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Actions performed in the inner plane of consciousness are called. mental actions. What will we do with the received material?

MENTAL ACTIONS

all kinds of actions (from mathematical calculations or searching for the shortest route around the city to choosing the most appropriate behavior for the circumstances), when these actions are performed in the mind, without relying on external means or audible. U. d. can be visual and conceptual, emotional and cognitive, etc., they will be distinguished. is that and only that they are performed in ext. consciousness. The second obligatory (but no longer distinctive) feature of U. d. is that it distinguishes what is or happens in the inside. the field of consciousness, from everything that exists outside of consciousness.

The process of formation of I. d. can be schematically represented in the form of five main. stages. The first is the "orienting basis of action", which includes an object or situation (tasks) and a plan of possible action (task solution). In the future, this complex, together with ideal actions for its application, becomes the "orienting part" of a new action, a psychological one. mechanism for managing it. The second stage is the formation of the action itself, which first (precisely because it is new) begins with an external material form; its variety is materialized - with models, drawings or letters. signs. After sufficient mastery, this form of action is transferred to mentality. plan, but not directly (this is impossible), but through another, verbal form of action. In turn, the speech action presupposes the selection of beings. links - schemes of the objective situation and the action itself. Only this scheme can be unambiguously expressed in speech and then transferred - together with the problem situation (task) and action - into an independent speech plan (the third stage of the process), built according to the norms of societies. consciousness and impossible in its absence (in animals, in humans in pathological conditions). The speech plane is also external at first; it becomes internal only as a result of the transformation of a loud speech addressed to another person. Thus, between the plan of material (materialized) action and mentality. On the plane are located the plane of perception reflecting "manual practice" with its more or less clear schematization and the plane of speech as societies. consciousness.

At the beginning of the transfer to mental the plan in it completely reproduces the previous loud-speech form of action. Whatever it may appear to the subject, in fact this first form of the U.D. proper is therefore nothing but "external speech to oneself" (the fourth stage of the process). But then mastering the action in the mind. plan leads to a reduction in its burdensome and by this time already stereotyped proper speech side. In the end, from the speech action "in the mind" only its speech meanings are preserved, but without their former articulateness, which they owe precisely to their speech basis. From "external speech to oneself" the action passes into the actual "internal speech", which is the last, fifth stage in the formation of U. d. Then it begins to appear in self-observation as indeterminate. some process, flowing automatically, directed at the task, accompanied by feelings of confidence, doubt, fallacy, etc. ("coordination-mismatch" of the actual execution with the sample), but in the very course of not connected with the c.-l. sensory images. All this coincides with the psychological characteristic, as it was previously described, and allows us to do that, as a result of these transformations, the objective action receives the form of a thought, becomes a thought about this objective action. Objectively, it becomes a thought already at the level of loud speech, when it takes the form of a judgment. But then the verbal shell appears to be so external that it acts only as a message about the action. When speech itself is translated into the position of what is only "meaning", then the objective action already and subjectively appears as "pure thought". Now, managing the formation of U.D., he knows that this is only "", and knows what earthly is hidden behind his scenes.

Thus, the phased formation of U. d. reveals the emergence of a specific mental. process. This mechanism becomes a detailed scheme for explaining many psychological phenomena. phenomena. The action is always directed to a specific properties of objects, and each time it is applied, the presence or absence of these properties is established in a permanent manner. The external stereotype of these properties as "irritants" leads to the formation of dynamic. stereotype, which, meeting in the future a characteristic combination of its stimuli, immediately gives a picture of the object with all these properties. This is how new images, sensual and abstract, arise.

At some actions, he will perform them. part remains in the external field: physical. actions - in the field of things, for perceptual - in the field of perception. The orienting part of these actions can either go through the usual evolution of U. deeds or, bypassing speech, remain an ideal "movement of attention" in the field of perception.

We can say that already in present. different types of knowledge. activities are obtained from different tasks and conditions for the formation of ideal ones, in particular U. d. In the same way, one can approach other forms of mental. activities, as well as to the analysis of abilities and character traits. In this sense, the formation of U. d. acts not only as one of the objects of psychological. research, but also as a study of other psychological. processes.

The stages passed during the formation of actions and concepts do not disappear, but become the hidden foundation of each new form. There is a layering succession. forms of action and, thus, behind each "phenomenon" there is a "", which does not preexist, but is formed and, having formed, acts as a specific. phenomenon mechanism. In this process, the "phenomenon" receives an explanation and a function. justification, because it turns out that it forms the most perfect and economical form of psychological. behavior management. Thus, the doctrine of the formation of U. d. allows you to overcome the mental. phenomena as devoid of their own. the essence of epiphenomena, the true mechanisms of which had to be sought outside of psychology, in the generating physiological. processes or in the logical-mathematical relations of reflected things.

P. Galperin. Moscow.

The fundamental process of formation of U. d. was emphasized by L. S. Vygotsky in the doctrine of higher specifically social mental. functions. Vygotsky pointed out that the latter are formed by "growing" the speech forms of people's communication into the internal. the plan of individual consciousness and their transformation through an intermediate form of "communication with oneself" into proper human forms of psychic. activities. According to Vygotsky, in higher mental functions, speech serves as the same tool as material tools in the labor process. In the 30s. In the works of A. N. Leontiev, A. V. Zaporozhets, and L. I. Bozhovich, these views were further developed: activities were brought to the fore, which made it possible to deepen the understanding of the mechanism of U. d. put forward by IP Pavlov's position on the psyche as an orientation in relation to the performer. forms of behaviour. In the works of Zaporozhets, D. B. Elkonin and P. Ya. Halperin, it was expanded - it began to be revealed as a function. mental characteristic. On this basis, the U.D. was built, first described by Galperin (Izv. APN RSFSR, 1953, vol. 45). Within the framework of this theory, the stage-by-stage formation of U. d. is considered as the main. formation and development of thinking.

Lit.: Galperin P. Ya., Development of research on the formation of U. d., in the book: Psychological. in the USSR, vol. 1, M., 1959; his, Psychology of thinking and the doctrine of the phased formation of U. d., in the book: Researches of thinking in owls. psychology, M., 1966; Zaporozhets A. V., Development of arbitrary movements, M., 1960, ch. 4; Vygotsky L. S., The development of higher mental. functions, M., 1960; Leontiev A. N., Problems of the development of the psyche, M., 1965, p. 497–525.

N. Alekseev. Moscow.

Philosophical Encyclopedia. In 5 volumes - M .: Soviet Encyclopedia. Edited by F. V. Konstantinov. 1960-1970 .

See what "MENTAL ACTIONS" is in other dictionaries:

mental actions Great Psychological Encyclopedia

mental actions- human actions (from mathematical transformations to assessing the behavior of another person), performed in the internal plane of consciousness, without relying on external means, including audible speech. This U. d. differ from other types of human ... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary of Psychology and Pedagogy

A system of human intellectual operations aimed at identifying features of objects that are not given in perceptual terms. They are based on the use of certain cognitive tools developed in the course of social development ... Psychological Dictionary

Activity approach in psychology (S.L. Rubinshtein, A.N. Leontiev).

It was formed in domestic psychology in the 20th century in the 20s. In 1930, 2 interpretations of the activity approach in psychology were proposed:

- the principle of the unity of consciousness and activity, formulated by S. L. Rubinshtein

- the principle of the commonality of the structure of external and internal activities, formulated by A. N. Leontiev.

This theory acts as a methodological basis for the study of the psyche in domestic science. That is, it is defined as a system of methodological and theoretical principles for the study of mental phenomena.

Accordingly, activity is recognized as the main subject of study of the theory of activity. mediating all mental processes. Everything develops and happens through activity.

Rubinstein and Leontiev developed the theory in parallel, independently of each other. There is much in common in their works, since both relied on the theory of Vygotsky and the philosophical foundations of K. Marx. The basic thesis of the theory is “It is not consciousness that determines activity, but activity determines consciousness.”

According to Rubinshtein, activity is a set of actions aimed at achieving goals.

The psyche and consciousness are formed in activity, in activity it manifests itself. Both activity and consciousness are considered not as two forms of manifestation of something single, but as two instances forming an indissoluble unity.

Activity and consciousness, considered as identical, are defined: activity not as a set of reflex reactions, but as actions regulated by consciousness (in animals they are reflex, in humans they are not).

Consciousness is considered as a reality that is not given to the subject, directly for his self-observation. Consciousness can be known only through a system of subjective relations. Including through the activity in which the subject develops.

Leontiev clarifies Rubinstein's position, noting that consciousness does not simply manifest itself as a separate reaction.

Consciousness is embedded and inextricably linked with activity.

In Leontiev's theory of activity, activity is also the subject of analysis. Since the psyche itself cannot be separated from the moments of activity that generate and mediate it. The psyche itself is a form of objective activity.

When deciding on the relationship between external practical activity and consciousness, the position is taken that the internal plan of consciousness is formed in the process of curtailing initially practical actions. With this interpretation, consciousness and activity are different, as is the image and the process of its formation. In this case, the image is an "accumulated movement", folded actions. These methodological guidelines were formulated by Leontiev in the late 1920s when he worked with Vygotsky.

The general structure of human activity.

Activity as a concept is fundamental, the development of this concept is associated with the names of Vygotsky, Rubinstein, Leontiev, Luria, Galperin.

Leontiev defines activity as a unit of life (when you are in activity, you live).

Shadrikov VD - activity is a form of active attitude of the subject to reality - aimed at achieving a consciously set goal and is associated with the consciousness of socially significant values or the development of social experience.

