progress, Spain continued to remain an extremely backward country. This was especially true in agriculture - seventy percent (70%) of the land remained uncultivated and yields were extremely low. The industrial revolution did not eliminate Spain's lag behind the advanced capitalist countries of Europe. B O Most of the cars were imported from abroad, the economy was dominated by foreign capital, especially in railway construction and the mining industry. Small and medium-sized enterprises predominated. Spain's industrial lag was explained, first of all, by the persistence of feudal remnants in agriculture, which hampered the development of the domestic market. The industry suffered from a lack of capital, since in those conditions the Spanish bourgeoisie preferred to invest it in buying up former church lands and in government loans. Demortization led to the redistribution of land property. A layer of bourgeoisie appeared in the countryside, whose interests were closely intertwined with the interests of the big bourgeoisie of the cities. The demand for agricultural products increased, sown areas expanded, and the gross harvest of grain, grapes, and olives increased. The railway connection increased the marketability of agriculture and contributed to the development of its specialization. Unfortunately, new agricultural technology was introduced into Spanish agriculture very slowly, which was due to socio-economic relations in the Spanish countryside. The position of the bulk of the Spanish peasantry has changed little. Only the liquidation of landownership, or at least its significant limitation, could radically change the situation of the peasant masses. Therefore, the agrarian question remained the most important, key problem on which the further development of the country depended. Until this problem was solved, there could be no talk of overcoming Spain's economic backwardness.

Population growth (from the end of the 18th century to 1860, the population of Spain grew by about one and a half times and reached more than fifteen and a half million people), urban development, and rapid urbanization led to an increase in the size of the working class: by the mid-1860s there were more workers two hundred fifty thousand. Of these two hundred and fifty thousand workers: about fifty thousand were employed in the mining industry, over thirty thousand workers were employed in the heavy industry, and a total of one hundred and eighty thousand were employed in the light industry (130 thousand workers) and the food industry (50 thousand workers). There were two and a half million farm laborers in the country. The living conditions of Spanish workers in the middle of the 19th century were not easy: the working day lasted fourteen to sixteen (14–16) hours, A wages did not provide a living wage for the worker and his family; female and child hired labor was widely used.

Since the 1830s, workers' organizations began to appear in Spain - workers' mutual aid funds, followed by the first trade unions. The earliest trade union was the “Weavers' Society” created in 1840 in Barcelona, ​​headed by the worker Munts. In 1854, industrial trade unions united into a single “Union of Workers of Catalonia” - the first federation of workers' organizations in Spain. The “workers' union of Catalonia” was soon banned by the authorities, leading to the first serious general strike and strike in Barcelona in 1855. Catalan workers were able to achieve the legal right to create their own associations only in 1868. At the same time, the ideas of utopian socialism began to penetrate into Spain. The first Spanish Fourierist (follower of Fourier's teachings), Joaquin Abreu, created a phalanstery (community, association) in 1841 near Cadiz, but it quickly collapsed. The ideologist of Spanish utopian socialism was also Fernando Garrido, who founded the magazine “La Atracción” in Madrid in 1846. Later, similar magazines began to be published in Barcelona. The utopian socialist movement in Spain was not associated with the labor movement, as in other European countries, therefore, its ideology did not become the ideology of the Spanish proletariat.

In 1862, Barcelona workers demanded the right to create their own organizations to defend the class interests of the Spanish proletariat from the advance of industrial and financial capital. In 1868 they were given the right to create workers' associations. A representative of the First International, Italian Fanelli, a follower of anarchism and an admirer of its ideological “founding father” - Mikhail Bakunin, who came to Spain, founded the first Spanish sections of the First International. The number of sections grew rapidly, and in 1870, at a congress in Barcelona, ​​the Spanish Federation of the International Workers' Association (First International) was formed. Under Fanelli's influence, anarchism quickly penetrated the Spanish labor movement and became its leading direction for a long time. This was largely facilitated by the widespread spread of small and semi-handicraft production in the country. Most of the workers employed there were infected with petty-bourgeois ideology, which favored the spread of anarchism among the workers. The agitation of the anarchist Fanelli fell on fertile soil and found a wide response among the Spanish working class.

The third bourgeois revolution in Spain (dated 1834-1843) not only did not resolve the agrarian question, the problem of latifundism and peasant land shortage, but, on the contrary, aggravated it. In the southern and central regions of the countries, small-peasant leases were replaced by the own farms of large landowners, based on the use of day laborers. In Catalonia, Galicia, Asturias, and Old Castile, the process of gradual transformation of peasant holders into tenants continued. The restructuring of agriculture on a capitalist basis proceeded slowly and was accompanied by land dispossession and impoverishment of the peasant masses, the transformation of peasants into farm laborers with allotments and powerless tenants.

The fourth bourgeois revolution in Spain (1854 - 1856). The further development of capitalist relations took place in conditions of incompleteness of the previously begun bourgeois transformations. By the mid-1850s, social relations in Spain had become strained. The Industrial Revolution led to the massive ruin of factory workers, a decrease in the real wages of workers, the intensification of their labor, and mass unemployment. The tax increase caused widespread outrage. The growing needs and positions of the Spanish bourgeoisie led to a revision of the compromise that had developed in the country as a result of the third bourgeois revolution. In bourgeois circles, there was growing dissatisfaction with corruption and the budget deficit, and the inability of the government to ensure the payment of interest on government loans. The reaction secretly hatched plans to restore the majorates and revise the constitution of 1845. Under these conditions, not only the “progressives”, the largest opposition force in the events of 1843–1854, spoke out against the government, but also the “moderados” (“moderates”). The main political force of the country, the army, again came to the fore.

When young Isabella turned thirteen years old, she was declared of age and proclaimed under the name of Queen Isabella II. As an adult, Queen Isabella II proved to be a “worthy” daughter of her father Ferdinand VII. All power was still in the hands of the extreme reactionary, General Narvaez, who established a regime of military dictatorship (dated from 1843 to 1854). His motto was “use the stick and hit hard.” To fight the revolutionary movement, he created a special gendarmerie corps - the Civil Guard, which played a dark role in the history of Spain. Queen Isabella II turned out to be a despotic, ignorant and wasteful ruler. Her numerous favorites and lovers interfered in state affairs. Their rule brought Spain to complete ruin: in 1853, the budget deficit amounted to fifty million dollars. The Cortes were dissolved, the government itself issued decrees that had the force of laws. When liberal leaders respectfully petitioned Queen Isabella II in 1854 to respect basic constitutional norms (since the constitution had not been formally abrogated), Isabella II arrested the petitioners, expelled them from the country, and declared Madrid under a state of siege. As before, under King Ferdinand VII, all affairs of Spain were managed by the court camarilla.

In the summer of 1854, the head of the Spanish government, lover and favorite of the Queen, San Luis, issued an unprecedented decree ordering the population of the country to pay taxes six months (six months) in advance due to the fact that the state treasury was empty. This has never happened before in the history of Spain. This has filled the patience of the people. Opposition-minded generals O'Donnell and Dulce attempted to carry out a top-level military coup d'état (“pronunciamiento”), but failed, and they had to turn to the popular masses for support. In July 1854, both generals published a manifesto demanding the elimination of the palace camarilla, strict adherence to laws, reforms, the introduction of freedom of the press, tax cuts, economical spending of public funds, expansion of the rights of local authorities, and the restoration of the national militia. Taking advantage of the oppositional sentiments of the people, the rebellious General O'Donnell turned directly to the people and proposed to join forces to create a new, democratic Spain: to disperse the court camarilla (“camara” - “king’s chambers”, in a figurative sense, a group of favorites-arbiters of destinies gathered near the chambers Spain); introduce freedom of the press, strictly observe the laws of Spain. This democratic program, completely understandable to the people, stirred up the masses: uprisings broke out in many cities, revolutionary provincial juntas led by progressives began to be created, and national militia units were formed. It came to barricade battles with government troops and slogans for the establishment of a republic in Spain. The latter, in a country that traditionally supported the monarchy, was new and unexpected.

