"French borrowings in the Russian language." Borrowed words in Russian from English, French or German: examples, meaning

Kuzik Anna

The material for the study was French words that were included in the Russian language, identified through the analysis of works of literature of the 19th century, as well as data from dictionaries of the modern French language.

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Scientific Society of Students "POISK"

Municipal educational institution "Alekseevskaya Secondary School"

Completed by: 10th grade student

Kuzik Anna

Head: teacher

French language

Kutsobina Galina Ivanovna

2009

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………….3

Chapter I. History of the French language using the example of Russian-French relations. …………………………………………………………………………………. 4

Chapter II. Formation of Russian vocabulary. ……………………………………...6

Chapter III. French loanwords in the vocabulary of the Russian language. …………………………………………………………………………………… 9

Chapter IV. French language in the works of A. S. Pushkin. …………… 13

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………18

Literature…………………………………………………………………………………20

There is no need to disown foreign words, and there is no need to abuse them.

L. N. Tolstoy

Introduction

No culture, no language develops in isolation, and any national culture and language is the fruit of both internal development and complex interaction with the cultures of other peoples, and interaction between cultures, economic, political and everyday contacts are the common basis for all borrowing processes .

The object of our research is ways of reflecting French realities in the Russian language.

Realities are words and phrases that name objects characteristic of life (everyday life, culture, social and historical development) of one people and alien to another, which are carriers of national and historical flavor, and, as a rule, do not have exact correspondences (equivalents) in other languages.

The relevance of the chosen topic is determined by the fact that the study of word-realities is one of the problems of modern linguistic science. The term “reality” appeared in linguistics only in the late 50s, and until now researchers have not come to a consensus about which words refer to realia.

In the course of the study, the purpose of which is to collect and analyze French words in works of fiction, the following tasks are solved:

1.Trace the history of the appearance of words denoting French realities in the Russian language.

2.Identify ways of borrowing French words.

To solve the assigned problems, the following methods are used in the work:

Observation method, i.e. highlighting certain facts of interest from the text and including them in the desired category.

Encyclopedic method, i.e. studying the meaning of a word in close connection with the objects and phenomena that they mean.

Comparative typological method, i.e. studying the similarities and differences of languages, the vocabulary of these languages.

The material for the study was French words that were included in the Russian language, identified through the analysis of works of literature of the 19th century, as well as data from dictionaries of the modern French language.

Chapter I. History of the French language using the example of Russian-French relations.

The French language is a beautiful melody played with words. Previously, France was called the “capital of the world,” and the French language was respected and treated with special reverence throughout the entire planet, and in the 18th century it was considered almost international. Today, France does not occupy such a strong position, but it still remains a place where foreigners dream of relaxing, working and studying. The French language, as a classic, is always relevant and will be fashionable beyond time.

According to community center"VKS-Globus" today 36% of Russian citizens study French for communication and travel. Work is the main incentive for mastering French for 24%, study for 23% of students. International certificate and self-education received 7 and 6%, respectively. The share of students planning to move to a French-speaking country accounts for 4%.

The largest percentage of those mastering the French language are students - 27%, followed by schoolchildren - 13%. To advance in their careers, knowledge of French is most often required by middle managers (6%) and senior managers (4%). Lawyers, bankers, journalists, accountants, teachers, and scientists make up half of all professions that require knowledge of the French language.

Russia and France have been linked by close, mutually beneficial ties of cooperation for more than a century. The beginning of Russian-French relations was laid by the daughter of Yaroslav the Wise, Anna, who, at an advanced age by those standards (25 years old), married King Henry I of France in 1051. She became the first and only Russian woman to become a French queen.

The first correspondence between the French and Russian thrones dates back to 1518, when the confrontation with Poland forced Vasily Ioannovich to turn to the French monarch Francis I for help. However, at that time, the linguistic medium of correspondence was not French, but Russian and German.

The reign of Boris Godunov opened up the countries of Europe for Russian students, among which was France (where they received their education), and for the French - the opportunities of the Russian State. Jacques Margeret was one of the first French subjects who managed to get a job in Russia. His stay in the country was reflected in the book “The State of the Russian Empire and the Grand Duchy of Moscow.”

French fashion trends took the wardrobes of fashionistas of the day by storm in 1605. Just look at Maria Mniszech’s French dress with a belt, with which she shocked not a single Muscovite!

The first exchange of embassies between the Russian Empire and France took place in 1615.

The reign of Alexei Mikhailovich is a new milestone in the history of Russian-French relations. In 1668, the first visit of the Russian embassy took place, headed by Prince P.I. Potemkin. The Russian ambassadors were impressed by the local tapestry factories, galleries and parks, and especially the theaters. Already in 1672, the first court theater appeared in Russia, which began its activity with the plays of Moliere.

A new round of fascination with France and its culture occurs under Peter I. An observer from Russia appears in the capital of France, who helped Russians find employment or study in France.

During this period, France became the standard of education, culture, and morals. The Russian nobility admires the ability of the French to hold masquerades, balls, and receptions.

During the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna, outstanding artists, architects, and sculptors began to be invited from France. It was believed that among foreigners in Russia, the French made up the overwhelming majority. The time of cult of everything that could be connected with France begins. Russians, young and old, were fluent in French, dressed in French clothes, lived surrounded by French interiors, read books in French, and used the services of tutors from France. There were often cases when they spoke French better than their native Russian.

Catherine II, who replaced Elizabeth Petrovna, tried unsuccessfully to fight the dominance of fashion for French words, for which she even introduced a system of fines. However, by 19th century French became almost a native language for the majority of nobles who spoke, wrote and even thought in it. This is confirmed by the imperishable works of Russian classics, in which one can often find paragraphs in French. High Russian society greedily absorbed everything new that appeared in France. Ballet, fashion, cooking, art, theater - in each of these areas the French style dominated, which immediately began to be considered uniquely Russian.

Nowadays, it is difficult to imagine Russia of that era without touching flies, powdered hairpieces and wigs, umbrellas and fans, as well as business cards, without which not a single business or even romantic date could be completed. And each of these features was introduced by French culture. At the same time, France is becoming a European trendsetter in the production of cosmetics and perfumes. The recipe for French perfume was kept in the strictest confidence, which contributed to the cultivation of fashion preferences among Europeans. France also received the palm of leadership thanks to the production of cosmetics, including decorative ones - powder, blush, etc. And the famous Madame Pompadour, who introduced the fashion for so-called “talking bouquets,” conquered the whole of Europe with a new trend. These were golden times for France.

Chapter II. Formation of Russian vocabulary.

The lexical composition of the Russian language has been influenced by borrowed words from other languages.