Any activity is an interaction with the outside world, in the process of which relationships with the outside world are built.

In the psychology of activity, it is considered in two functions:

As a subject of study;

as an explanatory principle.

The activity has incentives and is aimed at achieving a result, that is, it has a goal. On the one hand, activity is a condition for the development of personality, on the other hand, activity depends on the level of personality development.

Activity is a holistic process that combines external and internal components in an inseparable unity. The external ones include a variety of movements that are associated with the performance of an action, where there is a real contact between a person and the environment, the transformation of the environment is carried out - physical objective characteristics.

To the internal - the activity of memory, thinking, psychological processes and states included in the regulation of activity. Performing the function of motivation, planning, decision-making, control and evaluation. That is, these are psychological subjective components.

The ratio of external and internal components is not constant. As development progresses, the transition of external components to internal ones (interiorization, automation).

If difficulties arise during the performance of an activity, conscious control is activated (the automated component unfolds and becomes external, controlled), that is, exteriorization occurs.

Modern science cannot yet explain the psychological nature of the connection between internal and external components of activity.

Thus, it can be stated that activity is the external and internal activity of a person, regulated by a conscious goal.

The question of the relationship between “behavior” and “activity” is difficult. Some authors use them interchangeably.

Others, as opposite in their meaning, explaining the active nature of the activity, and reactive - behavior (reaction to action).

Behavior is an external manifestation of mental action (internal). The higher the development of a living being, the more stereotyped behavior is replaced by acquired one.

The unit of behavior is an act that expresses the position of a person (morality, values, attitudes), and a person is formed in actions.

An act is an action that a person performs, realizing its significance for other people, that is, realizing the social meaning. Without social meaning, it's just action.

Activities and behavior characterize a person:

Proper generally accepted behavior established by society (social, normative)

Antisocial behavior is divided into:

Deviant - ignoring essential social norms and social expectations, expressed in the forms of lies, rudeness, fights, smoking, running away from home, etc.
Delinquent - consciously carried out behavior, the purpose of which is to replace or destroy the norms adopted by a given society (social institutions).

The criterion of deviant is a (negative) act, and delinquent is a crime (destruction of norms).

Activity value:

activity acts as a tool to meet the vital needs of a person
activity transformation of the surrounding world (creation of material and cultural benefits)
activity contributes to the subjective reconstruction of the surrounding reality, the construction of a subjective model (worldview)
activity as a tool for human development
activity is an important condition for the existence of a person as a full-fledged subject, as a person
creative activity acts as a means of self-realization

The subject matter of the activity.

Activity characteristics:

Objectivity is the main characteristic of activity, a fixed socially developed way of acting with an object, and this way is reproduced every time an objective activity is carried out.

Activity is inside the person himself, these are his needs and motives. Thanks to them, a person comes into contact with the outside world.

Sociality - a person cannot master the form of activity with objects (1) without the help of other people who demonstrate patterns of activity, include a person in joint activity, during which the formation of mental formations (ZUNs, abilities, attitudes, etc.)

Mediation - material objects, signs, symbols, speech act as means of activity.

Purposefulness is a consciously imagined planned result.

Productivity is the result that leads to a transformation in the external world, or to a transformation in the person himself.

The problem of motivation for activity, its internal regulation.

The difference between activity and animal activity:

Human activity is active, productive, creative. The activity of animals has a consumer basis, it does not create or produce anything.
Human activity is associated with objects of material, spiritual culture, which are used as a tool and means of their own development or satisfaction of needs. Animals do without tools as such.
Human activity transforms himself and the conditions of life. Human activity does not change anything.
The objective activity of people is not given from birth, but is set by culture. It must be developed in the process of training and education. The activity of animals is given by the genotype (from birth)

Functions of motive: motivation and meaning formation.

The activity has the main characteristics:

MOTIVE - what motivates, for the sake of which the activity is carried out. The motive is a specific goal, which is satisfied with the help of this activity. Motives can be:

Organic: aimed at satisfying natural needs, at creating conditions conducive to this satisfaction, the product can be clothing, food, housing. Food, sleep, security.

Functional: satisfied with the help of various cultural forms of activity - play, sports.

Material: aimed at creating household items, various things, tools, serves natural needs.

Social: the need to take one's place in society, to receive recognition and respect from the people around.

Spiritual: various activities related to human self-improvement.

The PURPOSE of activity is a product, it can be a real physical object, certain ZUNs in the course of activity acquire a creative result (thought, idea, theory, work of art). The purpose of the activity is not equivalent to the motive. Different activities with the same goal may be driven by different motives. A number of activities with different goals may be based on the same motives.
The SUBJECT of activity is that with which it directly deals. In cognitive activity, this can be information, in educational activity, ZUNs, and labor activity, a material or intellectual product. The subject of communication will be interaction.
MEANS - a tool that is used when performing an action and operation. The development of the means of activity leads to its improvement. As a result, the activity becomes productive and of high quality.

Activities ® Actions ® Operations ® Pure Physiology

STRUCTURE - actions and operations as the main components of activity.

Actions are a part of activity that has an independent conscious activity. A situation is possible when an action previously included in the activity can stand out from it and acquire an independent status, can turn into an activity with its own motive. That is, the birth of a new activity is marked (the artist as a hobby, sold, decided to become an artist as a profession, thus, leisure activities turned into a separate one).

In this case, A. N. Leontiev speaks of the shift of the motive to the goal.

Operations are the way in which an action is carried out. How many different ways to perform activities, so many different operations can be distinguished. The nature of the operations depends on the skills and abilities, on the available means of implementation. Preferred operations characterize the individuality of their activities. The goals of the operations are not understood. Operations can also be external and internal (external - to transfer something - visible to the eye, internal - analysis, synthesis, generalization).

(scheme in the paragraph about the general structure)

The concept of action.

Action, which is the basic unit of activity analysis. Action is a process aimed at the realization of a goal, which, in turn, can be defined as an image of the desired result. The goal in this case is a conscious image. Performing a certain activity, a person constantly keeps this image in his mind. Thus, action is a conscious manifestation of human activity. Exceptions are cases when, for certain reasons or circumstances, the adequacy of the mental regulation of behavior is violated in a person, for example, in case of illness or in a state of passion.

The main characteristics of the concept of "action" are four components. First, the action includes as a necessary component an act of consciousness in the form of setting and maintaining a goal. Secondly, action is at the same time an act of behavior. At the same time, attention should be paid to the fact that action is a movement interconnected with consciousness. In turn, one of the fundamental conclusions of the activity theory can be drawn from the foregoing. This conclusion consists in the statement about the inseparability of consciousness and behavior.

Thirdly, the psychological theory of activity, through the concept of action, introduces the principle of activity, opposing it to the principle of reactivity. What is the difference between "active" and "reactive"? The concept of "reactivity" means a response or reaction to the impact of a stimulus. The formula "stimulus-response" is one of the main provisions of behaviorism. From this point of view, the stimulus affecting the person is active. From the point of view of the theory of activity, activity is a property of the subject itself, that is, it characterizes a person. The source of activity is in the subject itself in the form of a goal towards which the action is directed.

Fourthly, the concept of "action" brings human activity into the objective and social world. The fact is that the goal of an action can have not only a biological meaning, such as getting food, but can also be aimed at establishing social contact or creating an object that is not related to biological needs.

Based on the characteristics of the concept of "action" as the main element of the analysis of activity, the fundamental principles of the psychological theory of activity are formulated:

1. Consciousness cannot be considered as closed in itself: it must manifest itself in activity (the principle of “blurring” the circle of consciousness).

2. Behavior cannot be considered in isolation from human consciousness (the principle of the unity of consciousness and behavior).

3. Activity is an active, purposeful process (the principle of activity).

4. Human actions are objective; their goals are social in nature (the principle of objective human activity and the principle of its social conditioning).

In itself, the action cannot be considered as the element of the initial level from which the activity is formed. An action is a complex element that often itself consists of many smaller ones. This situation is explained by the fact that every action is conditioned by a goal. Human goals are not only diverse, but also of different scales. There are large goals that are subdivided into smaller sub-objectives, which in turn can be subdivided into even smaller sub-objectives, and so on. For example, you want to plant an apple tree. For this you need:

1) choose the right place for landing; 2) dig a hole; 3) take a seedling and sprinkle it with earth. Thus, your goal is broken down into three sub-goals. However, if you look at private goals, you will notice that they also consist of even smaller goals. For example, in order to dig a hole, you must take a shovel, push it into the ground, remove and discard the earth, etc. Therefore, your action aimed at planting an apple tree consists of smaller elements - private actions.

A goal is a representation of a result to be achieved.

See paragraph about motives

Action and operations.

Now you need to pay attention to the fact that each action can be performed in different ways, that is, using different methods. The way in which an action is performed is called an operation. In turn, the way the action is performed depends on the conditions. Under different conditions, different operations can be used to achieve the same goal. At the same time, conditions mean both external circumstances and the possibilities of the acting subject himself. Therefore, the goal given under certain conditions is called a task in the theory of activity. Depending on the task, an operation may consist of a variety of actions, which can be subdivided into even smaller (private) actions. Thus, operations are larger units of activity than actions.