In this very tense situation, the leader of the progressives, General Espartero, who had returned shortly before these events from England, appeared in Madrid. The population of the capital enthusiastically and jubilantly greeted the disgraced general who had arrived from exile. In July 1854, popular uprisings broke out in Barcelona, ​​Madrid, Malaga, and Valencia, with artisans and workers actively participating in them. Under pressure and at the request of the liberals, Queen Isabella II was forced to appoint the leader of the Progressive Party, Espartero, as head of government. The post of Minister of War was taken by General O'Donnell, representing the Moderados party. Thus, at the end of July 1854, at the moment of the highest rise of the revolutionary wave, Espartero came to power and had the opportunity to bring the revolution to an end.

At first, Espartero, as Prime Minister, acted in the interests and aspirations of the Spanish people: he developed and passed through parliament a new, liberal constitution of Spain, in which, for the first time in the history of the country, the practice of Catholicism and other faiths was allowed, he forbade monasteries and churches from buying land, completed the demortization of lands belonging to the clergy, etc. This was the end of church and monastic land ownership, and the plots of land put up for sale fell into the hands of new owners - wealthy peasants, officials, the bourgeois nobility and the urban bourgeoisie. The confiscation and sale of church lands helped reduce the budget deficit and strengthened the alliance between the bourgeois nobility and the bourgeoisie. The sale of common lands, which began in 1855, continued until the end of the 19th century. It caused enormous damage to peasant farms, depriving them of pastures and forest lands, and accelerated the ruin of the peasantry. The massive ruin of the peasants, in turn, provided cheap labor for the latifundia, which were rebuilt on the capitalist path of development. Capitalism in agriculture has received a new impetus for development. The Espartero-O'Donnell government restored the national militia and convened the Cortes. In 1855-1856, laws were passed that encouraged railway construction and the creation of new enterprises and banks. The policies of the government of “progressives” and “moderados” contributed to the growth of entrepreneurial initiative and the attraction of foreign capital to the country.

During the fourth bourgeois revolution, the labor movement intensified. Its center was Catalonia, the country's largest industrial region. By mid-1854, a workers’ organization called the “Union of Classes” was created in Barcelona (classes meant workers of different professions). Its goal was to fight for higher wages and a shorter working day. Under the leadership of the “Union of Classes” a number of strikes were carried out, the workers achieved a real increase in wages.

At the beginning of 1855, factory owners went on the offensive: mass lockouts began. In the spring of 1855, the authorities brought the leader of the labor movement, J. Barceló, to trial on false charges, and he was soon executed. On July 2, 1855, workers in several factories in the vicinity of Barcelona went on strike, and by July 5, all enterprises in Barcelona and its industrial belt stopped working. The strikers demanded the right to create workers' associations (unions), improve working conditions, and establish a 10-hour (ten-hour) working day. The government used “carrot and stick” tactics: on July 9, government troops were brought into the working-class neighborhoods of Barcelona, ​​while Espartero promised to allow workers’ organizations and limit the working day for teenagers and children. After the strike ended, Espartero's government treacherously broke its promises. As the workers' and peasants' movement grew, the big bourgeoisie and liberal nobility moved into the camp of the counter-revolution. General O'Donnell took upon himself the suppression of the revolution.

This, however, was the end of all the progressive reforms of General Espartero. He introduced “moderados” (“moderates”) into the government, received a large loan from Spanish bankers in exchange for a promise to end the revolution and pursue conservative policies, limited freedom of assembly and the press, and closed revolutionary clubs. At the same time, General Espartero did not dare to fulfill the main demand of the peasantry - to eliminate landownership. This caused massive peasant unrest in agricultural areas, especially in Andalusia, Extremadura, and Valladolid in the summer of 1856. The peasants were joined by urban workers and artisans who turned to Espartero for support. Agrarian reforms during the fourth bourgeois revolution caused sharp discontent in the countryside. In the summer of 1856, a peasant movement developed in Old Castile, which was brutally suppressed.

Taking advantage of Espartero's indecisiveness on the peasant issue and his inability to suppress the revolution, the “moderados” succeeded in removing General Espartero from power. On July 14, 1856, General O'Donnell provoked the resignation of Espartero and dissolved the Cortes. General O'Donnell became prime minister and immediately announced the dissolution of the Cortes. The response to the coup d'etat and the overthrow of Espartero was an uprising in Madrid, supported by revolutionary protests in a number of other cities. The workers built barricades in Madrid and were ready to fight until victory. But General Espartero, overthrown during another military coup by General O’Donnell, avoided the fight. Instead of leading the uprising in Madrid, the Progressive General Espartero left the capital. Following him, the national police left the Madrid barricades, and on July 16, 1856, the workers' uprising in the capital was suppressed by the army. Having defeated the revolution, O'Donnell's government suspended the sale of church lands and disbanded the national militia.

Thus, the fourth bourgeois revolution in Spain of 1854 - 1856 was not brought to a victorious end. Like the previous ones (first: 1808-1814; second: 1820-1823; third: 1834-1843), the fourth bourgeois revolution also suffered defeat. But it also marked a significant step forward: the Spanish working class took an active part in it, during which republican slogans were put forward for the first time. The economic weakness of the Spanish bourgeoisie, its political disunity and disorganization, inability to bring the revolution to completion and capitulation to the reaction of steel main reason defeat of the revolution. The workers were not yet in a position to lead the political struggle for power. As for the peasantry and urban lower classes, at that time they were even less ready for purposeful, organized revolutionary actions. All their speeches were spontaneous in nature and were aimed not at solving the fundamental problems of reorganizing the country, but at achieving local and limited concessions.

The fourth bourgeois revolution in Spain of 1854–1856 ended in a compromise between the nobility and the big bourgeoisie. The bourgeoisie was able to significantly increase their land holdings by robbing the peasant community. The deterioration of the situation of the peasants led to an increase in peasant uprisings. In 1857, General Narvaez brutally suppressed a peasant uprising in Andalusia, executing ninety-eight (98) people. Another was a new peasant uprising in Andalusia in June 1861, led by the Republicans. About ten thousand Andalusian peasants tried to seize and divide the estates of the latifundists. The government mercilessly suppressed peasant revolts.

The compromise between the nobility and the big bourgeoisie was reflected in political life. The 1845 Constitution was retained. After the revolution of 1854-1856, two political blocs emerged: the Conservatives and the Liberal Union. The Conservatives, led by the reactionary General Narvaez, represented the large landowners and nobles. The liberal union relied on the support of the bourgeois nobility and the top of the bourgeoisie. Its leader was General O'Donnell. In 1856 - 1868, the government of the liberal O'Donnell was in power three times and was replaced three times by the government of the reactionary general Narvaez. Alternately replacing each other in power, the liberal O'Donnell and the extreme reactionary Narvaez kept Spain in their hands, preventing a new revolution.