BORROWING is a process as a result of which a certain foreign language element (primarily a word or a full-valued morpheme) appears and becomes fixed in a language; also such a foreign language element itself. Borrowing is an integral component of the process of functioning and historical change of a language, one of the main sources of vocabulary replenishment. Borrowings can be direct or indirect.

When borrowing, the meaning of a word often shifts. Thus, the French word chance means “luck” (Tu a de la chance! – “You’re lucky!”), while the Russian word “chance” means only “the possibility of luck.” The Russian word “excitement” comes from the French hazard “case”; the semantic transition occurred due to the phrase jeu d'hazard - “game of chance”, literally - “game of chance”. It also happens that a borrowed word returns in its new meaning back to the language from which it came. This, apparently , the history of the word “bistro”, which came into the Russian language from French, where it arose after the War of 1812, when parts of Russian troops found themselves on French territory - probably as a transmission of the replica “Quickly!”

Generally speaking, a language that finds itself faced with a foreign word denoting some necessary concept that is missing from it (this can be either a new “object” or a new “idea”) has three possibilities: 1) borrow this word itself: thus Borrowings appear in the language in a narrow sense, for example, the Russian “fair” is a borrowing from German. Jahrmarkt, “choir” – ancient Greek. , "quorum" from Lat. quorum, “idyll” from it. Idylle, "poetry" from French. poésie, “high” from Arabic. kejf, "design" from English. design, etc.; 2) create a new word from its morphemes according to the model of a foreign one: thus, word-formation tracings appear in the language: for example, the Russian word “linguistics” is created according to the model of the German Sprachwissenschaft, “oxygen” - according to the Latin oxygenium, “subject” - according to the model objectum, etc.; 3) use to express desired value an existing word, giving it a new meaning based on the model of a foreign word that has the same polysemy or the same internal form (this is called semantic calque); for example, the Russian verb “touch” acquired a figurative meaning “to excite the feelings” under the influence of the French “toucher”, which has both meanings (literal and figurative); The Russian words influence and inspiration acquired a modern “abstract” meaning under the influence of the French language “influence” and “inspiration”. Words and meanings created according to the second and third models are called borrowings in the broad sense.

In scientific terminology striving for unambiguity, the first and second mechanisms are more often used. The second and third mechanisms constitute the most important sources of enrichment of the literary language. Thus, vocabulary of a generally valid nature includes borrowings of all three types. The main flow of borrowings in the narrow sense (i.e., foreign words) comes through the colloquial speech of professional spheres and the jargon of various social groups.

Often words coexist in a language that are identical in their internal form, but one of them is a direct borrowing, and the other is a tracing paper; however, they usually do not completely coincide, and sometimes diverge quite significantly in meaning, for example: subject and subject, opposition and opposition, composition and addition, position and position, positive and positive, president and chairman, biography and biography, etc. This kind of doublet is very typical for Russian, and to a lesser extent for German language and is not typical for French and English.

In order to become a borrowing, a word that came from a foreign language must take root in a new language, firmly enter its vocabulary - just as many foreign words entered the Russian language, such as bread, mug, umbrella, shop, cat, horse, dog, monkey, tie, compote, tractor, tank, harbor, sail, icon, church, choir, sports, market, bazaar, music, station, machine, goal, hut, glass, herring, soup, cucumber, tomato, cutlet, potatoes, pan, plate, tea, sugar, etc., many of which turned out to be so mastered by the Russian language that only linguists know about their foreign origin.

When borrowing, the word is adapted to the phonological system of the borrowing language, i.e. sounds missing from it are replaced with the closest ones. This adaptation can occur gradually: sometimes foreign words for some time retain in their pronunciation sounds that are absent in a given language - as, for example, in the German words “chance”, “restorant” borrowed from the “prestigious” French language (both words are pronounced “in the French manner” with a nasal vowel). In the Russian word “jury”, borrowed from the same French, a sound that is absent in the Russian language is also pronounced - soft zh. In the word “resume”, before the final orthographic “e”, a consonant sound is pronounced, intermediate between hard and soft. Until recently, a similar sound was pronounced, for example, in the word “cafe”; Now in this word, like in many others that came from French earlier (pince-nez, muffler, etc.), a hard consonant is pronounced. Thus, adaptation to the phonological system of the borrowing language occurs. The next stage of this process of mastering a foreign word is to replace the hard consonants before the spelling “e” with soft ones. For example, the words decollete, phoneme, timbre, tempo, etc. are pronounced with a solid consonant; with soft - the words topic, maternity leave, flight, theater, telephone, safe, etc., which are more “mastered” in Russian. Many words allow fluctuations in pronunciation (that is, they are “halfway”): computer, dean, mayonnaise, tent, etc.

In addition to phonetic, the borrowed word also undergoes grammatical (morphological) adaptation. The nature of this adaptation depends on how well the external appearance of the borrowed word corresponds to the morphological models of the borrowing language. Words such as sport or station easily entered the Russian language, immediately falling into the morphological class of words male 2nd declension (which includes the words table, house, etc.). But, for example, the word “shampoo”, having entered the Russian language, did not immediately acquire a stable category of gender, having as a model both masculine words like horse or fire, and feminine words like “rubbish” or “wormwood”; accordingly, the instrumental form was both “shampoo” and “shampoo” (later the masculine gender was assigned to this word). It is precisely because of the existence of a powerful mechanism of assimilation to existing models that such resistance from the Russian language is met by the notorious masculine gender of the word coffee, prescribed by the norm, which is automatically likened to words of the neuter gender - such as “field” or “mountain”.

Of the stream of foreign words that floods the language in eras of social upheaval and scientific and technological revolutions, only a certain part is retained. The process of adaptation of foreign words, controlled, like all linguistic processes, primarily by intralinguistic factors, can to some extent be regulated by extralinguistic forces - at least, the possibility of human and social intervention in this process is greater than in the case when speech is about phonetic and especially grammatical changes. In the linguistic community there are always conservative forces that prevent the penetration of foreign words that “clog” it into the language - as well as all innovations in general (changes in pronunciation, including stress, shifts in meaning, the penetration of jargon, professionalisms, etc. into the literary language. ). Protecting the language from foreign words usually also has a pronounced ideological connotation. However, regardless of the ideological aspirations that brought them to life, such conservative forces objectively perform a very important social function of maintaining the natural balance between old and new, necessary for the normal functioning of the language. For example, the authority of A.I. Solzhenitsyn, who is an opponent of the use of foreign words and proposes replacing them with words of Russian origin, may be great enough to have some influence on the fate of certain foreign words. Sometimes the language community even takes administrative measures. Thus, in France, in order to combat, first of all, anglicisms, a list of approximately 3,000 words was recently introduced, limiting the possibility of using foreign words in texts created in French intended for media mass media(television, advertising, etc.).