The main property of operations is that they are little or not realized at all. In this, operations differ from actions that involve both a conscious goal and conscious control over the course of the action. Essentially, the level of operations is the level of automatic actions and skills. Skills are understood as automated components of conscious activity that are developed in the process of its implementation. Unlike those movements that are automatic from the very beginning, such as reflex movements, habits become automatic as a result of more or less prolonged exercise. Therefore, operations are of two types: the operations of the first type include those that arose through adaptation and adaptation to the conditions of habitation and activity, and the operations of the second type are conscious actions that, thanks to automation, have become skills and moved to the area of unconscious processes. At the same time, the former are practically not realized, while the latter are on the verge of consciousness.

Based on the foregoing, we can conclude that it is difficult to distinguish a clear line between operations and actions. For example, when baking pancakes, you do not hesitate to turn the pancake from one side to the other - this is an operation. But if, while performing this activity, you begin to control yourself and think about how to do it better, then you are faced with the need to perform a number of actions. In this case, flipping the pancake turns into the goal of a whole series of actions, which in itself cannot be considered as an operation. Consequently, one of the most informative signs that distinguish between actions and operations is the ratio between the degree of awareness of the activity being performed. In some cases, this indicator does not work, so you have to look for another objective behavioral or physiological sign.

Correlation of actions and activities.

(See the structure of activity in the paragraph of the function of the motive: motivation and meaning formation)

Types and properties of operations. The principle of unity of consciousness (psyche) and activity.

(See above)

The problem of correlation between "external" and "internal" activities.

Practical activity is visible to outside observers, but there is another type of activity - internal activity. What are the internal activities? First of all, that internal actions prepare external actions. They help save human effort, making it possible to quickly select the desired action. In addition, they enable a person to avoid mistakes.

Internal activity is characterized by two main features. First, internal activity has the same basic structure as external activity, which differs from it only in the form of flow. This means that internal activity, like external activity, is motivated, accompanied by emotional experiences, and has its own operational and technical composition. The difference between internal activity and external activity is that actions are performed not with real objects, but with their images, and instead of a real product, a mental result is obtained.

Secondly, internal activity originated from external, practical activity through the process of internalization, i.e., by transferring the corresponding actions to the internal plan. To successfully mentally reproduce some action, you must first master it in practice and get a real result.

It should be noted that through the concept of internal activity, the authors of the theory of activity came to the problem of consciousness and the analysis of mental processes. According to the authors of the theory of activity, mental processes can be analyzed from the position of activity, since any mental process is carried out with a specific goal, has its own tasks and operational and technical structure. For example, the perception of taste by a taster has its own perceptual goals and tasks associated with finding differences and evaluating the conformity of taste qualities. Another example of a perceptual task is discovery. We constantly face this task in everyday life, solving visual problems, recognizing faces, voices, etc. To solve all these problems, perceptual actions are performed, which can be characterized, respectively, as actions of discrimination, detection, measurement, identification, etc. Moreover, As it turned out, ideas about the structure of activity are also applicable to the analysis of all other mental processes. Therefore, it is no coincidence that Soviet psychology has been developing an activity approach in psychology for several decades.

Problems of interiorization and exteriorization.

In human activity, its external (physical) and internal (mental) sides are inextricably linked. The external side - the movements by which a person influences the external world - is determined and regulated by internal (mental) activity: motivational, cognitive and regulatory. On the other hand, all this internal, mental, activity is directed and controlled by the external one, which reveals the properties of things, processes, carries out their purposeful transformations, reveals the measure of the adequacy of mental models, as well as the degree of coincidence of the results and actions with the expected ones.

The processes that provide the relationship between the internal and external aspects of the activity are called internalization and externalization.

Interiorization (from lat. interior - internal) - transition from outside to inside; a psychological concept that means the formation of mental actions and the internal plan of consciousness through the assimilation by an individual of external actions with objects and social forms of communication. Internalization consists not in a simple transfer of external activity to the internal plane of consciousness, but in the formation of this very consciousness.

Thanks to internalization, the human psyche acquires the ability to operate with images of objects that are currently absent from its field of vision. A person goes beyond the given moment, freely "in the mind" moves into the past and into the future, in time and space.

Animals do not possess this ability; they cannot arbitrarily go beyond the framework of the present situation. The word is an important instrument of internalization, and speech action is the means of an arbitrary transition from one situation to another. The word singles out and fixes in itself the essential properties of things and the ways of operating with information developed by the practice of mankind. Human action ceases to be dependent on a situation given from outside, which determines the entire behavior of the animal.

From this it is clear that the mastery of the correct use of words is at the same time the assimilation of the essential properties of things and the methods of operating information. A person through the word assimilates the experience of all mankind, that is, tens and hundreds of previous generations, as well as people and groups that are hundreds and thousands of kilometers away from him.

Exteriorization (from lat. exterior - external) is the reverse process of internalization, it is a transition from inside to outside. A psychological concept that means the transition of actions from an internal and folded form to the form of an extended action. Examples of exteriorization: the objectification of our ideas, the creation of an object according to a predetermined plan.

Mind as orienting activity (orienting "part" of activity) of the subject (P. Ya. Galperin).

He noted the lack of development of the procedural, operational content of activity in the theory of activity. He made this the subject of his research and studied the development of internal, mental activity. He believed that of the three components of action - orientation, execution and control - orientation plays the main role. It is the correct orientation that allows you to perform a new action correctly the first time. Galperin's theory was called the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions.

The psyche is the orienting activity of the subject in problem situations based on the image. The subject of psychology is the orienting activity of the subject. The most adequate method for studying the psyche as an orienting activity is a formative experiment.

P.Ya. Galperin considered the orienting basis of activity (OOD) in connection with mental and educational activity. Galperin singled out various types of orientations, depending on which the efficiency and quality of the knowledge and skills acquired by the subject change. Types:

I. Orientation to signs. Learning is slow, through trial and error, and yields poor results.

II. Orientation to attributes and relationships. Signs and relationships are selected empirically and are sufficient only to complete this task. The learning process is faster, but the results are limited.

III. Orientation to essential properties and relationships. They are specially identified by analyzing the internal structure of the object and its position among other objects of the same kind. Assimilated knowledge and skills are easily transferred to new, changed conditions.

P.Ya. Galperin notes that the system of landmarks can be complete and incomplete. Only the construction of a complete system of reference points can provide action with high-quality feedback. The formation of new actions on an incomplete indicative basis is an inefficient way, since it requires a lot of time, but despite the fact that the quality of the actions themselves leaves much to be desired.

First of all, he considers orienting activity in connection with mental reflection. The main tasks of orientation activities:

Clarification of the existence of a problematic situation;
Allocation of the subject of urgent need;
Choosing a path or method of action;
regulation of its execution.
Orientation always precedes execution

P.Ya. Galperin considers orienting activity in its own psychological understanding. He makes three important points:

1. P.Ya. Galperin shares two closely related concepts - orienting reflex and orienting activity. He notes that the orienting reflex is a system of physiological components of orientation: turning to a new stimulus and tuning the senses to better perceive it. The orienting reflex is a purely physiological process. Orienting reflex can be called a behavioral manifestation of orienting activity, which is no longer related to physiological processes.

Orientation is not only a study, but more often a survey.

2. Orienting activity cannot be limited to intellectual functions alone. From the psychological side, needs, will, emotions are different forms of orienting activity.

3. Based on the fact that all forms of mental life can be different forms of orienting activity, P.Ya. Halperin says that in this case, psychology in all mental processes studies precisely this side of them.

Galperin singled out and described the main evolutionary levels of action:

1) The level of physical action (inorganic forms of matter)

2) The level of physiological action (organisms whose actions are regulated by physiological mechanisms)

3) The level of action of the subject (animals whose actions are regulated in terms of the image)

4) The level of personality action (a person, actions are regulated by both individual and social experience)

Another important concept in the theory of Peter Yakovlevich is Mental Actions. UD is a variety of human actions performed in the inner plane of consciousness without relying on any external means (including external speech), which distinguishes UD from other types of human actions (physical, perceptual, verbal). UD can be aimed at solving cognitive and practical problems.

1. Extended speech to yourself

2. Action according to the formula (the highest form of internal speech action)

3. Inner speech (abbreviated speech formula)

Characteristics of UD:

Generalization measure. Highlighting essential properties required to perform a given action
Completeness of the actual execution of operations
Action mastering measure

Galperin developed a theory of the phased formation of mental actions - the doctrine of the processes and conditions that determine the formation of UD, and on their basis - ideas and concepts about their objects. The main provisions of the theory:

The performance of a new action first requires the active orientation of the subject in the conditions of the action.
Among the conditions of action, a special role is played by the means of action, which in man stand out as unique instruments of mental activity (signs, standards, measures).
The formation of actions (thinking, perception, etc.) occurs through the transition of external objective actions to the mental plane (ie, through internalization).

1) Create Landmarks

2) The material form is very detailed. It is mastered, then reduced.

3) Reliance on loud speech

4) External speech to oneself → action according to the formula

5) Inner speech

Types of human activity.

Human activities are varied. can be summarized in three main activities.

A game is a special type of activity associated with the imitation of the social role functions of a person, the result of which is not the production of any material or ideal product. Most often, games are in the nature of entertainment, they pursue the goal of obtaining relaxation.

There are several types of games: individual and group, subject and story, role-playing and games with rules.

Individual games represent a type of activity when one person is engaged in the game, group - include multiple individuals.

Object games associated with the inclusion of any objects in the game activity of a person.

Story games unfold according to a certain scenario, reproducing it in the main details.

Role-playing games allow the behavior of a person, limited to a certain role that he takes on in the game.

Finally, games with rules regulated by a certain system of rules of behavior of their participants.