Political struggle in 1856 - 1868. Shortly after the suppression of the fourth revolution, Queen Isabella II dismissed the leader of the Liberal Union, General O'Donnell (the head of the bloc of the big bourgeoisie and the bourgeoisified liberal nobility). The cabinet of General Narvaez was brought back to power. He immediately returned to his dictatorial policies: he repealed the laws issued during the revolution of 1854-1856, appointed clerics to leadership positions, and subjected liberals to repression. But Narvaez failed to completely turn the country’s development towards reaction. By brutally suppressing a peasant uprising in Andalusia in 1857 and executing ninety-eight people in the process, Narváez caused an unprecedented wave of indignation that swept away his cabinet. The liberal O'Donnell returned to power, having pursued an active policy in the interests of the big bourgeoisie for four years. Maneuvering between the “right” and the “left,” O’Donnell suppressed, on the one hand, the republican uprising in Olivensa (province of Badajoz) and the peasant uprising in Loja (province of Granada), and on the other, the Carlist rebellion in the Balearic Islands.

In an effort to expand the Spanish colonial empire, O'Donnell organized an expedition to Cochin China (Indo-China), achieved the return of part of the island of Santo Domingo to Spain, started a war in Morocco, and took part in the Mexican adventure of Napoleon III. It marked the beginning of a long series of Spanish-Moroccan wars. Expensive expeditions and widespread corruption led Spain into a severe financial crisis. Finding themselves unable to overcome this crisis and cope with the growing republican and labor movements, O'Donnell's cabinet resigned in 1863.

By the mid-1860s, Spanish society was gripped by indignation at the scandalous lifestyle of Queen Isabella II, the dominance and tyranny of her camarilla (entourage), and the anti-popular policies of successive generals Narvaez and O'Donnell. The Progressive Party was led by the energetic and radical General Juan Prim, who put forward the slogan of the overthrow of Isabella II and the next cabinet of General Narvaez. This call of the Progressives Party was supported by the newly created Republican Party, led by the famous lawyer and writer Francisco Pi y Margal and Emilio Castelar, a history professor at the University of Madrid. Castelar made a bold statement that the lands seized by the kings (part of which Queen Isabella II sold for large sums of money) were public property, and the queen had no right to sell them. In response, the enraged Isabella II ordered the rector of the University of Madrid to immediately dismiss the famous professor Emilio Castelar. The rector refused to obey the queen's angry order, and was dismissed along with Professor Castelar. Then university students rose up, unwilling to come to terms with the royal tyranny, and mass student protest demonstrations began. Dictator Narvaez sent armed guards against the students, who opened fire. There were killed and wounded among the students. The municipality of Madrid expressed strong protest against the massacre of students who defended their respected rector and beloved professor. In response, Narváez dissolved the Madrid Metropolitan Municipality.

The situation in Spain has become extremely tense. Isabella II's attempt to again hide behind the liberal O'Donnell was unsuccessful; neither the progressives with the new leader Juan Prim, nor the Republicans wanted to recognize O'Donnell's cabinet and continued their boycott tactics. Representatives of the intelligentsia openly expressed their indignation at the crimes of the camarilla. General Juan Prim led military uprisings several times. Convinced that the liberal O'Donnell was no longer able to save the situation, Queen Isabella II called Narvaez to power for the fifth time, who attempted to prevent the impending revolution with merciless terror. Narvaez dissolved the parliament (Cortes), local governments and political parties, closed all opposition newspapers, arrested and exiled hundreds of liberal oppositionists. But the unbridled terror of General Narvaez accelerated the start of a new revolution.

Fifth bourgeois revolution in Spain (1868–1873). So, Narvaez’s terror did not delay, but brought closer the new, fifth, bourgeois revolution in Spain. The progressive development of capitalism increased the political influence of the bourgeoisie in the country, which more and more decisively laid claim to power. By the end of 1866 - beginning of 1867, a bloc of bourgeois parties had formed, which included the Liberal Union, “progressives,” and republican groups. The leaders of the bloc relied on a military coup, the violent overthrow of Queen Isabella II. In their opinion, this was the only way to stop the degradation of Spain. Opponents of Queen Isabella II and General Narvaez decided to raise an armed uprising. Its preparation was entrusted to the junta headed by General Juan Prim. General Juan Prim, who emigrated to neighboring Belgium, led a revolutionary junta from there, which was tasked with raising an uprising. Illegal newspapers began to circulate in Spain, calling for the overthrow of the rotten anti-people regime. In September 1868, a revolt of military sailors broke out in the fleet, which was based in K A dise. The organizers of the Pronunciamiento declared the convening of the founding Cortes and the introduction of universal suffrage. The sailors of Cadiz were supported by the garrisons of the southern cities and joined the rebels. In Madrid and Barcelona, ​​the rebellious people seized arsenals, and the creation of “freedom volunteer” units began everywhere. Queen Isabella II sent regular troops against the rebels, but most of the soldiers went over to the side of the revolution. Under pressure from public opinion demanding the deposition of Queen Isabella II, the ruler hastily fled to France. Revolutionary juntas and national militias were created throughout the country. Thus began the fifth bourgeois revolution.

The decline, which began at the end of the 16th century, continued in the second half of the 17th century. From a world empire that played one of the leading roles in international affairs, the country turned into an object of struggle between France and England, who were attracted not so much by Spain itself as by its vast overseas colonies. In 1700, after the death of Charles II, who left no direct heirs, the European war for the Spanish inheritance. France supported Philip of Anjou, the grandson of Louis XIV, and Great Britain supported Archduke Charles, son of the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I.

The Treaty of Utrech in 1713 transferred the Spanish throne to the representative of the Bourbon dynasty, Philip V, while prohibiting the unification of France and Spain under the rule of one monarch; declared Gibraltar and the port of Mahon on the island of Minorca British possessions; transferred part of Tuscany, Milan, Naples, Sardinia and the Spanish Netherlands to Austria, and Sicily to Savoy.

Despite territorial losses and continued wars with Great Britain on the side of France (1739-1748, 1762-1763, 1779-1783), there were some improvements in Spain. The restoration of destroyed fortresses began, shipyards and arsenals were built, and military schools were opened. The economy began to develop due to the introduction of protectionist duties on the import of textile goods and the encouragement of the creation of public and private manufactories. Tax collection was streamlined. Most developed in economically The provinces became Catalonia, Asturias, and the Basque Country.

The expulsion of the Jesuit order with the complete confiscation of their accumulated wealth also had a significant impact. for a long time wealth The concordat signed in 1753 consolidated Spain's political success: the Pope recognized the right of the Spanish monarch to fill most church positions and agreed that papal bulls become valid in the country only after their approval by the king.

In the 18th century, a liberal movement arose in the country, statesmen new generation, highly educated nobles who shared liberal beliefs: G. de Jovellanos (1744-1811), X. Floridablanca (1728-1808), P. Campomanes (1723-1803) and others.

In 1793, Spain went to war with the French Republic, in which it was defeated. The Treaty of Basel in 1795 obliged Spain to enter into a military alliance with France and cede to it part of the island of Santa Domingo (Haiti). During the coalition with Napoleonic France, the country entered the war against Britain's ally, Portugal. Under the terms of the peace treaty in Badajoz, Portugal ceded part of the territory in the southeast to Spain, including the strategically important fortress of Olivenço, and closed its ports to British ships; the Portuguese king fled to Brazil. After Admiral G. Nelson's victory over the Franco-Spanish squadron in 1805 at Trafalgar, Great Britain regained control over Portugal.