Chapter III. Frenchborrowed words in the vocabulary of the Russian language.

There is not a single language on our planet that does not have borrowings. The share of borrowed vocabulary can range from 10% to 80-90%.

In different historical periods (Common Slavic, East Slavic, Russian proper), words from other languages ​​penetrated into the original Russian language. The main reason was that the Russian people constantly entered into cultural, economic, and political ties with other peoples.

A significant part of borrowings in the Russian language are Gallicisms.

Gallicisms (from the Latin gallicus - Gaulish) are words and expressions borrowed from the French language or formed according to the model of French words and expressions.

In the 18th century, borrowings from the French language began to become firmly established in Russian speech. In order to promote the development of literature and the literary language, as well as to direct development in the direction desired by the government, a special higher scientific institution is being created - the Russian Academy (in imitation of the French Academy in Paris). The French language - the language of the great enlighteners: Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau - at that time was the most lexically rich and stylistically developed language in Europe.

Gallicisms reflect the characteristic features of the French language: prononcer, grasseyer.

An interesting feature is the following assimilation of Gallicisms:

He was not comme il faut (sotte il faut).

Let me engage you to dance.

Courtois behavior must not be violated.

In the 18th - early 19th centuries, words truly imbued with the French spirit entered the Russian vocabulary: charm (charme), adultery (aduletère), visitor (visiteur), tutor (gouverneur), cavalier (cavalier), cocotte (cocotte), compliment (compliment) ), curtsy (révérence), favorite (favorite).

Gallicisms penetrate into all spheres of people's lives and activities. Especially French borrowings have been added to the vocabulary associated with clothing: accessoire, bijouterie, voile, jabot, manteau, peignoir and food: meringue, baiser, puree ), mayonnaise. A curious detail - exactly French origin have words such as gourmand and delicacy. For example, this could be a gourmet menu:

Asparagus (asperge)

Lobster with garnish (homard), (garnir)

Grilled meat with béchamel (griller), (bèchamel)

And for dessert - biscuit and jelly (gelèe), meringue (meringue) and soufflé (soufflè), as well as liqueur (liqueur) and cruchon.

I would like to pay special attention to Gallicisms that are associated with art - theater, music, painting. For example, the following words are associated with music: accordéon, ensemble, vocal, clarinet, nocturne, overture. There are a lot of Gallicisms associated with the theater: actor (acteur), intermission (entracte), applause (applaudissments), poster (affiche), vaudeville (vaudeville), makeup (grimer), debut (dèbut), pirouette (pirouette); as well as with painting: gallery (galerie), vernissage (vernissage), gouache (gouache), palette (palette), impressionism (impressionnisme).

In the 19th - early 20th centuries, more and more Gallicisms appeared in the Russian language. Many of them were related to public life, economics, and politics. Examples of such words: capitalism (capitalisme), bourgeoisie (bourgeoisie), budget (budget), press (presse), diplomat (diplomate), attaché (attachè), democrat (dèmocrate), shareholder (actionnaire), bureaucracy (bureaucratisme). These words are known to everyone and are often used in everyday life. Gallicisms include words such as indexation, alliance, holdings, avoir, and cligue. Quite often the following borrowings from the French language are found in speech: authoritarian (autorgtaire), shareholder (actionnaire), run for election (balloter), debate (dèbattre), importer (importeur), exaggerate (mousser).

There are times in the history of society when some foreign culture is chosen as a role model. Its language becomes prestigious, and words from it are borrowed especially actively. The influence of the French language on Russian vocabulary was observed in both the 18th and 19th centuries. The attitude towards borrowed words as more “beautiful” and prestigious is characteristic of the late 20th and early 21st centuries. For example, the word boutique. In French, boutique simply means “small store,” and in Russian the word boutique has come to mean “expensive fashion store.” It is interesting that in the French language itself it was replaced by the noun magasin (shop) from Arabic, which became especially widespread in the first half of the 19th century, when the restructuring of French trade took place on new industrial grounds and the old shops (boutiques) were no longer suitable for sellers who More spacious and capacious stores were needed. In Russian, this word “raised in rank” began to mean a fashion store, that is, a word that in the source language named an ordinary, ordinary object, in the borrowing language is applied to a more significant and prestigious object.

There are quite a lot of similar borrowings in modern Russian. Here are some of them: perfume (parfum), nouveau riche (nouveau riche), purse (porte-monnaie), trunk (coffre), travel bag (nécessaire), voyage (voyage), concièrge (concièrge), volunteer (volontaire), camouflage ( camouflage), Grand Irie (Grand Prix), carte blanche.

It is interesting that it is from the French language that the words characterizing elite: elite (élite), bohemia (bohème), beau monde (beaumonde).

As in XVIII-XIX centuries, nowadays there is an interesting assimilation of Gallicisms in Russian speech:

Relax in the plein air

In the evening they made a promenade

Have you decided to go to a rendezvous? (rendez-vous)

At the resort we chewed (jouir)

Speaking about borrowings from the French language, one cannot fail to mention “catchwords” and phraseological units. They can be divided into three groups: historical, literary and secular. The historical group includes “winged” words once spoken by a famous political or historical figure: king, commander, politician and others. Historical and political events left their mark on the French vocabulary. Some of them passed into Russian:

Accuracy (precision) is the politeness of kings. (L "exactitude est la politesse des rois) This expression is attributed to the French king Louis XVIII.

Everything is lost except honor. The expression belongs to the French king Francis I. Defeated by the troops of Charles V and taken prisoner at Pavia, he

sent his mother a letter containing only this one phrase.

The expression “State within a State” arose in the era religious wars in France.

"Golden youth". This is the name given to the rich bourgeois-noble youth who waste money and waste their lives. Initially, this was the nickname of the Parisian counter-revolutionary youth who grouped after IX Thermidor.

"Art for art's sake." A slogan proclaimed in France by supporters of the so-called “pure”, “free” art. The idea of ​​this direction was first expressed by the French idealist philosopher Victor Cousin.

"The Old Guard" This expression goes back to the name of the selected units of Napoleon's troops. The French Guard was divided into “old” and “young” in 1807; The “old guard,” which included the best battle-hardened soldiers and officers who played a major role in the Napoleonic wars, was surrounded by an aura of “invincibility.”

The literary group includes phraseological units that were once mentioned in one or another work of art:

"Balzac's age." The expression arose after the publication of Honoré Balzac's novel A Woman of Thirty.

"Pulling chestnuts out of the fire." This expression came into Russian speech from the fable of the French poet and fabulist Jean La Fontaine “The Monkey and the Cat.”