There are also mixed types of games: subject-role-playing, plot-role-playing, story-based games with rules, etc. The relationships that develop between people in the game, as a rule, are artificial in the sense of the word, that they are not taken seriously by others and are not the basis for conclusions about a person.

Play behavior and play relationships have little effect on real relationships between people, at least among adults. Nevertheless, games are of great importance in people's lives. For children, games are primarily educational. In adults, the game is not the leading activity, but serves as a means of communication and relaxation.

Children's play is one of the most important means of physical, mental, moral education. It consists in the reproduction by children of the actions of adults and the relationships between them. Aimed at the knowledge of the surrounding reality.

There is also a business one - it is used in vocational training, it is recreated by imitating models of subject, social and ________ content in the professional activities of a specialist. A holistic context for the execution of the activity is set.

Educational - the process of acquiring, consolidating knowledge and ways of an individual's activity. Assimilation of subject, cognitive actions. Necessary for education and subsequent labor activity. It is a necessary component of any activity (teaching), it is a process of changing the subject. Teaching acts as a kind of activity, the purpose of which is the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities by a person. Teaching can be organized and carried out in special educational institutions. It may be unorganized and occur along the way, in other activities as their side, additional result. In adults, learning can acquire the character of self-education. Features of educational activity are that it directly serves as a means of psychological development of the individual.
Labor is a purposeful activity, the process of actively changing objects of nature, material and spiritual life, in order to meet human needs and create values.

Leisure is one of the activities aimed at meeting the needs for recreation, entertainment, knowledge and creativity. The inclusion of a person in activity is a necessary condition for development.

There is the concept of leading activity - this is the type of activity in which qualitative changes in the personality are formed.

Action includes as a necessary component an act of consciousness in goal setting, and in At the same time, action is at the same time an act of behavior, realized through external actions in inseparable unity with consciousness. Through actions, a person shows his activity, trying to achieve his goal. with taking into account external conditions.

The action has a structure similar to the activity: the goal is the motive, the method is the result. There are actions: sensory(actions to perceive the object), motor(motor actions) volitional, mental, mnemic(memory actions), external subject(actions

Fundamentals of psychology

aimed at changing the state or properties of objects in the external world) and mental(actions performed in the inner plane of consciousness). The following components of action are distinguished: sensory (sensory), central (mental) and motor (motor) (Fig. 1.6).

Rice. 1.6. Action components and their function

Any action is a complex system consisting of several parts: indicative (managing), executive (working) and control and corrective. The indicative part of the action provides a reflection of the set of objective conditions necessary for the successful implementation of this action. The executive part performs the specified transformations in the action object. The control part monitors the progress of the action, compares the results obtained with the given samples and, if necessary, provides correction of both the indicative and executive parts of the action.

An operation is a specific way of performing an action. The nature of the operations used depends on the conditions in which the action is performed and the experience of the person. Operations are usually little conscious or are not realized at all by a person, that is, this is the level of automatic skills.

Speaking about the fact that a person performs some kind of activity, one should not forget that a person is an organism with a highly organized nervous system, developed sensory organs, a complex musculoskeletal system.

Introduction to psychology

apparatus, psychophysiological functions, which are both prerequisites and means of activity.

For example, when a person sets himself the goal of memorizing something, he can use different actions and memorization techniques, but this activity relies on the existing mnemonic psychophysiological function: none of the memorization actions would lead to the desired result if the person did not have a mnemonic function. Psychophysiological functions constitute the organic foundation of the processes of activity.

Sensorimotor processes- these are the processes in which the connection of perception is carried out and movement. In these processes, four mental acts are distinguished: 1) the sensory moment of the reaction - the process of perception; 2) the central moment of the reaction - more or less complex processes associated with the processing of the perceived, sometimes the difference, recognition, evaluation and choice; 3) the motor moment of the reaction - the processes that determine the beginning and course of movement; 4) sensory corrections of movement (feedback).

Ideomotor processes associate the idea of movement with the execution of movement. The problem of the image and its role in the regulation of motor acts is the central problem in the psychology of correct human movements.

Emotional-motor processes are the processes that connect the execution of movements with emotions, feelings, mental states experienced by a person.

Interiorization- this is the process of transition from external, material action to internal, ideal action.

exteriorization is the process of transforming an internal mental action into an external action.

The main activities that ensure the existence of a person and the formation of him as a person are communication, play, learning and work.

It has already been noted that our needs push us to action, to activity. A need is a state of need experienced by a person for something. States of an organism's objective need for something that lies outside of it. and constitutes a necessary condition for its normal functioning, and are called needs. Hunger, thirst, or the need for oxygen are the primary needs, the satisfaction of which is vital for all living beings. Any disturbance in the balance of sugar, water, oxygen, or any other component necessary for the body automatically leads to the appearance of the corresponding

psychology

a growing need and to the emergence of a biological impulse, which, as it were, pushes a person to his satisfaction. The primal impulse thus generated sets off a series of coordinated actions aimed at restoring balance.

Maintaining a balance in which the body does not experience any needs is called homeostasis. From here homeostatic behavior- this is a behavior that is aimed at eliminating motivation by satisfying the need that caused it. Often human behavior is caused by the perception of certain external objects, the action of some external stimuli. The perception of certain external objects plays the role of a stimulus, which can be as strong and significant as the internal impulse itself. The need to move, to receive new information, new stimuli (cognitive need), new emotions allows the body to maintain an optimal level of activation, which allows it to function most efficiently. This need for stimuli varies depending on the physiological and mental state of the person.

The need for social contacts, communication with people is one of the leading ones in a person, only with the course of life it changes its forms.

People are constantly busy with something, and in most cases they decide what they will do. To make a choice, people resort to the process of thinking. Can be considered motivation as a "mechanism of choice" of some form of behavior. This mechanism, if necessary, responds to external stimuli, but most often it selects the option that at the moment best suits the physiological state, emotion, memory or thought that came to mind, or unconscious attraction, or innate characteristics. The choice of our immediate actions is also guided by our goals and plans for the future. The more important these goals are to the naga, the more powerfully they guide our choices.

Thus, there is a hierarchy of different needs from the most primitive to the most refined. The hierarchical pyramid of needs was developed by the igvest psychologist Maslow: from innate physiological needs (the need for food, drink, sex, the desire to avoid pain, parental instinct, the need to explore the world around and etc.) - to the needs

Introduction to psychology

security, then to needs for affection, then to needs for respect, approval, recognition, competence, then to cognitive and aesthetic needs (in order, beauty, justice, symmetry) - and, finally, the need to understand the meaning of one's life , in self-improvement, in self-development, self-realization.

But the same need can be satisfied with the help of different objects, with the help of different actions, that is, in different ways. objectified. In the process of objectifying a need, two important features of a need are revealed: 1) initially there is a fairly wide range of items that can satisfy a given need; 2) there is a quick fixation of the need on the first object that satisfied it. In the act of objectification is born motive as a subject of need. motive- it is an objectified need, it is a need for a given object that prompts a person to take action. One and the same motive can be satisfied by a set of different actions, and on the other hand, the same action can be motivated by different motives. Motives give rise to actions, i.e., lead to the formation of goals. These are motives. But there are also unconscious motives that can manifest themselves in the form of emotions and personal meanings. Emotions arise only about such events or results of actions that are associated with motives. The leading main motive determines the personal meaning - the experience of increased subjective significance of an object or event that is in the field of action of the leading motive.

The set of actions that are caused by one motive is called a special type of activity (game, educational or labor).

TEST QUESTIONS

1. What is the subject of psychology as a science?

2. List and give a brief description of the main views on the psyche and its role.

3. What are the main functions and manifestations of the psyche?

4. How is the development of behavioral forms and reflective function interconnected in the process of evolution? Is it related to the development of the nervous system?

Fundamentals of psychology

5. Why can't the complex behavior of ants be called labor? What are the characteristic features of labor that have played an important role in the development of human consciousness?

6. What circles of influence of nature on the psyche exist?

7. What research methods are used in psychology?

8. What is the relationship between the psyche and the body, between the psyche and the brain?

LITERATURE

1. Hegel. Encyclopedia of Philosophical Sciences. T. 3. M., Thought, 1977.

2. Vygotsky L. S. The history of the development of higher mental functions. Sobr. op. T. 3. M., Pedagogy, 1983.

3. Leontiev A.N. Problems of the development of the psyche. M., 1987.

4. Godefroy J. What is psychology. In 2 vol. M., Mir, 1992.

5. Yarvilekto T. Brain and psyche. M., Progress, 1992.

6. Platonov K. K. Entertaining psychology. M., 1990.

7. Shertok L. unknown in the human psyche. M., 1982.

8. Galperin P. Ya. Introduction to psychology M., 1976.

9. Mute R.S. Psychology book. 1. M., 1997.

10. Military psychology and pedagogy. M., 1998.

11. Diligensky G. G. Socio-political psychology. M., 1996.

12. Kornilova T.V. Introduction to the psychological experiment. M., 1997.

13. Fundamentals of psychophysiology. M., 1997.

14. Psychological science in Russia of the XX century. M., 1997.

15. Psychology and Pedagogy (ed. Radugin). M., 1996.

16. Rozin V. M. Psychology: theory and practice. M., 1997.

17. Rudensky U.V. Social psychology, M., 1997.

18. Shibutani T. Social Psychology. Rostov n / a, 1998.

19. Romanov V.V.

20. Methods of research in psychology: quasi-experiment. M., 1998.

21. Chufarovsky Yu.V. Legal psychology. M., 1998.

PSYCHOLOGICAL

CONCEPTS

1. A brief excursion into the history of psychology

In order to more clearly represent the path of development of psychology as a science, we briefly consider its main stages. and directions.