In 1807, Napoleon declared war on Portugal and, with the assistance of Spain, occupied it. The presence of French troops on Spanish territory for no apparent reason, palace intrigues, contradictions between Charles IV and the heir to the throne Ferdinand, dissatisfaction of the prince's associates with the all-powerful favorite and first minister M. Godoy - all this became the reason for the palace coup. In 1808, Charles IV had to sign an abdication in favor of his son. Having learned about this, Napoleon ordered not to recognize Ferdinand VII as king, declared the Spanish throne vacant and ordered the entry of French troops into Madrid. By his order, the royal family was gathered in the French city of Bayonne on the border with Spain. Napoleon forced Ferdinand to renounce the throne in favor of his father, Charles IV signed an act transferring the throne to the French emperor, who in turn gave it to his brother Joseph.

The people of Madrid tried to prevent Ferdinand from leaving for Bayonne. An uprising broke out in the capital, brutally suppressed by the French garrison. However, anti-French sentiment caused a chain reaction of armed uprisings throughout the country, the main demands of which were the return of King Ferdinand VII and the rest of the royal family, as well as the convening of the Cortes. The highest nobility and nobility joined the anti-French militia forces. In the fall of 1808, the Central Junta of representatives of the nobility gathered, creating a unified command armed forces Spain. Napoleon himself arrived in Spain and took command of the army. British-Portuguese troops provided assistance to the Spanish regular units. Given the clear superiority of the French, the war with the participation of the Spanish regular army gave way to guerrilla warfare, which has become widespread.

The War of Independence resulted in the first revolution in Spanish history (1808-1814). In 1810, it was decided to hold elections to the Cortes. Deputies from the provinces occupied by the French were elected by patriotic residents who fled from the French to Cadiz. The Constitution, approved by the Cortes in 1812, was called Cadiz and was very progressive for its time. The people were proclaimed the bearer of supreme power. The legislative branch of government was represented by unicameral Cortes, elected for two years by men over 25 years of age, excluding domestic servants, bankrupts and criminals. The Cortes had to meet annually for at least three months, with a permanent deputation working during breaks. The king did not have the right to dissolve or convene parliament extraordinarily. Deputies had immunity and could not be elected to the Cortes for two consecutive terms. The executive branch of government was represented by the king and the government. The laws adopted by the Cortes were approved by the king. The sanction of the Cortes was required by the king to declare war and conclude peace, and to sign treaties with foreign states. The highest officials were appointed by the king from among the candidates proposed by the Cortes. The judiciary was declared independent. Government officials could not be deputies, and deputies had no right to accept honors or awards from the executive branch.

The Cortes issued decrees on the liquidation of the Inquisition, the abolition of feudal taxes in favor of the church, closed a number of monasteries, abolished the slave trade, granted residents of the American colonies equal rights with the Spaniards, and more.

With the outbreak of Napoleon I's war against Russia, Spain became an ally Russian Empire. Taking advantage of the failures of the French troops in Russia, the Spaniards, with the support of the British, inflicted a number of defeats on Napoleonic troops. In November 1813, Spanish-British troops pursuing the French entered French territory.

Returning to Spain, Ferdinand VII refused to swear allegiance to the Cortes. In 1814, having gathered supporters of the restoration of the absolute monarchy, he published a decree dissolving the Cortes and a manifesto abrogating the constitution.

The overseas colonies took advantage of Spain's weakening to start a war of independence. Because of Napoleonic wars and the occupation of Spain by the French, trade between the colonies and the mother country virtually ceased. At the same time, influential forces appeared within the colonies, striving for separation from Spain. Despite the crown's attempts to retain American possessions, Spain had lost its colonies in the New World by 1826. Cuba, the Philippines, Puerto Rico and Guam were lost in 1898 as a result of defeat in the war with the United States.

In the field of political and socio-economic development, the 19th century turned out to be extremely difficult for Spain - the country was going through a period of transformation and adaptation to new realities in the context of the irretrievable loss of its former power in Europe and beyond. Under these conditions, the three main institutions that embody national unity - the crown, the church and the army - fought over the choice of paths for the country's development. Significant events of this struggle were four bourgeois revolutions during the 19th century (in total, Spain experienced 5 revolutions in the 19th century).

The Second Spanish Revolution (1820-1823), which began with an armed uprising in Cadiz under the leadership of R. Riego y Nunez, achieved from Ferdinand VII the restoration of the Cadiz Constitution. A number of reforms have been carried out in the country. However, by decision of the Verona Congress of European Powers Holy Alliance measures were taken to combat the Spanish revolution: in 1823, as a result of the armed intervention of France, the previous order was restored, and the royal manifesto annulled all laws and decrees issued in Spain from March 1820 to October 1823.

In the 1830s it appeared new threat regime - the group of the king's brother Don Carlos (Carlists). Ferdinand VII, who had no sons, proclaimed his daughter Isabella as his heir, thereby abolishing the law on the transfer of the throne exclusively through the male line. Spain was rocked by a dynastic war (the first Carlist war, 1833-1840), which resulted in the third revolution (1834-1843). The dynastic war took on the character of a struggle between conservative and liberal-minded political forces.

In the first quarter of the 18th century, most of the fueros of Catalonia and a number of other regions of the country (Valencia, Aragon, Balearic Islands), which supported the Austrian pretender to the Spanish throne during the War of the Spanish Succession against the French Prince Philip V of Bourbon, were eliminated. In the Basque provinces, attempts to eliminate local liberties in the interests of an absolute monarchy began in the 18th century and continued in the 19th century until the abolition of fueros in 1876. Resistance to violent methods of centralization has acquired a character here armed struggle: in the 19th century, the provinces supported the Carlists - supporters of the brother of Ferdinand VII, who defended his rights to the throne against the widow of Ferdinand and her daughter Isabella and put forward the slogan of protecting the medieval fueros.

Yielding to the liberals, Ferdinand VII's widow Maria Cristina, regent under the minor Isabella, granted the country the Royal Statute of 1834, which created bicameral Cortes (the upper house was appointed by the monarch, and the lower house had the right to dissolve at any time), and suffrage was limited by a high property qualification. However, this was not enough: uprisings took place throughout the country demanding the restoration of the Cadiz Constitution and social reforms, and revolutionary provincial juntas arose again. The Constitution of 1837, being a compromise between the Cadiz Constitution and the Royal Statute of 1834, was a victory for moderate forces, guided by the political models of Great Britain, France and Belgium. The electoral qualification for elections to the lower house was significantly reduced; deputies were elected by direct vote at the rate of two deputies per 50 thousand inhabitants. The Senate was appointed by the king from among the persons represented to him by the electoral colleges; its composition changed by a third with each new election. The king retained the right to veto, convene, postpone and dissolve the Cortes, but if the Cortes were not convened by the head of state before December 1, they could assemble independently.

Isabella II, who ascended the throne in 1843, showed herself to be a supporter of the old order. Ineffective and dubious methods of governance caused a military coup (pronunciamiento) in the summer of 1854, which resulted in the fourth revolution of 1854-1856. The queen was forced to appoint General B. Espartero, the leader of the progressives, participant in the war of independence, commander of the Carlist war, former first minister and regent of the kingdom during the previous revolution, as head of the government. A new liberal constitution was developed and adopted by the Cortes, and a decision was made to sell off lands that belonged to the church and the state (“demortization”). However, in the competition between supporters (progressives led by Espatero) and opponents (liberals led by Secretary of War O'Donnell) of deepening reforms, the latter won. The uprisings of the national militia were suppressed and pre-revolutionary order was restored.