The last group - secular, includes expressions that were used among the people or were said by a person who was close to ordinary people:

Not at ease (N"est pas dans son assiette). If we translate this phraseological unit literally, it should sound something like this: “to be in an unenviable position.” What does the plate have to do with it? The French word assiette is translated as “position” and how "plate".

I would like to note one interesting detail - the similarities and differences between the idioms of the Russian and French languages. These idioms have the same meaning, for example:

Ram on five legs. Un mouton a cinq pattes.

White crow. Corneille blanche.

To be made of gold. Etre cousu d"or.

Get out of bed on the wrong side. Se lever du pied gauche.

Chickens don't eat money. Les poules ne picorent pas l "argent.

Chapter IV. French language in the works of A. S. Pushkin.

While studying the novel by A.S. in the ninth grade. Pushkin's "Eugene Onegin", we noticed that the poet uses many words and expressions from the French language. This interested me and aroused a desire to study the reasons and motives for the author’s use of foreign words in his work. We started with the history of that time and the influence of Europe on Russia.

The influence of the French language on Pushkin’s language is considered primarily as the influence of French vocabulary and phraseology. Several chapters of V.V. Vinogradov’s book “The Language of Pushkin” are devoted to this, where the poet’s attitude to Europeanism, the role of French in the formation of his language is clarified, in connection with which the researcher characterizes Pushkin’s position in relation to the Karamzin reform and such a phenomenon as “secular language” ladies."

When studying the evolution of Pushkin’s views on phraseological means of poetic language in the 17th and early 19th centuries. Much attention is paid to the influence of traditional French poetic phraseology on the language of Pushkin's poetry. Thus, the problems put forward by Academician Vinogradov are still relevant today.

At the beginning of the 19th century. the question of borrowing - not borrowing foreign language elements, using - not using them was a topical, topical issue that had to be resolved daily - in private and official correspondence, oral communication, in all areas of verbal creativity. Therefore, the study of foreign language inclusions in its various aspects is connected with the study of both the language and style of Pushkin.

Pushkin's poetic gift was determined very early.

From memoirs about Pushkin’s poetic exercises before his lyceum years, we learn that Alexander Sergeevich was brought up in a literary environment. The poet’s sister, Olga Sergeevna, says: “In such a circle, Alexander Sergeevich’s childhood impressions developed, and it is no wonder that a 9-year-old boy wanted to try himself in the art of imitation and become an author. His first attempts were, of course, in French, although he was also taught Russian literacy "

Confirmation is also found in the memoirs of the brother of the poet Lev Sergeevich Pushkin, written around the same time: “In general, his upbringing contained little Russian: he only heard the French language; his tutor was a Frenchman, however, not a stupid and educated man; his father’s library consisted "from only French works. The child spent sleepless nights and secretly devoured books one after another in his father's study. Pushkin was gifted with an extraordinary memory and by the age of eleven he already knew all French literature by heart."

The first teacher of Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin was the French emigrant Count Montfort, an educated man, musician and painter; then Ruslot, who wrote good French poetry, then Schendel and others: as was customary then, they were given complete freedom over the children. Of course, the children spoke and studied only in French.

Being raised by French tutors, constantly mostly in French, as well as reading Western literature played a role in the fact that Pushkin is perhaps the only case in the history of literature when the greatest poet of his country,

French literature was only a part of European literature and could not replace the whole, and he strove for this whole, only it could satisfy him.

The question naturally arises as to how French upbringing affected the poetic work of young Pushkin, especially since the cultural hegemony of France throughout Europe, established in the 18th century, was still strong in the years of Pushkin’s youth. The dominance of classicism coincided with the special authority of French literature of two centuries, since it was in the works of French writers that the highest examples of classical literature were seen.

Upon entering the Lyceum, Pushkin amazed even his comrades, who, like him, grew up in a Frenchized secular environment, with his wide knowledge of French literature and perfect knowledge of the French language. It is not for nothing that Pushkin appears in “national songs” under the name “Frenchman”.

During the period of his apprenticeship, French literature could not help but affect Pushkin’s early work.

It is well known that Pushkin considered it natural and logical to use foreign words if these words denoted objects or abstract concepts for which there were no equivalents in the Russian language. His position is expressed in a humorous form on the pages of Eugene Onegin:

But trousers, a tailcoat, a vest,

All these words are not in Russian,

And I see, I apologize to you,

Well, my poor syllable is already

Could have been much less colorful

Foreign words

Even though I looked in the old days

In Academic Dictionary.

It is natural that in Pushkin’s language there are no bookish or poetic French phraseological units. Book phraseological units are expressions characteristic of literary writing. Meanwhile, in his works, prosaic fiction, journalistic and epistolary, Pushkin, in his own words, develops designations “for the most ordinary concepts.” Poetic French phraseology also could not find its place in Pushkin’s work on prosaic literary language, from which he demanded laconicism, simplicity and clarity.

The nominative functions of a foreign word are diverse. Pushkin introduces French words into the Russian context for different purposes. Let us dwell in more detail on specific cases of the use of French inclusions.

1. Pushkin introduces a French word or expression that has no equivalent in Russian to denote a phenomenon or object.

Affectation "No one cried, there would be tears - une Affectation.

Pushkin uses the French word in its second meaning, recorded in the dictionary: “Imitation? faux-semblant. Affectation de douleur? affectation de vertu.”

Fake, trick, cunning. Image of grief, virtue

Such a laconic designation of pretense, cunning in behavior and manifestation of feelings was absent in the Russian language. Pushkin uses a widely used word to clarify his thoughts.

Gracieuse "Ah! if only I could lure you into Mikhailovskoe!... You will see that if we compare Onegin with Don Juan, then only in one respect: who is sweeter and more charming /Gracieuse/, Tatiana or Yulia?" .

2. Introduction of a new meaning that is absent from the Russian word: mystère - the first meaning coincides with the Russian word “sacrament”, but in the context it denotes the phenomenon of European history - medieval religious play. The Russian word “sacrament” does not have such a meaning.

3. Rethinking the Russian word, using it in a new meaning, close to the French synonym; With the help of the word individualité, a new concept for the Russian language is introduced. The Russian equivalent is created by rethinking the word "originality".

Reflecting on the fate of the word “coquette,” long ago adopted by the Russian language, comparing it with the French word prude, Pushkin writes the word “coquette” in French: “Coquette, prude. The word coquette has become Russified, but prude has not been translated and has not yet come into use.” .

It is interesting that, despite stating the fact that the word prude does not enter the Russian language, Pushkin himself forms from this adjective the verb “pridnichat” and the noun “prudence”, the meaning of which is defined as

To be too strict in matters of decency and decency. “The government is not a lady, not a Princesse Moustache: it is not proper for him to play tricks.”