1. The first ideas about the psyche were associated with animism (from the Latin "anima" - spirit, soul) - the most ancient views, according to which everything that exists in the world has a soul. The soul was understood as an entity independent of the body, controlling all living things. and inanimate objects.

2. Later, in the philosophical teachings of antiquity, psychological aspects were touched upon, which were solved in terms of idealism or in terms of materialism. Thus, the materialist philosophers of antiquity Democritus, Lucretius, Epicurus understood the human soul as a kind of matter, as a bodily formation, consisting of spherical, small and the most mobile atoms.

3. According to the ancient Greek idealist philosopher Plato (427-347 BC), who was a student and follower of Socrates, the soul is something divine, different from the body, and the soul exists in a person before it enters into union with the body. It is the image and outflow of the world soul. The soul is an invisible, sublime, divine, eternal principle. Soul and the body is in a complex relationship with each other. According to its divine origin, the soul is called upon to control the body, to direct the life of a person. However, sometimes the body takes the soul into its fetters. The body is torn apart by various desires and passions, it takes care of food,

Fundamentals of psychology

prone to illness, fear, temptation. Mental phenomena are divided by Plato into reason, courage (in the modern sense - will) and desires (motivation).

Reason is located in the head, courage - in the chest, lust - in the abdominal cavity. The harmonious unity of the rational principle, noble aspirations and desires gives integrity to the spiritual life of a person. The soul lives in the human body and guides him throughout his life, and after death leaves him and enters the divine “world of ideas”. Since the soul is the highest thing in a person, he should take care of its health more than the health of the body. Depending on what kind of lifestyle a person led, after his death, a different fate awaits his soul: it will either wander near the earth, burdened with bodily elements, or fly off the earth into an ideal world, into a world of ideas that exists outside of matter and outside of the individual. consciousness. “Aren’t people ashamed to take care of money, fame and honors, but not to take care of their mind, truth and their soul and not think that it should be better?” - ask Socrates and Plato.

4. Great Philosopher Aristotle in his treatise "On the Soul" singled out psychology as a kind of field of knowledge and first put forward the idea of the indivisibility of the soul and living body. Aristotle rejected the view of the soul as a substance. At the same time, he did not consider it possible to consider the soul in isolation from matter (living bodies). The soul, according to Aristotle, is incorporeal, it is the form of a living body, the cause and purpose of all its vital functions. Aristotle put forward the concept of the soul as a function of the body, and not some external phenomenon in relation to it. The soul, or "psyche", is the engine that allows a living being to realize itself. If the eye were a living being, then its soul would be sight. So the human soul is the essence of a living body, it is the realization of its being, - Aristotle believed. The main function of the soul, according to Aristotle, is the realization of the biological existence of the organism. The center, the "psyche", is located in the heart, where the impressions from the senses come. These impressions form a source of ideas, which, combined with each other as a result of rational thinking, subordinate behavior to themselves. The driving force of human behavior is the desire (internal activity of the body), associated with a feeling of pleasure or displeasure. Sense perceptions constitute the beginning of knowledge. Save and play

Psychological

concepts

keeping sensations gives memory. Thinking is characterized by the compilation of general concepts, judgments and conclusions. A special form of intellectual activity is nous (reason), brought in from outside in the form of divine mind. Thus, the soul manifests itself in various abilities for activity: nourishing, feeling, rational. Higher abilities arise from the lower ones and on their basis. The primary cognitive ability of a person is sensation, it takes the form of sensually perceived objects without their matter, just as "wax takes the impression of a seal without iron." Sensations leave a trace in the form of representations - images of those objects that previously acted on the senses. Aristotle showed that these images are connected in three directions: by similarity, by contiguity and contrast, thereby indicating the main types of connections - associations of mental phenomena. Aristotle believed that the knowledge of man is possible only through the knowledge of the universe and existence.

the order in it. Thus, at the first stage psychology acted as the science of the soul.

5. In the era of the Middle Ages, the idea was established that the soul is a divine, supernatural principle, and therefore the study of mental life should be subordinated to the tasks of theology.

Only the external side of the soul, which is turned towards the material, can yield to human judgment.

the world. The greatest mysteries of the soul are only accessible in religious (mystical) experience.

6. Since the 17th century a new era begins in the development of psychological knowledge. AT connection with the development of natural

scientific sciences with the help of experimental methods

began to study the patterns of human consciousness. The ability to think and feel is called consciousness. Psychology began to develop as a science of consciousness. It is characterized by attempts to comprehend the spiritual world of a person mainly from general philosophical, speculative positions, without the necessary experimental base. R. Descartes(1596-1650) comes to the conclusion about the difference between the soul of a person and his body: "the body by its nature is always divisible, while the spirit is indivisible." However, the soul is capable of producing movements in the body. This contradictory dualistic teaching gave rise to a problem called psychophysical: how are the bodily (physiological) and mental (mental) processes in a person? Descartes created a theory explaining behavior on the basis of mechani-

Fundamentals of psychology

static model. According to this model, the information delivered by the senses is sent along the sensory nerves to the holes in the brain, which these nerves expand, which allows the "animal souls" located in the brain to flow through the thinnest tubes - the motor nerves - into the muscles, which inflate, which leads to withdrawal of the irritated limb, or causes one or another action to be performed. Thus, there is no need to resort to soul to explain how simple behavioral acts arise. Descartes laid the foundations for the deterministic (causal) concept of behavior with its central idea of a reflex as a natural motor response of the body to external physical stimulation. This Cartesian dualism - the body, acting mechanically, and the "reasonable soul" that controls it, localized in the brain. Thus, the concept of "Soul" began to turn into the concept of "Mind", and later - into the concept of "Consciousness". The famous Cartesian phrase "I think, therefore I am" became the basis of the postulate, which asserted that the first thing a person discovers in himself is his own consciousness. The existence of consciousness is the chief and absolute fact, and the main task of psychology is to analyze the state and content of consciousness. On the basis of this postulate, psychology began to develop - it made psychology its subject consciousness.

7. Attempt to reconnect the body and human soul, separated by the teachings of Descartes, was undertaken by the Dutch philosopher Spinoza(1632 -1677). There is no special spiritual principle, it is always one of the manifestations of an extended substance (matter).

Soul and body are determined by the same material causes. Spinoza believed that such an approach makes it possible to consider the phenomena of the psyche with the same accuracy. and objectivity, as lines and surfaces are considered in geometry.

Thinking is an eternal property of substance (matter, nature), therefore, to a certain extent, thinking is also inherent in stone, and animals, and is largely inherent in man, manifesting itself in the form of intellect and will at the human level.

8. German philosopher G. Leibniz(1646-1716), rejecting the equality of the psyche and consciousness established by Descartes, introduced the concept about unconscious psyche. AT the human soul continuously goes on the hidden work of mental

Psychological concepts

forces - countless "small perceptions" (perceptions). Conscious desires and passions arise from them.

9. The term "empirical psychology" was introduced by the German philosopher of the XVIII century X. Wolf to designate a direction in psychological science, the basic principle of which is to observe specific mental phenomena, classify them and establish a regular connection between them that can be verified by experience. English philosopher J. Locke (1632-1704) considers the human soul as passive, but capable of to perception of the environment, comparing it with a blank slate on which nothing is written. Under the influence of sensory impressions, the human soul, awakening, is filled with simple ideas, begins to think, that is, to form complex ideas. In the language of psychology, Locke introduced the concept of "association" - a connection between mental phenomena, in which the actualization of one of them entails the appearance of another. So psychology began to study how, by association of ideas, a person is aware of the world around him. The study of the relationship between the soul and the body is finally inferior to the study of mental activity and consciousness.

Locke believed that there are two sources of all human knowledge: the first source is the objects of the external world, the second is the activity of a person’s own mind. The activity of the mind, thinking is known with the help of a special inner feeling - reflection. Reflection - according to Locke - is "observation to which the mind exposes its activity", this is the focus of a person's attention on the activity of his own soul. Mental activity can proceed, as it were, at two levels: processes of the first level - perception, thoughts, desires (every person and child has them); processes of the second level - observation or "contemplation" of these perceptions, thoughts, desires (this is only for mature people who reflect on themselves, cognize their spiritual experiences and states). This method of introspection becomes an important means of studying the mental activity and consciousness of people.

10. Separation of psychology into an independent science happened in the 60s 19th century It was connected with the creation of special research institutions - psychological laboratories and institutes, departments in higher educational institutions, as well as the introduction of an experiment to study mental phenomena. The first version of experimental psychology as an independent

Fundamentals of psychology

The most important scientific discipline was the physiological psychology of the German scientist W. Wundt (1832-1920).In 1879, Wundt opened the world's first experimental psychological laboratory in Leipzig.

Soon, in 1885, V. M. Bekhterev organized a similar laboratory in Russia.

In the field of consciousness, Wundt believed, there is a special mental causality that is subject to scientific objective research. Consciousness was divided into mental structures, the simplest elements: sensations, images and feelings. The role of psychology, according to Wundt, is to give as detailed a description of these elements as possible. "Psychology- it is the science of the structures of consciousness"- this direction is called structuralist approach. We used the method of introspection, self-observation.