Despite economic progress in the second half of the 19th century, Spain continued to remain a backward country. This was especially felt in agriculture. “Demortization” led to some redistribution of land property, but in general the agrarian question remained unresolved.

The fifth revolution in Spain covers the period 1868-1874. It began with a mutiny in the fleet led by Admiral Topete. The mutiny was supported by part of the army led by Marshal Serrano, General Prim and others, as well as by the population major cities(led by Republicans and Democrats). Troops loyal to Queen Isabella II were defeated and she fled the country. The provisional government was headed by Serrano. In 1869, a new constitution was adopted, guaranteeing broad political rights and freedom. At the same time, the monarchy remained in Spain: in 1870, the son of the Italian king Victor Emmanuel III, Amadeus of Savoy, ascended the throne.

Transformations in the political sphere did not stop the growth of instability against the backdrop of increased protests by supporters of the republic, Carlists, and supporters of the deposed Isabella II.

As a result, Amadeus of Savoy abdicated the throne in February 1873, and the Cortes voted to establish a republican system in the country. The left-wing republican F. Pi-i-Margal was elected to the post of chairman of the government of the First Republic, proposing a program of social transformation. At the same time, a draft constitution was developed, according to which Spain was declared a federal republic with some autonomy for the historical regions. However, the opponents of Pi-i-Margal - the “irreconcilables” and the Bakuninists - advocated a confederation (the country was supposed to be divided into small independent cantons). The country was again engulfed in uprisings. Pi-i-Margal resigned. At the beginning of January 1874, a military coup was organized led by General Pavia and Marshal Serrano, and at the end of 1874, during a new coup, the son of Isabella II, Alfonso XII, was proclaimed king of Spain.

The restoration of the monarchy opened a new period in political history Spain. The constitution adopted after the end of the Second Carlist War in 1876, being a compromise between the constitutions of 1845 and 1869, enshrined the basic principles of the established Restoration regime. Spain was proclaimed a hereditary constitutional monarchy. Legislative power belonged to the king and the bicameral Cortes. At the same time, restrictions on the right to vote (property qualifications) were introduced. Broad powers of the executive branch were secured.

After the Restoration, two major political parties emerged - conservatives and liberals, which replaced each other in power, while the liberals played the role of a loyal opposition. Over the years, the difference between conservatives and liberals became smaller and smaller, and parties split into warring factions. Electoral system were characteristic of the tradition of the so-called “cacique”, when in areas (primarily rural) the decisive political figure became a local large landowner - the head of the district, who was called “cacique” (this was the name in Spanish America for the leaders of Indian tribes who had unlimited power and were not bound by any laws). It was he who was responsible for the political reliability of the residents, contributed the desired result parliamentary elections, appointed the head of the body local government. Conservatives and liberals alike used methods to rig elections.

Opponents of the monarchy were weakened by splits and repression. Peasant protests continued, including terrorist ones (“Black Hand”, 1883). From the middle of the 19th century, the influence of anarchists spread in the labor movement in Spain, one of whose methods was terror. Marxists founded the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) in 1879. In 1888, the country's first trade union was created - the General Union of Workers (GTU), adjacent to the PSOE. In Spain, two directions in the labor movement began to develop in parallel: in Catalonia, Andalusia and Aragon, the influence of anarchists predominated, in Madrid, Asturias, and the Basque Country - the influence of socialists.

In the last quarter of the 19th century, the movement for autonomy in Catalonia and the Basque Country intensified. Despite the centralization of the state, under the conditions of the industrial revolution, the increasing unevenness of economic development (agrarian conservative center and advanced industrial “periphery”) turned into a factor of disintegration. The rise of regionalist movements is an expression of the conflict between the center and the periphery.

In Catalonia in 1892, a congress of representatives of the Catalan bourgeoisie and intelligentsia met, at which the program of the regionalist movement was adopted, which in 1901 became the basis of the political platform of the Regionalist League party. The regionalist movement in the Basque Country took other forms. The development of heavy and mining industry in a region where for centuries a closed rural community with a clan dominated social structure, a huge influx of migrants from other provinces of the country (mainly from central Spain) to work in the iron ore mines of Vizcaya caused an explosion of nationalist sentiment in Basque society. Unlike Catalonia, where successful entrepreneurs, lawyers, and representatives of noble families emerged as ideologists and political leaders of the regionalist movement, and the rise of nationalist sentiment was accompanied by the revival of the Catalan language and literature, in the Basque Country the nationalist ideology from the very beginning acquired a militant character, its features became conservatism, and sometimes reactionary, a tendency towards isolationism, which was determined by the history of this region.

In 1812, the Cortes issued a basic state law- the constitution that proclaimed the independence of the Spanish nation and national sovereignty; all Spaniards were declared equal before the law, the colonies were equal in rights to the mother country, the slave trade was prohibited, the feudal privileges of landowners were abolished, and the Inquisition was abolished.

This was the first bourgeois-democratic constitution in Spain and at the same time the first in Europe. WITH early XIX V. Spain experienced 5 revolutions, none of which were completed.

At the beginning of the 19th century, Spanish patriots put up heroic resistance to the French army; Napoleon was never able to break their will to fight. After the defeat of Napoleon's army at Vitoria (1813), King Ferdinand VII took the Spanish throne. He abolished the Cadiz Constitution and all the decrees of the Cortes, again surrounded himself with a camarilla, restored the Inquisition and began to rule as an absolute monarch. The fight against absolutism began again in the country. In 1820, a bourgeois revolution broke out in Spain, led by revolutionary Rafael Riego. But the revolution was suppressed with the help of foreign interventionists.

In April 1823, France, with the approval of the Holy Alliance, began a military intervention in Spain. By October 1823, the constitutional government, unable to organize the country's defense, capitulated, and King Ferdinand VII restored the absolute monarchy.

During the same period (20s of the 19th century), as a result of the national liberation movement in Latin America, Spain lost most of its American colonies (it retained only Cuba and Puerto Rico).

In the middle of the 19th century. there were endless wars between dynasties in the country. The laws issued by the liberals during the third Spanish revolution (1834-1843) were of great importance for the development of capitalism in Spain: they provided, in particular, for the nationalization and auction of church lands, and later lands of peasant communities and municipalities. At the same time, the industrial revolution began in the country, and modern economic geography began to take shape. The first large textile factories appeared in Catalonia, metallurgical enterprises in the Basque Country and Asturias. In 1848 the first railway was built (Barcelona-Mataro).

The revolutionary events of 1854–1856 ended with the dispersal of the Cortes and the abolition of liberal laws. The next upsurge of the revolutionary movement, which began in 1868 with an uprising in the navy, forced Queen Isabella II to flee the country.

In economically backward Spain, the positions of anarchism were strong. In 1879, the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party was created in the country, but for a long time it remained small and uninfluential.

This was followed by two more wars, called the Carlist wars, the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of the first republic (1873-1874), when Spain decided to become a federal state. And finally, the Spanish-American War (1898), as a result of which Spain lost Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Philippines. This defeat revealed the complete military and political decline of Spain. The days of the great empire were numbered.

During the First World War, Spain declared neutrality. This then contributed to some economic recovery. But the economic downturn in the post-war years worsened social problems. The anarcho-syndicalists, who gained a foothold in the working class environment of Catalonia, provoked a four-year strike movement in industry (1919–1923), accompanied by massive bloodshed.