The attitude towards French culture and language reveals a lot in the appearance of one of the central heroines of Pushkin’s work, Tatyana Larina. Let us consider in more detail the role of the French language and, more specifically, the role of French elements in creating the psychological and speech characteristics of the heroine of Pushkin’s programmatic work.

Tatyana Larina does not utter a single French phrase in the text of the novel. But the element of the French language permeates her life. Moreover, she exists for Tatyana in a dual guise. On the one hand, this is best samples European literature, serving as a textbook for life:

She liked novels early on,

They replaced everything for her;

She fell in love with deceptions

Both Richardson and Russo.

(VI,44) .

Then Onegin’s library will join here, complicating her worldview, expanding its boundaries, and - in a certain sense - completing her education. On the other hand, is this everyday colloquial speech, examples of which we find on the pages of the album of a provincial young lady?

On the first page you see:

Qu"ecrivez - vous sur ces tablettes?

and signature: t.a.v. Annette.

This inclusion does not have a specific author. It is given as a common cliche, as a socio-historical characteristic of the environment in which the heroine grew up. Triquet's couplet is also adjacent to a similar example of county creativity. Its text is not given, but is correlated with the melody and words of the children's song:

Trike brought a verse to Tatyana

Reveillez - vous, belle endormie.

(VI, 109)

This quote has been familiar to Pushkin readers since childhood. The characteristics of Triquet’s work, which “boldly” substituted the simple-minded belle Tatiana for the conventionally literary belle Nina, demonstrates the widespread and vulgarization of conventional poetic French phraseology.

The description of the turning points in Tatiana's life - the duel and death of Lensky, Evgeniy's departure, acquaintance with Onegin's library and the Larins' departure to Moscow - is devoid of foreign language elements.

Russian educated society of the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. was bilingual. The development of interlingual connections in that era followed different paths. In extralinguistic terms, it manifested itself in the intensification of teaching foreign languages, ancient and living, to noble youth, the development of translated literature, the dissemination printed products in many foreign languages. One of the internal linguistic results of these contacts was an increase in borrowings from different languages.2

French language with early XVIII V. belonged to the most commonly used, and by the end of the century, successfully competed with German, it came out on top in terms of prevalence in Russian society and influence on the formation of the Russian literary language. Considering the consequences of the Europeanization of Russian life in the 18th century.

V.V. Vinogradov distinguishes two phenomena: 1. the widespread use of the French language in society; 2. the formation of colloquial, everyday and literary styles of the Russian language with a vivid imprint of French linguistic culture. The objective reason for this linguistic situation according to Vinogradov is the need to adapt Russian literary speech to the expression of Western European concepts.

Russia was entering the European political arena. This entailed the rapid development of science and culture. “It’s not so much about the private borrowing of words and concepts,” wrote V.V. Vinogradov, assessing the state of the Russian literary language in the second half of the 17th century, “but about the general convergence of the semantic system of the Russian literary language with the semantic structure of Western European languages”4.

In the mixing of the Russian language with French, the researcher distinguishes the following phenomena:

1. When mastering Western European concepts, when translating them into Russian, a semantic adaptation of Russian words to the corresponding French occurred. This led to the merging of the meanings of the Russian word with the sphere of meanings of the French one.

2. Correspondences and similarities to foreign words were compiled through tracing “Europeanism”. Russian morphemes were a literal translation of the morphological elements of a foreign word. It was as if there was an exact recording of morpheme by morpheme.

3. Together with lexical tracings, phraseological tracings arose.

The processes that took place in the 17th century reached their completion in the first quarter of the XIX century: “The French language becomes the official language of courtly aristocratic circles, the language of secular noble salons. The struggle for the national foundations of the Russian literary language inevitably put forward the task of creating “secular” styles of the Russian literary language.”

Conclusion

Analyzing the state of the Russian literary language in the Pushkin era, most researchers inevitably touch upon the question of the situation in the literary language of the first half of the 19th century. foreign elements and attitude towards them. And here French elements come first in terms of frequency of use.

So, L.A. Bulakhovsky, in a fundamental work devoted to the literary language of this period, notes the important role of the French language in educated Russian society: the opportunity to get acquainted with foreign literature, etiquette communication in secular society, etc.

L.A. Bulakhovsky emphasizes the use of such “ready-made material” as easy-to-communicate formulas and phrases, which the French language is rich in, especially in the epistolary genre: “Many writers of the early 19th century had a good knowledge of the French language, the habit of switching in conversations with people of their class with native language into French, the use of some concepts only in its shell is reflected especially in the epistolary and memoir style of this time, in the constant inclusion of individual French words and expressions in the Russian text."7 The researcher draws a clear boundary between such “inclusions,” on the one hand, and dictionary borrowings from the French language, tracings, on the other. The habit of using individual words and expressions in French is noted by V.V. Vinogradov.8

Of course, it is impossible to cover the entire wealth of borrowings from French in Russian vocabulary in such a small work. I would like to emphasize that borrowings enrich the Russian language, but we must strive to use them wisely.

No culture, no language develops in isolation, and any national culture and language is the fruit of both internal development and complex interaction with the cultures of other peoples, and interaction between cultures, economic, political and everyday contacts are the common basis for all borrowing processes . Until recently, the Russian language played the role of an intermediary and disseminator of Sovietisms and international words and contributed to the enrichment of the vocabulary of the language of the peoples of many countries of the world. But at the same time, in many languages ​​of the world (and, in particular, in French), many words appeared that denote the features of Russian culture, life, and history.

In different periods of development of the Russian literary language, assessment

the penetration of foreign language elements into it was ambiguous. In addition, with

activation of the process of lexical borrowing usually intensifies and

opposition to him. So Peter I demanded from his contemporaries to write

“as intelligibly as possible,” without overusing non-Russian words.

M.V. Lomonosov in his “theory of three calms”, highlighting the words in the Russian vocabulary various groups, did not leave room for borrowings from non-Slavic languages.

To what extent will this change the appearance of the Russian language, enrich it or

“It will ruin”, time will tell. It will determine the fate of one or another

borrowings that will eventually be approved or rejected

linguistic taste of the era. This is not the first time that the Russian language has encountered

the need to perceive useful information in the form of foreign words from international experience.