One psychologist compared the picture of consciousness with a flowering meadow: visual images, auditory impressions, emotional states and thoughts, memories, desires - all this can be in the mind at the same time. A particularly clear and distinct area stands out in the field of consciousness - the “field of attention”, the “focus of consciousness”; outside it there is an area whose contents are indistinct, vague, undivided - this is the "periphery of consciousness". The contents of consciousness filling both described areas of consciousness are in continuous motion. Wundt's experiments with the metronome showed that the monotonous clicks of the metronome in human perception are involuntarily rhythmic, that is, consciousness is rhythmic in nature, and the organization of the rhythm can be either arbitrary or and involuntary. Wundt tried to study such a characteristic of consciousness as its volume. The experiment showed that a series of eight double beats of a metronome (or of 16 separate sounds) is a measure of the volume of consciousness. Wundt believed that psychology should find the elements of consciousness, decompose the complex dynamic picture of consciousness into simple, further indivisible parts. Wundt declared individual impressions, or sensations, to be the simplest elements of consciousness. Sensations are objective elements of consciousness. There are also subjective elements of consciousness, or feeling. Wundt proposed 3 pairs of subjective elements: pleasure - displeasure, excitement - calmness, tension - discharge. All human feelings are formed from a combination of subjective elements, for example, joy is pleasure and exaltation.

Psychological

concepts

awakening, hope - pleasure and tension, fear - displeasure and tension.

But the idea of decomposing the psyche into the simplest elements turned out to be false; it was impossible to assemble complex states of consciousness from simple elements. Therefore, by the 20s of the XX century. this psychology of consciousness has practically ceased to exist.

11. Functionalist approach. American psychologist W. James proposed to study the functions of consciousness and its role in human survival. He hypothesized that the role of consciousness is to enable a person to adapt to various situations, either repeating already developed forms of behavior, or changing them depending on the circumstances, or mastering new actions, if the situation requires it. "Psychology- it is the science of the functions of consciousness, according to the functionalists. They used the methods of introspection, self-observation, fixing the time for solving problems.

James reflected in the concept of "stream of consciousness" - the process of movement of consciousness, the continuous change of its contents and states. The processes of consciousness are divided into two large classes: some of them occur as if by themselves, others are organized and directed by a person. The first processes are called involuntary, the second - arbitrary.

12. I. M. Sechenov is considered the founder of Russian scientific psychology (1829-1905). In his book Reflexes of the Brain (1863), the basic psychological processes receive a physiological interpretation. Their scheme is the same as that of reflexes: they originate in an external influence, continue with central nervous activity and end with a response activity - movement, deed, speech. With this interpretation, Sechenov made an attempt to “pull out” psychology from the circle of the inner world of man. However, the specificity of psychic reality was underestimated in comparison with its physiological basis, the role of cultural and historical factors in the formation and development of the human psyche was not taken into account.

13. An important place in the history of Russian psychology belongs to G. I. Chelpanov(1862 -1936). His main merit is to create in Russian Psychological Institute (1912). The experimental direction in psychology using objective research methods was developed by V. M. Bekhterev (1857-1927). Efforts I. P. Pavlova (1849-1936) were aimed at studying conditionally

Fundamentals of psychology

reflex connections in the activity of the body. His works fruitfully influenced the understanding of the physiological foundations of mental activity.

13. Behavioral approach.

American psychologist watson proclaimed in 1913 that psychology would gain the right to be called a science when it applied objective experimental methods of study. Objectively, one can study only the behavior of a person that occurs in a given situation. Each situation corresponds to a specific behavior that should be objectively recorded. "Psychology- it is the science of behavior, and all concepts connected with consciousness should be banished from scientific psychology. “The expression “a child is afraid of a dog” scientifically means nothing, objective descriptions are needed: “tears and trembling in a child increase when a dog approaches him.” New forms of behavior appear as a result of the formation of conditioned reflexes (conditioning) (Watson). Every behavior is determined by its consequences. (Skinner). Human actions are formed under the influence of the social environment, a person is completely dependent on it. A person is also inclined to imitate the behavior of other people, taking into account how favorable the results of such imitation can be for himself. (Bandura). The main ideas of behaviorism will be discussed in the following sections.

Important merits of behaviorism are: the introduction of objective methods of registration and analysis of externally observed reactions, human actions, processes, events; discovery of the patterns of learning, the formation of skills, behavioral reactions.

The main disadvantage of behaviorism is the underestimation of the complexity of human mental activity, the convergence of the psyche of animals and humans, ignoring the processes of consciousness, creativity, and self-determination of the individual.

14. "Gestalt psychology" originated in Germany thanks to the efforts T. Wertheimer, W. Koehler and K. Levin, who put forward a program for the study of the psyche with point of view of integral structures (gestalts). Gestalt psychology opposed the associative psychology of W. Wundt and E. Titchener, who interpreted complex mental phenomena as built from simple associations according to the laws.

The concept of gestalt (from German “form”) originated in the study of sensory formations, when a “transformation” was discovered.

Psychological concepts

“vicinity” of their structure in relation to the components (sensations) included in these formations. For example, although a melody, when performed in different keys, evokes different sensations, it is recognized as one and the same. Thinking is interpreted similarly: it consists in discretion, awareness of the structural requirements of the elements of a problem situation and in actions that meet these requirements (W. Köhler). The construction of a complex mental image occurs in insight - a special mental act of instantaneous grasping of relationships (structures) in the perceived field. Gestalt psychology also contrasted its positions with behaviorism, which explained the behavior of an organism in a problem situation by enumeration of "blind" motor tests, only occasionally leading to success. The merits of Gestalt psychology lie in the development of the concept of a psychological image, in the approval of a systematic approach to mental phenomena.

15. At the beginning of the 20th century. direction in psychology psychoanalysis, or Freudianism. 3. Freud introduced a number of important topics into psychology: unconscious motivation, defense mechanisms of the psyche, the role of sexuality in it, the impact of childhood mental trauma on behavior in adulthood, etc. inferiority and the need to compensate for this defect (A. Adler), or the collective unconscious (archetypes), which has absorbed the universal experience (K. Jung), determine the mental development of the individual.

We will consider the main provisions of Freudianism in the following sections.

The psychoanalytic direction paid increased attention to the study of unconscious mental processes. Unconscious processes can be divided into 2 large classes: 1 - unconscious mechanisms of conscious actions (unconscious automatic actions and automated skills, phenomena of an unconscious attitude); 2 - unconscious stimuli of conscious actions (this is what Freud intensively studied, - the impulses of the unconscious area of \u200b\u200bthe psyche (drives, repressed desires, experiences) have a strong influence on the actions and states of a person, although a person does not suspect this and often does not know why he does that or other action.Unconscious representations hardly pass into consciousness, practically remaining unconscious due to the work of two mechanisms.

Fundamentals of psychology

mov - mechanisms of displacement and resistance. Consciousness resists them, that is, a person does not let in consciousness of the whole truth about oneself. Therefore, unconscious ideas, having a large energy charge, break through into the conscious life of a person, taking a distorted or symbolic form (three forms of manifestation of the unconscious - dreams, erroneous actions - slips of the tongue, slips of the tongue, forgetting things, neurotic symptoms).

16. Link the nature of the unconscious core of the human psyche with social conditions of his life tried C. Horney, G. Sullivan and E. Fromm - reformers of Freud's psychoanalysis (neo-Freudians). A person is driven not only by biological predetermined unconscious urges, but also by acquired aspirations for security and self-realization (Horney), images of oneself and others that developed in early childhood (Sullivan), and the influence of the socio-economic structure of society (Fromm).

17. Representatives of cognitive psychology W. Niceser, A. Paivio and others take away in the behavior of the subject the decisive role of knowledge (from lat. cognito - knowledge). For them, the question of the organization of knowledge becomes central. in subject's memory, about the correlation of verbal (verbal) and figurative components in the processes of memorization and thinking.

18. Humanistic psychology- its most prominent representatives G. Allport, G. A. Murray, G. Murphy, K. Rogers, A. Maslow consider the healthy creative personality of a person to be the subject of psychological research.

The goal of such a person is not the need for homeostasis, as psychoanalysis believes, but self-fulfillment, self-actualization, the growth of the constructive beginning of the human "I". A person is open to the world, endowed with the potential for continuous development and self-realization. Love, creativity, growth, higher values, meaning - these and similar concepts characterize the basic needs of a person. As V. Frankl, the author of the concept of logotherapy, notes, in the absence or loss of interest in life, a person experiences boredom, indulges in vice, he is struck by severe failures.

19. Spiritual (Christian) can also be considered a peculiar branch of humanistic psychology. psychology. Considering it unlawful to limit the subject of psychology to the phenomena of mental life, she addresses

Psychological concepts

to the realm of the spirit. Spirit is the power of self-determination for the better, the gift to strengthen and overcome what is rejected. Spirituality gives a person access to love, conscience and a sense of duty. It helps a person overcome the crisis of groundlessness, the illusory nature of his existence.

20. Transpersonal psychology considers a person as a spiritual cosmic being, inextricably linked with the entire Universe, space, humanity, having the ability to access the global information cosmic field. Through the unconscious psyche, a person is connected with the unconscious psyche of other persons, with"the collective unconscious of humanity" with space information, with the "world mind".

21. Interactive psychology considers a person as a being, the main characteristic of which is communication, interaction between people. The purpose of psychology is to study the laws of interaction, communication, relationships, conflicts (E. Berne).