The situation in the country required decisive action, and General Primo de Rivera established a military dictatorship in 1923. Resistance to the dictatorship increased in the late 1920s, and in 1930 Primo de Rivera was forced to resign. Alfonso XIII was accused of compromising with the dictatorship. On municipal elections in April 1931, the Republicans won a decisive victory in all major cities. Even moderates and conservatives refused to support the monarchy, and on April 14, 1931, Alfonso XIII, without abdicating the throne, left the country.

Essay in the academic discipline "History of the World"

on the topic: "Civil wars in Spain in the 19th century."

Plan

1. Introduction.

2. Adoption of the Constitution in Spain in 1812.

3. Bourgeois revolution in Spain 1820-1823.

4. Revolution in Spain from 1834 to 1843.

5. Spanish Revolution 1854-1856.

6. Bourgeois revolution from 1868 to 1874.

7. Conclusion.

8. List of references.

1. Introduction.

In Spain, in the 19th century, capitalist relations began to develop rapidly. But the old order and feudal remnants are still partially preserved in the state. Private property coexists peacefully with large feudal landowners, and the principles of new bourgeois freedoms and rights with medieval privileges and liberties of the feudal-aristocratic elite and the Catholic clergy.

In the 19th century, a wave of civil conflicts related to dynastic disputes and a series of bourgeois revolutions swept across Spain. However, the Spanish bourgeoisie turned out to be weak and indecisive and did not lead to serious bourgeois-democratic changes, which contributed to the victory of the reaction. It is the Spanish history of the 19th century that this essay will be devoted to.

2. Adoption of the Constitution in Spain in 1812.

The beginning of the 19th century in Europe passed under the sign of the Napoleonic wars. Spain did not remain aloof from this conflict. By 1810, most of the Iberian Peninsula was under the control of French troops. The occupiers liquidated the Spanish administration, which was fragmented into provincial juntas. The population did not want to admit defeat and the authorities formed by the invaders, therefore launched a large-scale liberation war. Members of the royal family were in French captivity, and the free part of the country was led by the Central Junta. Her plans included the creation of a unified command over the rebel troops, the organization of centralized control and the preparation of a legal framework for the elections of deputies of the constituent body - the Cortes. The Cortes held their first meeting on the twenty-fourth of September 1808 in Leon, declaring themselves bearers of sovereignty, and also declared that they recognized Ferdinand VII as the king of Spain. But the junta did not act decisively and was ineffective, so the initiative began to pass to progressive circles - liberal forces. The party of the same name forced the provisional national government to convene the Cortes in 1810, moving from Leon to Cadiz, the main task of which was the development of a constitution. The developers of the constitutional project argued that Spain, like Great Britain, had an ancient constitution, which was a set of laws, traditions and customs. The British believed that it was a copy of the 1791 constitution.

On March 19, 1812, the Cadiz Cortes adopted the Constitution of the Spanish Monarchy, also nicknamed “La Pepa”, as it was approved on the feast day of St. Joseph. This document was one of the most liberal for its time and, in fact, was the first constitution of Spain, since the Statute of Bayonne, adopted in 1808 by Napoleon's brother Joseph Bonaparte, did not come into force. The Cadiz Constitution marked the beginning of the state's transition from absolutism to constitutional forms of government. It largely reflected the demands of the liberal aristocracy and bourgeoisie voiced during the Spanish Revolution of 1808-1814. and consisted of ten sections, including three hundred and eighty-four articles. It was in the spirit of democratic ideas and some principles of the medieval Aragonese structure. The Constitution of 1812 established a constitutional monarchy and implied the division of powers; the legislative belonged to the Cortes and the monarch, and the executive to the king. The principle of popular sovereignty was affirmed, according to which the people of Spain are the only legitimate bearer of supreme power. Every seventy thousand citizens elected one deputy to the chamber; their powers lasted two years; they could not be re-elected for a second term. The Cortes had quite extensive rights. They took part in financial management, controlled ministers and could enter into agreements with foreign countries. Among other things, the Cortes had the opportunity to deprive members of the royal family of the right to the throne and monitor the education of the heir to the throne. The monarch could not marry without their approval. The "permanent deputation" of the Cortes, consisting of seven members, monitored the implementation and inviolability of the constitution and laws. The king swore an oath to the main document of the country and could not dissolve the Cortes or postpone the meeting of the chamber. Universal suffrage for men, personal freedom, inviolability of the home, freedom of the press and entrepreneurship were announced. Only those who did not have Negro blood were granted civil rights. Ministers, court officials and members of the State Council could not be representatives of the people. The latter, among the forty, were approved by the king from candidates submitted by the Cortes. The Council of State presented the king with three candidates for all spiritual and secular positions. Catholicism was recognized as the state religion. The Cortes had an equal number of representatives from the metropolis and the colonies. It was forbidden to consolidate civil and military power in the hands. Various judicial privileges were eliminated, the court of the Inquisition and the “junta of security”, which dealt with cases of high treason, were abolished. An important feature of the Spanish Constitution of 1812 was that it declared intentions to implement a number of important reforms, in accordance with the principles of liberalism.

On the fourth of May 1814, after the restoration of the regime of Ferdinand VII in Spain, the constitution was declared invalid and repealed "as a product of the French revolution, anarchy and terror." On the tenth, the leaders of the liberals were arrested, and the country returned to absolutism again. But an interesting future awaited the Cadiz Constitution: it was again proclaimed in 1820 during the period of three years of liberalism (abolished in 1823), in 1836 (abolished in 1837), it was remembered until 1873. Transformations carried out with 1808 to 1814, formed the basis of the program of the Spanish liberals of the 19th century. The legislation of the Cadiz Cortes became the foundation for further democratic reforms.

3. Bourgeois revolution in Spain 1820-1823.

The return of Ferdinand VII back to Spain in 1814 led to the restoration of the previous order, which caused indignation among the popular masses, the bourgeoisie, the liberal nobility and the military. The occupation of the Iberian Peninsula by Napoleon Bonaparte gave impetus to the national liberation war of the American colonies, which took advantage of the weakening of the mother country and began to proclaim independence. The loss of overseas possessions hit Spanish trade and industry hard. Foreign markets were occupied by its rival Great Britain, and the domestic market was unable to absorb the entire volume of goods due to the low solvency of the population. A crisis was brewing, the way out of which was proposed by the bourgeoisie through the implementation of radical economic reforms and political changes.

The army elite was dissatisfied with the government's repression and the monarch's decision to send troops to suppress the revolution in Latin America. The expeditionary force not only did not set off to pacify the colonies, but on January 1, 1820, in the name of the Constitution and under the leadership of Colonel Rafael Riego, it raised an uprising, which was joined by a number of provinces and Madrid. The goal of the revolutionaries was to restore the constitution of 1812, form a junta, and release political prisoners. The monarch did not find support among the military and was forced to swear allegiance to the Constitution of Cadiz with the words: “Let us all enter as one, and I will be the first of you, on the constitutional path.”