List of used literature

1. Vinogradov V.V. “The Language of Pushkin” M. 1979
2. Gak K.A. Ganshina K.A. New French-Russian dictionary. M. “Russian language” 1997
3. Ilyina O.V. “Semantic development of foreign language lexical innovations by the Russian language.” Novosibirsk, 1998
4. Linnik T.G. "Problems of language borrowing." Kyiv, 1989
5. Lotman Yu.M. “The novel by A.S. Pushkin “Eugene Onegin” M. 1983.
6. Pushkin A.S. Essay in three volumes. Volume II “Eugene Onegin” M. Fiction, 1986
7. Pushkin A.S. Essay in three volumes. Volume I. M. Fiction, 1985.
8. Raevskaya O.V. New French-Russian and Russian-French dictionary. M. “Russian language” 1997

Have you just started learning French? I assure you that you know many more words than you have already learned in a couple of lessons from the textbook. How so? Why?

Because in the Russian language there are often French words.

When I collected this list, I was not interested in words naming French realities, such as “baguette”, “champagne”, “petanque”, “pastis” and so on. I was interested in those words that have become so firmly established in our language that they no longer even seem like borrowings. For example, makeup, cream, mode. But there are other words in this list that clearly look foreign. At some point, I suddenly clearly saw French roots in them, and this surprised me so much that I thought maybe others would be interested too. This is, for example, entrecote, couturier, vernissage.

Where the meaning of a French word coincides with Russian, I will not write a translation. Otherwise, I will indicate in parentheses what the word means in French.

Et voilà, 100 French words in Russian in the order in which they came to my mind:

1. Crew– fr. équipage – ship's crew. There is also a verb équiper - to provide what is necessary. Hence - equip, equipment.
2. Shocking– in French there is no word épatage, but there is a verb épater - to surprise, amaze.
3. Makeup– comes from the verb maquiller – to apply makeup; change someone's appearance; also fake numbers
4. Cream– une crème (first meaning – “cream”)
5. Pomade– une pommade (Interestingly, “lipstick” in French is called le rouge à levres (literally red for the lips), and une pommade is an ointment.
6. Papillot– une papillote
7. Kare– le carré (from the adjective carré – square)
8. Shower– une douche
9. Dressing table– le trumeau – wall
10. Sideboard– une servante – servant
11. Flowerpots– le cache-pot – lit. hide-pot
12. Shade– un abat-jour – lit. dims the light
13. Chaise lounge– une chaise longue – long chair
14. Stool– un tabouret
15. Chaise- une causette - chatter
16. Pince-nez– le pince-nez, from pincer – to pinch and le nez – nose
17. Floor– un etage
18. Mezzanine– un entresol – an apartment between the rez-de-chaussée (the first floor on which no one lives in France) and le premier étage itself.
19. Whatnot– une etagere
20. Voyage– un voyage (travel), voyager – to travel
21. Baggage– les bagages (usually plural)
22. Travel bag– from sas de voyage (lit. travel bag)
23. Travel bag– le nécessaire (lit. needed)
24. Mode– le regime
25. Duel– le duel
26. Fiction– les belles lettes (that’s what fiction is called in French)
27. Grimace– une grimace
28. Vernissage– un vernissage (unofficial opening of an artist’s exhibition on the eve of the official opening)
29. Inauguration– inauguration (opening, for example, of an exhibition)
30. Turn– un virage (literally turn)
31. Collage– un collage (derived from the word coller – to glue; the collage technique was invented by Picasso)
32. Decoupage– le découpage – from découper – cut
33. Impressionism– l’impressionisme (from une impression – impression)
34. Dude– un pigeon (1. dove, 2. dude)
35. Couturier– un couturier (tailor), couture– la couture (sewing)
36. Fashion show– le défilé – the first meaning is “march, parade” (from the verb défiler – to march)
37. Parade– une parade
38. Coat– un paletot
39. Studio– un atelier
40. Chiffon– le chiffon – rag, rag, towel
41. Muffler– le cache-nez – lit. hide your nose
42. Chauffeur comes from the French chauffeur - lit. stoker, stoker. Because the first vehicles were powered by steam or coal. The suffix -eur is a suffix indicating the performer of a certain action. So, the one who chauffe (chauffer - heat, heat) is chauffeur.
43. Coifeur– from coiffeur – coiffer – to comb.
44. Entrepreneur– entrepreneur (someone who undertakes something, organizes something), from entreprendre. From the same word and entreprise (enterprise) - enterprise.
45. Another “theatrical” word - intermission– comes from entractre.
46. Role– emploi – work, employment, position
47. Conductor– le dirigeur (from diriger – to manage)
48. Ballet– le ballet
49. Proscenium– avant-scene
50. Understudy– le doubleur
51. Aport! – apporte – lit. bring it. It’s interesting what the French themselves say va chercher(go look)
52. Fas! – face – lit. face. French dogs hear at such a moment attaque! (attack!)
53. Redoubt– la redoute
54. Hussar– un houssard
55. Duel– le duel – duel, fight
56. Musket, musketeer– un mousquet, un mousqueutaire
57. Vanguard– l’avant-garde – vanguard
58. Motto– la plan
59. Revenge(take revenge – prendre sa revanche)
60. Stagecoach– une diligence
61. Brothel– un brothel
62. Landing stage– from débarquer – to go ashore
63. Buffet– la fourchette – fork
64. Menu– menu – small (since we are talking about a limited number of dishes)
65. Entrecote– une entrecôte – a piece of beef cut between the ribs and backbone
66. Cutlet– une côtelette – lamb rib
67. Omelette– une omelette
68. Aperitif– l'apéritif
69. Digestif– le digestif (from digérer – to digest)
70. Souffle– un soufflé – exhale
71. Prompter– un souffleur – from souffler – breathe, exhale, prompt
72. Eclair– un éclair – lightning
73. Caramel– le caramel
74. Chance– une chance – luck
75. Rendezvous– un rendez-vous – meeting, comes from the verb se rendre – to come somewhere
76. Dispatch– une dépêche, de dépêcher – to hurry, se dépêcher – to hurry
77. Courier– via fr. un courier from ital. "messenger"
78. Pavilion– un pavilion
79. Enfilade– une enfilade
80. Firecrackers– des petards
81. Solitaire– la patience – the first meaning is “patience”
82. Pique– picker
83. Aerobatics– le pilotage – control of the aircraft
84. Ace– un as – ace, first in his business
85. Obstetrician– un accoucheur (accoucher – to give birth)
86. Promenade– une promenade – walk (from se promener – to walk, stroll)
87. Summary– un résumé – summary
88. Cour d'honeur– la cour d’honneur – court of honor
89. Melange– un mélange – mixture, mishmash
90. Boucher(cafe name) – une bouchée – a piece that can be bitten off in one go. From la bouche - mouth.
91. Letual(cosmetics stores) – l’étoile – star
92. There is a French expression - amis comme cochons - literally friends are like pigs. And they say this about very close relationships between friends. But who would have thought that an entire expression could be borrowed into the Russian language and become... “ mischief“!
93. Alley– une allée
94. Boulevard– un boulevard
95. Entourage– entourage – environment
96. Director– le directeur
97. Illusion– une illusion
98. Imitation– une imitation
99. Calorie– one calorie
100. Shop-un magazine

Taken vocabulary in the Russian language

Words of non-original origin are called taken. Borrowings arise both as a result of specific territorial contacts and as a result of the exchange of cultural information, when, together with new objects and concepts, native speakers receive words denoting them. Borrowings are used not only to name new realities, but also to rename old ones.