22. Significant contribution to the development of psychology of the XX century. made by our domestic scientists L. S. Vygotsky (1896-1934), A.N. Leontiev (1903-1979), A. R. Luria (1902-1977) and P.Ya. Halperin (1902-1988). L.S. Vygotsky introduced the concept of higher mental functions (thinking in concepts, rational speech, logical memory, voluntary attention) as a specifically human, socially conditioned form of the psyche, and also laid the foundations for the cultural and historical concept of human mental development. These functions initially exist as forms of external activity, and only later - as a completely internal (intrapsychic) process. They come from forms of verbal communication between people and are mediated by the signs of the language. The system of signs determines behavior to a greater extent than the surrounding nature, since a sign, a symbol contains a program of behavior in a collapsed form. Higher mental functions develop in the process of learning, that is, the joint activity of a child and an adult.

A. N. Leontiev conducted a series of experimental studies revealing the mechanism of formation of higher mental functions as a process of "growing" (interiorization) of higher forms of tool-sign actions into the subjective structures of the human psyche. A. R. Luria paid special attention to the problems of cerebral localization of higher mental functions and their disorders. He showed-

Fundamentals of psychology

Xia one of the founders of a new field of psychological science - neuropsychology.

P. Ya. Galperin considered mental processes (from perception to thinking inclusive) as an orienting activity of the subject in problem situations. The psyche itself historically arises only in a situation of mobile life for orientation on the basis of an image and is carried out with the help of actions in terms of this image. P. Ya. Galperin is the author of the concept of the phased formation of mental actions (images, concepts). The practical implementation of this concept can significantly increase the effectiveness of training.

Having briefly reviewed the history of the formation of psychology, we will analyze in more detail the main directions, basic concepts and theories of psychology:

Psychoanalysis,

Behaviorism,

cognitive psychology,

o humanistic psychology,

and also get acquainted with such private applied psychological concepts as Assagio-li's psychosynthesis, Grof's research, Toych's concept of victimology, which can be combined under the ideas of transpersonal psychology.

Rice. 2.1. Schematic representation of the structure of personality according to Freud

Psychological concepts

2. Freudianism, psychoanalysis

No direction has gained such high-profile fame outside of psychology as psychoanalysis. His ideas influenced art, literature, medicine and other fields of science related to man. This concept is called Freudianism after its founder Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Based on the ideas of Freud, but supplementing and refining them, a whole psychological direction “psychoanalysis” gradually formed (psychoanalytic theories also include the theories of Horney, Adler, Jung, Fromm, Reich, etc., although each of them introduced his own new and original ideas ).

The term "psychoanalysis" has three meanings: 1 - theory of personality and psychopathology; 2 - method of therapy for personality disorders; 3 - a method of studying unconscious thoughts and feelings of a person.

Freud used a topographic model, according to which three levels can be distinguished in mental life: consciousness, preconsciousness, and the unconscious. The level of consciousness consists of sensations and experiences that you are aware of at a given moment in time. Consciousness captures only a small percentage of all information stored in the brain, with certain information being conscious for only a short period of time and then quickly sinking into the preconscious or unconscious level as the person's attention shifts to other cues.

The area of the preconscious, sometimes called "accessible memory," includes all experiences that are not currently conscious, but can easily return to consciousness spontaneously or with minimal effort. The deepest and most significant area of the human psyche is the unconscious. The unconscious is a storehouse of instinctive urges plus emotions and memories that are so threatening to consciousness that they have been repressed and forced into the unconscious, but it is this unconscious material that largely determines the daily functioning of a person, although he is not aware of it. Unconscious experiences are completely inaccessible to human consciousness, but to a large extent determine the actions of people.

Based on many years of clinical observations, Freud formulated a psychological concept, according to which the psyche, the personality of a person consists of 3 structures,

Fundamentals of psychology

levels: "IT", "I", "SUPER-I" (structural model of mental life). “IT” is the unconscious part of the psyche, a seething cauldron of biological innate instinctive drives: aggressive and sexual. "IT" is saturated with sexual energy - "libido". Man is a closed energy system, the amount of energy in each person is a constant value. Being unconscious and irrational, "IT" obeys the principle of pleasure, that is, pleasure and happiness are the main goals in human life. The second principle of behavior - homeostasis - a tendency to maintain an approximate internal balance. The level of "I" (EGO) of consciousness is in a state of constant conflict with "IT", suppresses sexual desires. The level of consciousness is formed under the influence of society. The "I" is affected by three forces: "IT", "SUPER-I" and society, which makes its demands on a person. "I" tries to establish harmony between them, obeys not the principle of pleasure, but the principle of "reality". "SUPER-I" serves as the bearer of moral standards, this is the part of the personality that plays the role of critic, censor, conscience. If the “I” makes a decision or performs an action for the sake of “IT”, but in opposition to the “SUPER-I”, then it experiences punishment in the form of guilt, shame, remorse.

The relationship between the structural and topographical models of mental life can be depicted as follows: the “IT” sphere is completely unconscious, while the “I”-EGO and “SUPER-I” operate on all three levels.

"I"-EGO is responsible for making decisions. The EGO strives to express and satisfy the desires of the “IT”-ID in accordance with the restrictions imposed by the rules of society, the outside world, i.e. the EGO helps to ensure the safety and self-preservation of the organism, it is the EGO that analyzes, reasoning, and makes decisions.

The formation of the psyche, especially the "SUPER-I" in a child, occurs through overcoming the Oedipus complex. In the Greek myth of King Oedipus, who killed his father and married his mother, according to Freud, the key to the sexual complex supposedly gravitating over every man is hidden: the boy is attracted to his mother, perceiving his father as a rival, causing both hatred and fear , and admiration, the boy wants to be like his father, but he also wants death for him, and therefore he feels a sense of guilt, he is afraid of his father. Fearing castration, the child overcomes the sexual attraction to the mother, overcomes Eddie

Psychological concepts

Mastering the ability to use language in various activities and communication, and later other sign-symbolic means, ensures the formation and development of the child's internal plan of mental actions. Often this mental formation in psychology is called consciousness. In mental terms, a person can perform actions on ideas and concepts in the absence of real objects or phenomena. According to S. V. Malanova , while the internal plan of mental actions underlies the totality of all the skills and abilities of a person that are associated with abstract forms of thinking, with arbitrary forms of regulation and planning of one's behavior and activities, with the possibility of acquiring various knowledge based on verbal communication, etc. Skill to perform simple actions in the internal, mental plan is considered one of the necessary conditions for the readiness of the child for educational activities.

The content of mental images, ideas, concepts and their mental transformations are generated in the course of the implementation of various types of external objective practical actions, as well as perceptual actions as they move into the internal plane of thinking (consciousness). Both subject content and methods of action with it can be transformed into a mental form. In numerous psychological studies on the formation of visual, auditory, tactile images and representations, it has been convincingly shown that external practical objective motor-executive actions based on perceptual actions that are implemented by the senses are, as it were, likened to the structural features of perceived objects and phenomena. Further, the sequence of motor and perceptual actions and operations unfolded in time is folded into a simultaneously monitored structure - an image. Following this, such a structure, already as a representation, begins to function as an indicative basis for performing a certain range of actions.

As S. V. Malanov points out, the formed images become the source material for a higher level of psychological orientation in the internal plan of representations. Arbitrarily reproduced by a person, a reduced fixed sequence of perceptual cognitive-orienting actions and operations “to oneself” becomes a way of internal mental orientation and is subjectively perceived as a representation.

The formation of sign-symbolic functions and their inclusion in mental orientation leads to the formation and development of an internal plan of action. It is believed that this happens as a person masters speech. Speech, and later other sign-symbolic means, begin to designate integral, rather discrete figurative structures and their signs, as well as ways of their transformations and ways of establishing connections and relationships. Sign-symbolic means allow:

1) to abstract individual elements from perceptual experience (images and representations) and arbitrarily establish connections and relationships between them for various reasons; this leads to the formation of concepts of a higher level of generalization;

2) to carry out subsequent psychological orientation, organized by sign-symbolic means.

In psychology, there are effective methods of teaching, which are based on the arbitrary and controlled use of sign-symbolic means, and which allow you to intelligently and purposefully form and develop in a child the ability to perform actions in the internal mental plane. Such methods of teaching various actions were developed under the guidance of P. Ya. Galperina and received the name of the systematic phased formation of mental actions. The basic laws of this method are used with great success to understand and develop knowledge in the process of teaching children various skills. The basis of the method is the organization of a consistent mental orientation. Such orientation first proceeds in an external perceptual-motor form using either real objects, the knowledge of which is acquired by students, or based on sign-symbolic means replacing them. At the same time, the central role is given to speech pronunciation, in which the sequence of perceptual-motor actions performed and the connections and relationships established on their basis are recorded in the most expanded form. When such a method of external extended orientation begins to be performed without difficulty and is sufficiently reliably fixed in speech form, it is gradually replaced by orientation in terms of representations, removing external objects and sign-symbolic supports, while maintaining external speech pronunciation.

The mental orientation organized by speech, i.e., the system of speech actions, which makes it possible to establish properties, connections, relationships, is then gradually reduced, passes under the control of speech “to oneself”, and then ceases to require reduced speech control for its implementation. A mental action is formed, which acquires an abbreviated, schematized (simultaneous) form and includes in its composition the methods and results of performing perceptual-motor and speech orientation. Automation of the performance of such a mental action leads to the formation of a mental operation, a mental skill, a mental scheme, which become methods of preliminary orientation in the performance of certain actions, as well as an intellectual means of performing various other mental actions.