The newly convened Cortes returned the Cadiz legislation, according to which the privileges of lords were eliminated, the primogeniture was abolished, lands were confiscated from the church, monasteries were closed and half the tithe was abolished. But in political society a split emerged between moderate liberals (“moderados”), supporters of the current constitution and maintaining a balance of power with the monarch, and the radical left wing of liberals (“exaltados”), who demanded the adoption of a new constitution that would further strengthen the influence of the legislative branch and maximum revolutionary changes. The moderates came to power through elections in 1820, with the support of the liberal aristocracy and the upper bourgeoisie. The first governments included: Evaristo Pérez de Castro, Eusebio Bardahi Azara, José Gabriel de Silva y Basan - Marquis de Santa Cruz and Francisco Martínez de la Rosa. Their socio-economic policy promoted the development of trade and industry, the guild system and internal customs duties were eliminated. But the “moderados” did not want to further deepen the revolution, which led to its weakening, which the royalists took advantage of and began organizing numerous conspiracies to restore absolutism. As a result, this caused indignation among the popular masses, dissatisfied with the indecisiveness of the fight against the counter-revolution and ended in the discrediting of the moderates. On the contrary, the influence of the exaltados increased. At the beginning of 1822, they won the elections, and Riego became the head of the Cortes. The Exaltados tried to improve the situation of the peasants without violating the interests of the nobility. The left decided to sell half of the royal lands and distribute the other half among veterans of the anti-Napoleonic war. The new government of Evaristo Fernandez de San Miguel waged an active fight against the counter-revolution, defeating the royalist detachments formed in the mountainous regions of Catalonia. What was happening in Spain had a serious impact on states in Europe, especially on the situation in Italy and Portugal, where their revolutions took place.

The events of 1820-1822 showed that Spanish reaction was not able to independently strangle the revolutionary movement. Therefore, the Verona Congress of the Holy Alliance decided to organize an intervention. In April 1823, the French army crossed the Spanish border. Unfortunately, most of the laws adopted by the liberals remained only on paper; fundamental changes and improvement of life did not occur. Therefore, the disappointed peasants, subjected to counter-revolutionary agitation, did not rise up to fight the interventionists. In May 1823, most of the country fell into French hands. The government and the Cortes were forced to leave the capital and move to Seville, and later to Cadiz. On October 1, 1823, the king signed a decree repealing all laws and acts adopted by the Cortes between 1820 and 1823. Absolutism was re-established. The persecution of the revolutionaries began, and Riego was executed in November. But it was not possible to restore power in Latin America. Spain lost all of its American colonies except Cuba and Puerto Rico. The bourgeois revolution, deprived of the support of the popular masses, was defeated. As a result, it shook the old foundations and prepared the ground for future revolutions.

4. Revolution in Spain from 1834 to 1843

In 1833, King Ferdinand VII died. His young daughter Isabella became heir to the throne under the regency of Queen Maria Cristina, but this was contested by her uncle Carlos, who also laid claim to the Spanish throne. His associates started a civil war. The Carlists were initially able to win over the peasants of the Basque Country, Navarre, and Catalonia. The slogan of the Carlists was the phrase: “God and fueros!” Maria Christina had to seek help from the liberal aristocracy and the bourgeoisie. As a result, the dynastic conflict grew into a confrontation between feudal reaction and liberals. In the winter of 1834, a government of moderate liberals was formed. The third bourgeois revolution began in Spain.

Having gained power, the “moderados” began to pursue policies in the interests of the bourgeoisie and the liberal nobility. Free trade is proclaimed. Deciding that the 1812 constitution was too radical, the government drafted the Royal Statute. Bicameral Cortes with purely advisory functions are created. A high property qualification was established for voters out of a population of twelve million; only sixteen thousand were given the right to vote.

A limited number of reforms, weak political activity and an indecisive fight against the Carlists provoked discontent among the petty bourgeoisie and the urban lower strata. In 1835, popular unrest broke out in Madrid, Barcelona, ​​and Zaragoza. In the south of the peninsula, power was seized by revolutionary juntas who wanted the return of the 1812 constitution, the closure of monasteries and the destruction of Carlism.

The large scale of disobedience that spread throughout the regions of the country forced the "moderados" to leave the political scene in September 1835 and give way to the so-called "progressives", who replaced the "exaltados" on the left flank of the liberal movement. In 1835-1837 “progressive” governments implemented a number of significant socio-economic reforms, the main of which was agrarian. Majorates were liquidated, church tithes were abolished, church lands were confiscated and sold, some of them ended up in the hands of the bourgeois aristocracy. The bourgeoisie, who received land plots, raised rents and drove peasants out of their homes, replacing them with tenants. The increase in bourgeois landowners and their alliance with the liberals angered and negatively turned the peasants against the bourgeoisie. The "Progressives" also abolished the privileges of lords and personal duties, but land payments remained as a form of rent. All this led to the peasants losing their ownership rights. As a result, the former holders of the land became tenants, and the lords became the owners of the land. Agrarian policy was in the interests of large landowners and contributed to the development of capitalist relations.

In the summer of 1836, the garrison in La Granja rebelled; the soldiers forced Maria Cristina to sign a decree restoring the 1812 constitution. But the bourgeoisie feared universal suffrage and restrictions on royal power, which could threaten their influence. Therefore, the liberals in 1837 developed a new constitution, more conservative than the previous constitution. The established property qualification allowed only two percent of the country to vote. The Constitution of 1837 became a kind of compromise between the "moderados" and the "progressives".

In the mid-thirties of the 19th century, Carlism posed a real danger; their military units carried out raids into the interior of the country, creating a serious threat. However, by the end of 1837, a radical change occurred in the civil conflict; the Carlists were losing their supporters among the masses who wanted an end to the war. In 1839, part of the Carlist formations stopped fighting, and in 1840 their last forces were defeated, this meant the end of the absolutist reaction.

After the end of the war, the contradictions between the “moderados” and the “progressives” intensified, and a long political crisis arose, ending with the abdication of Maria Cristina in 1840. Power went to one and the leaders of the “progressives” - General B. Espartero, who became regent in 1841. The people saw in him a hero of the past war and hope for the continuation of revolutionary endeavors. However, Espartero did not live up to expectations and was unable to implement socio-economic and political changes. All this led to disappointment among peasants and townspeople. And after plans to sign a trade agreement with Great Britain, which would open the way for English textiles to Spanish markets, he came into conflict with industrialists. In 1843, an alliance emerged from various political forces that opposed Espartero. In the summer of the same year, the dictatorship fell. Power was again in the hands of the “moderados”.

The third bourgeois revolution, unlike the previous two, did not end in defeat. A compromise was reached between the landowning nobility and the bloc of liberal nobility and the top of the bourgeoisie. In 1845, a new constitution was approved, developed on the basis of the 1837 constitution with a number of amendments.

5. Spanish Revolution 1854-1856

In the fifties of the 19th century, an industrial revolution took place in Spain, the prerequisites for which were laid back in the thirties. The cotton industry is moving towards machine production. Ferrous metallurgy is developing, in which the puddling process is being introduced. The production of coal, iron ore and non-ferrous metals is growing. A railway is being built, the length of which by the end of the sixties reached five thousand kilometers. But the industrial revolution did not eliminate Spain's lag behind other European countries; the reason for this is considered to be the persistence of feudal remnants in agriculture and a lack of capital. The transition to factory production led to the ruin of artisans, increased unemployment, and deterioration of working conditions and life of the working class. As a result, strikes began to take place, workers' organizations formed, and socialist ideas spread. There were also a number of difficulties in the agricultural sector. The third revolution was unable to resolve the problems associated with latifundia and peasant land shortage; moreover, it aggravated them. All this exacerbated social contradictions. Not only “progressives”, but also “moderados” found themselves in opposition to the current government. The army again entered the political scene.