The following borrowings in the Russian language are highlighted:

Note. This answer is devoted to borrowings from non-Slavic languages. There is detailed information about borrowings from Slavic languages ​​in the answer “What is the composition of the vocabulary of the Russian language?”

It is possible to distinguish the taken words from eternal Russian words by a number of characteristics.

A. Phonetic features:

1. Presence of the initial letter “a”: lampshade, April, red, army, pharmacy. Russian words with the original “a”, in which case we do not count words formed on the basis of borrowings, are found occasionally. Basically, these are interjections, onomatopoeias and words formed on their basis: yeah, ah, ah, ah, gasp, ah, echo etc.

2. The presence of the letter “e” in the root of the word: mayor, aloe, emotions, phaeton. In eternal Russian words, the letter “e” is found in words of interjection and pronominal character - hey, eh, this one, because, also in words formed in the Russian language on the basis of borrowings ( some, Ensky, Socialist Revolutionary).

3. The presence of the letter “f” in the word: decanter, spacesuit, February. The exceptions are interjections, onomatopoeia - ugh, ugh, fi, also a word owl.

4. The presence of combinations of two or more vowels in the roots of words: diet, duel, halo, poem, guard.

5. The presence of combinations of consonants “kd”, “kz”, “gb”, “kg” in the roots of words: joke, station, barrier, warehouse.

6. The presence of combinations “ge”, “ke”, “he” in the root: legend, sneakers, trachea. In Russian words, such combinations usually occur at the junction of the base and ending: on the road, to my daughter-in-law, in the sand.

7. Availability of combination "bu", "vu", "kyu", "mu" in the roots of words: bureau, engraving, ditch, communiqué.

8. The presence of double consonants in the roots of words: villa, progress, profession, session, bath. In ancient Russian words, double consonants are found only at the junction of morphemes.

9. Pronunciation of a hard consonant sound before the vowel [e] (letter “e”): model[de], test [te].

10. The original “e” mainly distinguishes Greek and Latinisms: era, epoch, ethics, exam, reprisal, effect, floor.

B. Morphological characteristics:

1. Indeclinability of nouns: coffee, jury, depot, hummingbird, kangaroo.

2. Morphological lack of expression of number and gender of nouns: coat, taxi.

B. Word-formation features:

1. Foreign language prefixes: inter shaft, de duction, in individualism, re gress, archi mandrit, counter admiral, anti Christ.

2. Foreign language suffixes: dean at, stud ent, technician intelligence, editor torus, literary ur ah, proletarians at, popul change, social ist, controversy edit etc.

3. The presence of certain class roots aqua-, marine-, geo-, graphic- etc.: aquarium, marine painter, surveyor.

In addition to “international” signs, there are also signs that help to find which specific language the word was taken from.

1. TO Greek borrowings ( Greekisms) include, for example:

Features of borrowings from this group:

2. Borrowings from Latin language(Latinisms):

3. In the middle Turkic borrowings ( Turkisms) most words from the Mongolian language, which is explained by historical criteria (long-term Tatar-Mongol yoke):

A sign of words of Turkic origin is vowel harmony ( synharmonism) - the natural use in one word of vowels of only the 1st row: back [a], [y] or frontal [e], [i]: ataman, caravan, pencil, boot, lasso, chest, sundress, drum, heel, sash, ulus, mosque, beads.

4. Scandinavian The number of borrowings (Swedish, Norwegian) in the Russian language is comparatively small. Words of trade vocabulary, maritime definitions, everyday words, also penetrated:

5. TO Germanic borrowings ( Germanisms) relate:

Features of Germanisms:

6. Dutch are some nautical definitions taken in the era of Peter I: buer, shipyard, pennant, harbour, drift, pilot, sailor, raid, flag, fleet,cruiser and etc.

7. From British language ( Anglicisms) included, for example:

technical ( computer, screen, file, byte),
sports ( bobsleigh, overtime, fighter),
monetary and commercial ( barter, broker, dealer, distributor, leasing),
arts ( remake, talk show, underground, thriller),

Phonetic features of Anglicisms:

8. TO French borrowings ( Gallicisms) relate:

Phonetic features of Gallicisms:

9. From Italian borrowings are highlighted:

10. A small number of words came from Spanish language (vocabulary related to art): serenade, castanets, guitar, mantilla, caravel, caramel, cigar, tomato and etc.

11. Few borrowings are from Finnish language: walrus, dumplings, blizzard; from Hungarian: bekesha, farm and other languages.

Information about the origin of words can be obtained in etymological dictionaries and in dictionaries of foreign words.

Additionally:

Sources:

Additionally on the site:

Since the time of Peter I, who opened a window to Europe, a fashion for everything French arose among the Russian nobility. Every self-respecting person was obliged to speak it fluently. Russian and French interspersed in speech, complementing and replacing each other. Many generations of monarchs showed sympathy for France. Famous poets loved the French language. Thus, French words gradually penetrated into the Russian language, and linguists claim that many borrowings of Greek and Latin etymology also entered our speech through French.

The close connection between Russia and France also contributed to the establishment of trade ties. Objects were brought to us that had no analogues in Russia. The same applies to many concepts characteristic of the French mentality. Naturally, not having the corresponding words in , the people adopted words from French to denote hitherto unknown things. So, for example, in the middle of the 19th century, blinds were brought to us from France, which were used there by analogy with Russian shutters in order to hide houses from prying eyes. Jalousie is translated from French as “jealousy,” because the owner of the house hides personal happiness behind them.
Many borrowings arose during the Patriotic War of 1812. Wars have always contributed to the interweaving of world cultures, leaving their mark in the languages ​​of opposing countries. After the war, it became fashionable to hire Frenchmen as tutors. It was believed that the children of the nobility who were trained acquired sophistication and correct manners.

French words in Russian

Words such as defile or openwork betray their origin, but many French words have become so ingrained in native speech that they are considered native Russian. For example, the word “tomato” comes from the French pomme d’or and is translated as “golden”. Although most European countries have long ago adopted the Italian version of “tomatoes,” the Russian ear is still familiar with the French name. Many words have already fallen out of use in French and are archaisms, for example, “coat”, “curlers”, etc., but in Russia they are used everywhere.