Such a psychological mechanism for the formation of mental actions is called interiorization. The process of internalization can proceed both spontaneously, unorganized, and relatively purposefully regulated by the subjects of educational activity. In connection with such a general psychological regularity in the formation of mental actions, already in childhood, they usually try to teach children to use speech as a means of transforming an external form of orientation into a mental action. To do this, play and learning interactions with children include joint with adults, as well as independent stories of the child:

1) about the various actions performed following their implementation;

2) about the actions and sequences of their implementation before the implementation of such actions;

3) strive to indicate the main, essential guidelines that are important for the correct performance of certain actions (Based on the materials of S. V. Malanov).

CONCEPT

This concept is most fully reflected in the psychological theory of activity, which is associated with the names of L.S. Vygotsky, SL. Rubinstein, A.N. Leontiev, A.R. Luria, P.Ya. Galperin and presented in the book by A.N.

Leontiev "Activity. Consciousness. Personality".

Activity is considered in psychology in two functions: as a subject of research and as an explanatory principle.

Activity as a subject of research involves considering it from the point of view of the concept and structure.

Activity is the external and internal activity of a person, regulated by a conscious goal. External activity is objective, material activity, and internal activity is the activity of memory, thinking, etc.

Considering activity as a subject of research, A.N. Leontiev singled out its structure, which includes:

1. Subject content:

a) need - need, a state of tension that prompts search activity, in the process of which the object of need is (fixed);

b) motive - the stimulus of activity. With the appearance of a motive, all behavior changes dramatically, it becomes directed;

c) the goal is what the activity is aimed at. The goal is always realized by the person before the beginning of the activity itself (anticipation);

d) conditions - external (material, subject) and internal (level of development of cognitive processes), on which the result and quality of activity depend.

2. Operational part:

a) actions are relatively completed elements of activity aimed at achieving a specific, intermediate, conscious goal. The purpose of the action is usually understood. If this is not the case, then the action is called impulsive. Actions can be external (for example, motor, external speech) or internal (for example, mnemonic, mental, sensory, perceptual, etc.). External and internal actions are interconnected and can pass into each other.

The transition of an external action into an internal one is called internalization. For example, the action of addition child first pro-

It exhausts with the help of external actions, on sticks, and only then do they become internal mental actions. The transition of an internal action to an external one is called exteriorization. For example, the child's reasoning about how he performed the counting action is the translation of his internal actions (thoughts) into external ones (external speech). Control and self-assessment actions are important for achieving the result of the activity;

b) actions consist of elements that are called operations - these are ways to perform actions. The goals of the operations are not understood. Operations can also be external and internal (external - take, move, omit; internal - analysis, synthesis, comparison, generalization, abstraction, concretization).

Activity is a property of all living things. The activity of the personality is manifested in its conscious, selective actions.

Activity is a specifically human activity regulated by consciousness, generated by needs and aimed at the knowledge and transformation of the external world and the person himself.

A goal is something that realizes a human need and acts as an image of the end result.

Anticipation is the representation of the result of an action in the mind of a person before it is actually carried out.

Action is a relatively completed element of activity aimed at achieving a certain intermediate, conscious goal.

The action can be both external, performed in an expanded form with the participation of the motor apparatus and sensory organs, and internal, performed in the mind.

Impulsive actions - actions performed involuntarily and insufficiently controlled by consciousness.

Perceptual actions are the main structural units of the process of perception, including the detection of an object of perception and its correlation with memory samples.

Mnemic actions are the actions of remembering, holding and recalling any material.

Control actions - actions of comparison with the sample.

Mental actions are various human actions performed in the inner plane of consciousness. It has been experimentally established that motor, motor components are necessarily included in mental actions.

Internalization is the process of transforming external, objective actions into internal, mental ones.

Exteriorization - the transition from the internal, mental plan of action to the external, implemented in the form of techniques and actions with objects.

ACTIVITY AS AN EXPLANATORY PRINCIPLE

The category of activity as an explanatory principle is used in the study of cognitive processes, motivation, will, emotions, personality, etc. This means that the psyche can be considered as a mental activity with all its structural elements, and not just as a mental process. So, considering memory as a mental activity, we must single out: the purpose of this activity, motives, mnemonic actions, as well as actions of control and self-esteem. This allows us to consider memory from a completely different perspective, and, consequently, to single out other previously unknown aspects of it and to cognize this mental function deeper and more thoroughly. The explanatory principle underlies the principles of analysis of the psyche in psychology: 1) the principle of the unity of consciousness and activity; 2) the principle of the unity of the structure of external and internal activities; 3) the principle of internalization - externalization as a mechanism for the assimilation of socio-historical experience; 4) the principle of the dependence of mental reflection on the place of the reflected object in the structure of activity, etc.

The concept of activity extends to a wide range of problems (development, training, professional activity). However, in the scientific world, it still raises doubts as a defining principle of psychology.

Activity, on the one hand, is a condition for the development of personality and the manifestation of its qualities. On the other hand, the activity itself, in turn, depends on the level of development of the individual, acting as the subject of this activity.

PHYSIOLOGICAL BASES

The implementation of activity is carried out on the basis of psychophysiological mechanisms studied in line with the “physiology of activity” by N.A., Bernstein, the theory of “functional systems” by P.K. Anokhin and ideas about the systemic organization of higher cortical functions by A.R. Luria.

CLASSIFICATION OF SPECIES

There is a huge variety of human activities. In psychology, it is customary to distinguish the main types of activity: play, learning and work.

A game is a form of activity in conditional situations aimed at recreating and assimilating social experience, fixed in socially fixed ways of carrying out objective actions, in subjects of science and culture.

Game (children's) - a type of activity that consists in the reproduction by children of the actions of adults and the relationship between them, aimed at understanding the surrounding reality. I. serves as one of the most important means of physical, mental and moral education.

A business game is a special kind of game used in vocational training. The essence of a business game is to recreate, with the help of simulation and game models, the subject, social and psychological content of the joint, professional work of a specialist, a holistic context of his professional activity is set.

Teaching is the process of acquiring and consolidating knowledge and methods of activity by an individual. Teaching is a necessary component of any activity and is a process of changing its subject.

Labor is a purposeful human activity aimed at changing and transforming reality to meet their needs, creating material and spiritual values.

According to another classification, they distinguish: individual, group activities and socio-historical practice.

Individual activity is the activity of an individual.

Group activity - joint activity of a group of people

Leading activity - a type of activity in which qualitative changes in the personality are formed in a given period, for example, a game during preschool childhood.

PROPERTIES AND REGULARITIES

The main characteristics of activity are objectivity and subjectivity. Objectivity means that the objects of the external world do not directly affect the subject, but only being transformed in the process of activity, due to which

a greater adequacy of their reflection in consciousness is achieved. Objectivity is characteristic exclusively of human activity. The subjectivity of activity is expressed: in the conditionality of the mental image by past experience, needs, attitudes, emotions, goals and motives that determine the direction and selectivity of activity, as well as in the personal sense attached to various events, actions and deeds.

Human activity is social, transformative in nature and is not limited to the simple satisfaction of needs, but is largely determined by the goals and requirements of society.

DEVELOPMENT IN ONTOGENESIS

It has been established in psychology (P.Ya. Galperin and others) that, in its origin, internal activity (mental, psychic) is derived from external (objective) activity. Initially, the child performs objective actions, and only then, as experience accumulates, does he acquire the ability to perform the same actions in his mind (interiorizes). However, then the actions in the mind undergo the reverse transformation (exteriorization) themselves. The process of forming a mental action takes place in several stages: 1) the stage of external, objective action, 2) external speech, 3) internal speech and 4) mental action.

VIOLATIONS

Violations of activity are associated with violations of its structural components (goal setting, motivation, conditions, unformed skills and abilities, etc.).

Violation of the target structure of activity can manifest itself in a mismatch between real and ideal goals or in their convergence.

Movement disorders can be the result of brain injuries.

DEVELOPMENT OF ACTIVITIES

Mastering the activity involves:

1) mastery of goal setting, which includes motivation;

2) mastery of actions specific to a particular activity. The formation of actions and operations occurs in two ways: with the help of imitation and by automating actions.

yours. Automation can be performed at different levels - at the level of skill, skill and habit. Skills, abilities and habits are formed in repeated exercises.

Depending on the nature of the activity in which the skills are used, they distinguish: household, industrial, sports, gaming, educational, labor, etc. According to the form of mental reflection, they distinguish: sensory, perceptual, mnemonic, mental, and other skills.

The process of forming skills in different people can take place with a "positive" or "negative" acceleration. If the formation of a skill goes slowly at first, and then quickly, the skill is formed with a "positive" acceleration. If it is formed at first quickly, and then slows down, then they say that the skill is formed with a “negative” acceleration.

In the process of skill formation, old and new skills can interact. If the skills are similar, the old can help shape the new (transfer phenomenon). So, the skill of playing the piano helps to develop the skill of typing on a typewriter. If the skills are different, then the old skill interferes with the formation of a new one (the phenomenon of interference). Transferring the electric switch in the apartment to another wall makes it difficult to find it for some time. The indicators of skill development are the elements of the skill structure:

1) change in performance techniques (several actions are combined into one, the time for performing an action decreases, unnecessary movements disappear);

2) changing the method of control (visual is replaced by tactile, for example, when typing blindly);

3) changing the methods of central regulation (attention is shifted to the goal).

If a skill becomes a need, then it is called a habit.

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