In the summer of 1854, a group of generals led by O'Donnell called for the overthrow of the government. The conspirators demanded the removal of the camarilla, compliance with laws, lower taxes and the creation of a national militia. A mutiny among the troops prompted a revolution in the city. In July, in Barcelona, ​​Madrid, Malaga, Valencia, Popular unrest began, the main force in which were workers and artisans. Under the leadership of the “progressives,” juntas were formed. Under pressure from the rebels, a new government was formed led by the leader of the “progressives,” Espartero; the post of Minister of War was given to O’Donnell, who represented the “moderados.”

The revolutionary government, having come to power, tried to solve a number of economic problems. In order to reduce the budget deficit, they decided to confiscate and sell church lands; the same fate befell the lands of peasant communities. This caused enormous damage to peasant farms, depriving them of pastures and forest lands. The ruin and impoverishment of the peasants helped the latifundia obtain cheap labor. The policies pursued caused discontent in the countryside, which sparked an uprising in 1856, which was brutally suppressed.

Espartero brought back the people's militia and convened the Cortes. In the period from 1855 to 1856. laws were adopted to stimulate railway construction, the opening of new enterprises and banks, and the influx of foreign capital into the country. The labor movement was gaining momentum, and Catalonia was considered its center. In 1854, the workers' organization "Union of Classes" was formed in Barcelona, ​​fighting for increased wages and a shorter working day. Thanks to her activities, it was possible to achieve an increase in wages. In 1855, factory owners staged a series of strikes, in response to which the authorities arrested and executed the head of the labor movement, X. Barcelo, on trumped-up charges. In the summer of the same year, strikes began, leading to the shutdown of all industrial enterprises in Barcelona. The authorities were forced to send the army into the working quarters of the city to restore order. Espartero promised to allow workers' organizations and shorten the working day, but as soon as the temper subsided, the promise was broken.

The worker and peasant movement grew and developed, which forced the government to go over to the side of the counter-revolution. O'Donnel took on the task of suppressing revolutionary sentiments. In July 1856, he achieved the resignation of Espartero and the dissolution of the Cortes. This caused a popular uprising in the capital, which was suppressed within three days. Having achieved victory, O'Donnel canceled the sale of church lands and abolished the people's militia. A compromise was reached between the aristocracy and the bourgeoisie, which was able to increase land allotments at the expense of the deceived peasant communities. The Constitution of 1845 has been preserved. As a result of the revolution in Spain, two blocs were formed: the Liberal Union and the Conservatives, the latter led by General Narvaez, who defended the interests and rights of the nobles, who were large farmers. The liberals, whose leader was O'Donnell, relied on the top of the bourgeoisie. These two political associations ruled until 1868 in turns, replacing each other.

6. Bourgeois revolution from 1868 to 1874

As capitalism developed, the bourgeoisie gained strength, increasingly laying claim to political power. By the end of 1867, an alliance of bourgeois parties had formed in Spain: the Liberal Union, the “progressives,” and the republican groups. Their leaders decided to carry out a coup d'etat. At the beginning of autumn, the squadron in Cadiz mutinied. The organizers of the coup were going to convene the Cortes and introduce universal suffrage. The revolt in Cadiz found support in Madrid and Barcelona, ​​where citizens seized arsenals and formed detachments of “freedom volunteers.” Queen Isabella had to leave the country.

The formed government included “progressives” and the Liberal Union, power was in the hands of the commercial and industrial bourgeoisie and the bourgeoisized aristocracy. In the late sixties and early seventies, measures were taken to develop trade and industry. And also, order was restored in the financial system, a new customs tariff was introduced, and mining resources were put into concession. Church property was again confiscated for further sale.

In 1869, elections to the Cortes were held, the “progressives” and the Liberal Union won. And the Republicans received seventy seats out of three hundred and twenty. By the summer of 1869, a new constitution was developed, according to which Spain was declared a constitutional monarchy, a bicameral parliament was formed on the basis of universal male suffrage. The new document consolidated bourgeois-democratic freedoms. But the petty bourgeoisie, intelligentsia and workers opposed the preservation of the monarchy. Mass republican rallies were held in cities across the country. Largest scope protests reached Catalonia, Valencia and Aragon, where even the army had to be used. After the unrest was quelled, the monarchists began searching for a king for Spain. As a result, the son of the Italian king, Amadeo of Savoy, was proclaimed the new ruler in 1870. But this was opposed by the Carlists, who started another civil war in 1872.

By the beginning of 1873, the position of the ruling party was not strong. The republican movement was gaining momentum in the state, and the influence of sections of the First International was increasing. In the north of the peninsula, the flames of the Carlist war raged. King Amadeo decided to renounce the crown. In February, the Cortes, at the request of the Spanish people, proclaimed Spain a republic. The government was headed by the authoritative Republican Francisco Pi i Margal. He planned to implement a number of democratic reforms, abolish slavery in the colonies, and shorten the working day for teenagers. A constitution was drawn up that gave the regions broad self-government. Francisco Pi y Margal was a supporter of the ideas of petty-bourgeois utopian socialism, but his plans could not be realized due to growing contradictions in the republican camp, where the “irreconcilables,” relying on the middle and petty provincial bourgeoisie, saw the need to divide Spain into small autonomous cantons. In the summer, with the support of the revolutionary popular masses, they rebelled in Andalusia and Valencia. The Bakuninists, speaking out against Pi-i-Margal, forced him to resign. The rebels captured the south of Spain, but the moderate bourgeois republicans who came to power suppressed the rebellion.

The bourgeoisie was alarmed by the growth of the revolutionary movement and decided to go over to the side of the counter-revolution. In January 1874, the army dispersed the Cortes, carrying out a military coup. The restoration of the old order and the restoration of the monarchy began. Isabella's son Alfonso XII was proclaimed king. Two years later, the Carlists, whose stronghold was in Navarre and the Basque Country, were defeated in the civil war.

7. Conclusion.

A series of bourgeois revolutions that swept through Spain in the period from 1808-1874 eliminated some of the feudal remnants that interfered with successful development capitalism. The top bourgeoisie and large landowners were afraid of the peasant movement, so they had to rely on the military. In the 19th century, the Spanish army, together with the noble-bourgeois alliance, fought simultaneously against the feudal order and against the masses of the people who were striving to further deepen the revolution.

The revolutions abolished majorates and seigneurial jurisdiction, but, unfortunately, did not destroy large noble landownership, but on the contrary helped it strengthen. The rights to own land were taken away from the peasant holders, the owners of which were the former lords. This led to the ruin and impoverishment of peasant farms and the transformation of peasants into cheap labor for the latifundia.

After five revolutions, large landowners continued to occupy a leading place in the political life of the country, leaving aside the commercial and industrial bourgeoisie. Thus, the bourgeois revolution in Spain did not achieve all its goals and remained unfulfilled, which led to the restoration of the monarchy.

8. List of references.

1. History of Spain. T. 2. From the War of the Spanish Succession to the beginning of the 21st century / M.A. Lipkin - Indrik, 2014. - 800 p.

2. Spain. History of the country / Juan Lalaguna - Midgard, 2009. - 68 p.

3. Spain. The road to empire / G. Kamen G. - AST Moscow, Guardian, 2007. - 699 p.

4. Spanish kings / V.L. Bernecker - Rostov-on-Don: “Phoenix”, 1998. - 512 p.

5. The Great Spanish Revolution. / Alexander Shubin - Librocom, 2012. - 610 p.

6. Bourbons. Biographies. Coats of arms. Family trees. / Beata Jankowiak-Konik and others - Publisher: Argumenty I Fakty, 2012. - 96 p.