At all, French borrowings can be divided into several groups. The first of them are words that were borrowed, retaining the original meaning, for example: “lampshade”, “subscription”, “keychain”, “gauze” (in honor of the name of the French village of Marly-le-Roi), “furniture”, “ blackmail".

The second group is represented by words borrowed from the French language, but acquiring a meaning exactly opposite to their original one. For example, the word "hat" comes from the French chapeau, "lid." In France, this word never meant a headdress. The word "scam" in Russian has a negative meaning, synonymous with the word "deception", while in France the word means "useful business".

The third group includes words whose sound was borrowed from the French language, but in Russian they were endowed with their own meaning, which has nothing general word into Russian. Often such words refer to everyday or slang speech. For example, there is a version of the origin of the word “sharomyzhnik”. According to it, soldiers from the defeated Napoleonic army walked through Russian lands, dirty and hungry, and asked for food and shelter from Russian peasants. When calling for help, they addressed the Russians as cher ami, “dear friend.” The peasants heard “cher ami” so often that they began to call the French soldiers “charmers.” Gradually, the word acquired the meaning of “a swindler, a lover of profit.”

An interesting story is connected with the origin of the word "shantrapa", which means "worthless, insignificant, trashy person." Apparently the word comes from the French chantera pas - “cannot sing.” This verdict was given to serfs who were selected for rural theaters. Since the selection of actors was carried out by French teachers, the word “shantrapa” was often pronounced in relation to serfs who were deaf. Apparently they, not knowing the meaning, took it for a curse word.

Russian borrowings in French

According to linguists, at least 70 words borrowed from Russian are used in the French language. They are used in a variety of areas, including spoken language. The Petit Robert dictionary, which is considered more thorough than the Petit Larousse dictionary, has 104 of them. The words intelligentsia, spoutnik, nomenclature, stakhanovets, goulag, samizdat, p?restro?ka, apparatchik, as well as chapka, babouchka (also in the meaning of big shawl or scarf on the head), steppe, toundra have successfully existed in the French language for many years. Of course, vodka, blinis, moujik, datcha, isba, which also came from Russia, are in use. Samovar and matrechka are familiar to all French people. As well as belouga, balala?ka (that’s what they call the folk instrument orchestra itself) or bortch. Tsar and boyard are present not only in historical novels, but also in the language of the press. Kopeck (kopeck, moreover, masculine) is actively used in colloquial expressions in the meaning in which the word penny is used in Russia. Recently the word malossol (lightly salted) appeared. It is included in the Petit Larousse 2012 dictionary and can also be seen in French supermarkets on jars of cucumbers.

Linguists believe that even the words hourra and houligan (hooligan) came from Russian, but through English. A common expression is C'est la Berezina, which recalls the crossing of the Berezina, a river in Belarus, during the Napoleonic Wars, where the French suffered a crushing defeat. Now this expression means great difficulty, complexity, catastrophe, morally too.

The appearance of the first Russian words in the French language dates back to the end of the 16th century. These were words reflecting phenomena associated exclusively with Russia, for example, chapka, samoede, kvas, moujik and others. In the 19th century, along with borrowings reflecting the revolutionary movement, for example, d?cembriste, pogrom, zemstvo, the borrowing of everyday words, for example, samovar, blinis, continued. After the October Revolution, words were borrowed that reflected the peculiarities of the organization of political, administrative and public life Soviet Union: bolchevik, koulak, kolkhose. The launch of Sputnik and space exploration give the French such words as spoutnik, as well as the tracing combinations vaisseau cosmique, spoutnik habit?, cosmodrome, etc.

The penetration of Russian words into the French language, especially into the language of the press, has intensified since 1985 in connection with changes in the social and political life of the Soviet Union, with perestroika and glasnost. These words (p?restro?ka, glasnost) are included in the French language, as well as nomenclature, apparatchik, etc. In newspapers there are names of parties, both transcribed and traced: Edinaia Rossia or Russie Unie, Parti lib?ral d?mocratique de Russie, LDPR

Borrowings are primarily necessary as a way of reflecting realities, to compensate for the gaps that appear when describing foreign language reality. An example is the novel French will Andrei Makin, in which he describes the life of his grandmother, a French woman, in Russia and cannot do without borrowings, such as t?l?gue, koulak, isba.

Russian borrowings: needed for description:

1. features of Russian nature, that is, geographical realities are used (merzlota; ta?ga, steppe, tchernosem)
2. household items: food, drinks, household establishments (samovar, belouga, stolova?a, okrochka, kacha, pirojki, zakouski, koulibiac), clothing (chapka, varejki, touloupe,), that is, ethnographic realities are used;
3. art and culture (icone, iconostase),
4. measures and money (poud, rouble, tchervonets, kopeck, verste)
5. features of the political and administrative structure (kra?, oblast, soviet, sovkhose, douma, gosplan, goulag). Especially many such borrowings appeared in the French language during Soviet times.

What are the borrowing methods?

• transliteration (at the grapheme level - volost),
• transcription (at the phoneme level – soviet, koulak),
• tracing (conseil d'entreprise),
• half tracings (d?cembriste)
• Descriptive translation, but this is no longer borrowing (for example, a trip – bon de voyage)

As with any borrowing, when borrowing from the Russian language, phonetic and spelling changes occur, which are explained by the discrepancy between the phoneme and grapheme systems; morphological changes, for example, endings are added: unpronounceable - e (o)ukase, or -s to indicate the plural, but this is not required. And naturally, semantic changes, for example, ambiguous word most often borrowed with one of its meanings (for example, kalachnikov only to denote a machine gun). The final stage of borrowing is fixing the word in the dictionary.

An approximate list of Russian words that can be found in French texts and spoken language.

Agit-prom, apparatchik, artel, balala?ka, babouchka, barzoi, belouga, bistro, blinis, bolchevik, bortch, boyard, chapka, combinat, cosaque, cosmos, datcha, douma, glasnost, gosplan, goulag, hooligan, hourra, icone, iconostase, intelligentsia, iourte, isba, kacha, knout, kolkhose, komsomol, kopeek, koulibiac, kvas, liman, mammouth, mazout, menchevik, merzlota, mir, moujik, nihiliste, oscetre, oukase, perestro?ka, perspective, pirojki, plenum, pogrom, pope, presidium, raspoutitsa, reflexe, rouble, sable, samizdat, samovar, samoede, sevruga, soviet, sovkhose, spoutnik, starets, steppe, sterlet, ta?ga, tatar, tchernosem, tchervonets, t? l?gue, touloupe, toundra, tro?ka, tsarevitch, verste, vodka, yourte, zakouski.

L.S. Rapoport, Associate Professor, Department of French, LIN