"Homo sapiens": how man actually originated. Homo sapiens

General information

Homo sapiens (lat. Homo sapiens; transliterated variants Homo Sapiens and Homo Sapiens are also found) is a species of the genus People (Homo) from the family of hominids in the order of primates. Presumably, Homo sapiens appeared as a species in the Pleistocene around 200,000 years ago. At the end of the Upper Paleolithic, about 40 thousand years ago, it remains the only representative of the hominid family; its range already covers almost the entire Earth. In addition to a number of anatomical features, it differs from modern anthropoids in a significant degree of development of material and non-material culture (including the manufacture and use of tools), the ability for articulate speech and developed abstract thinking. Man like biological species is the subject of study in physical anthropology.

Neoanthropes (ancient Greek νέος - new and ἄνθρωπος - man) is a generalized name for modern people, fossils and living people.

The main anthropological features of humans that distinguish them from paleoanthropes and archanthropes are a voluminous cerebral skull with a high arch, a vertically rising forehead, the absence of a supraorbital ridge, and a well-developed chin protrusion.

Fossil humans had somewhat more massive skeletons than modern humans. Ancient people created a rich Late Paleolithic culture (a variety of tools made of stone, bone and horn, dwellings, sewn clothing, polychrome painting on cave walls, sculpture, engraving on bone and horn). The oldest currently known bone remains of neoanthropes are radiocarbon dated at 39 thousand years ago, but it is most likely that neoanthropes arose 70-60 thousand years ago.

Systematic position and classification

Together with a number of extinct species, Homo sapiens forms the genus Homo. Homo sapiens differs from the closest species - Neanderthals - in a number of structural features of the skeleton (high forehead, reduction of the brow ridges, the presence of a mastoid process of the temporal bone, the absence of an occipital protrusion - a “bone chignon”, a concave base of the skull, the presence of a mental protuberance on the mandibular bone, “kynodont” molars, flattened chest, as a rule, relatively longer limbs) and the proportions of the brain regions (“beak-shaped” frontal lobes in Neanderthals, widely rounded in Homo sapiens). Currently, work is underway to decipher the genome of Neanderthals, which allows us to deepen our understanding of the nature of the differences between these two species.

In the second half of the 20th century, a number of researchers proposed to consider Neanderthals a subspecies of H. sapiens - H. sapiens neanderthalensis. The basis for this was research into the physical appearance, lifestyle, intellectual abilities and culture of Neanderthals. Additionally, Neanderthals have often been viewed as the direct ancestors of modern humans. However, a comparison of the mitochondrial DNA of humans and Neanderthals suggests that the divergence of their evolutionary lines occurred about 500,000 years ago. This dating is inconsistent with the origin hypothesis modern people from Neanderthals, since the evolutionary line of modern humans separated later than 200,000 years ago. Currently, most paleanthropologists tend to consider Neanderthals a separate species within the genus Homo - H. neanderthalensis.

In 2005, remains were described that were approximately 195,000 years old (Pleistocene). The anatomical differences between the specimens prompted researchers to identify a new subspecies, Homo sapiens idaltu (“Elder”).

The most ancient bone Homo sapiens, from which DNA was isolated, is approximately 45,000 years old. According to the study, the same number of Neanderthal genes were found in the DNA of the ancient Siberian as in modern people (2.5%)

Human Origins

Comparison of DNA sequences shows that the closest living species to humans are two species of chimpanzee (common and bonobo). The phylogenetic lineage with which the origin of modern humans (Homo sapiens) is associated separated from other hominids 6-7 million years ago (in the Miocene). Other representatives of this line (mainly Australopithecus and a number of species of the genus Homo) have not survived to this day.

The closest relatively reliably established ancestor of Homo sapiens was Homo erectus. Homo heidelbergensis, a direct descendant of Homo erectus and ancestor of the Neanderthals, appears not to have been the ancestor of modern humans, but rather a member of a lateral evolutionary line. Majority modern theories associate the emergence of Homo sapiens with Africa, while Homo heidelbergensis arose in Europe.

The emergence of humans was associated with a number of significant anatomical and physiological modifications, including:

• 1.Structural transformations of the brain
• 2. Enlargement of the cerebral cavity and brain
• 3. Development of bipedal locomotion (bipedalism)
• 4.Development of the grasping hand
• 5.Descent of the hyoid bone
• 6.Reducing the size of fangs
• 7.The appearance of the menstrual cycle
• 8. Reduction of most of the hairline.

Comparison of mitochondrial DNA polymorphisms and dating of fossils suggests that Homo sapiens appeared ca. 200,000 years ago (this is the approximate time when "Mitochondrial Eve" - ​​the woman who was the last common maternal ancestor of all living humans - lived; the paternal common ancestor of all living humans - "Y-chromosomal Adam" - lived several Later).

In 2009, a group of scientists led by Sarah Tishkoff from the University of Pennsylvania published their results in the journal Science. comprehensive research genetic diversity of African peoples. They found that the oldest lineage that had experienced the least amount of mixing, as previously expected, was the genetic cluster to which the Bushmen and other Khoisan-speaking peoples belonged. Most likely, they are the branch that is closest to the common ancestors of all modern humanity.

About 74,000 years ago, a small population (ca. 2,000 people) that survived the effects of a very powerful volcanic eruption (~20-30 years of winter), presumably the Toba volcano in Indonesia, became the ancestors of modern humans in Africa. It can be assumed that 60,000-40,000 years ago people migrated to Asia, and from there to Europe (40,000 years), Australia and America (35,000-15,000 years).

At the same time, the evolution of specific human abilities, such as developed consciousness, intellectual abilities and language are problematic to study, since their changes cannot be directly traced from the remains of hominids and traces of their life activity; to study the evolution of these abilities, scientists integrate data various sciences, including physical and cultural anthropology, zoopsychology, ethology, neurophysiology, genetics.

Questions about how exactly the mentioned abilities (speech, religion, art) evolved, and what their role was in the emergence of the complex social organization and culture of Homo sapiens, remain the subject of scientific debate to this day.

Appearance

The head is big. The upper limbs have five long flexible fingers, one of which is slightly spaced from the rest, and the lower limbs have five short fingers that help balance when walking. In addition to walking, humans are also capable of running, but, unlike most primates, the ability to brachiate is poorly developed.

Body size and weight

The average body weight of a man is 70-80 kg, women - 50-65 kg, although there are more big people. The average height of men is about 175 cm, women - about 165 cm. The average height of a person has changed over time.

Over the past 150 years, there has been an acceleration of human physiological development - acceleration (increase in average height, duration of the reproductive period).

The size of a person's body can change due to various diseases. With increased production of growth hormone (pituitary tumors), gigantism develops. For example, the maximum reliably recorded human height is 272 cm/199 kg (Robert Wadlow). Conversely, low production of growth hormone in childhood can lead to dwarfism, such as the smallest living person - Gul Mohamed (57 cm with a weight of 17 kg) or Chandra Bahadur Danga (54.6 cm).

The lightest person was the Mexican Lucia Zarate, her weight at the age of 17 was only 2130 g with a height of 63 cm, and the heaviest was Manuel Uribe, whose weight reached 597 kg.

Hairline

The human body is usually sparsely covered with hair, with the exception of the areas of the head, and in mature individuals - the groin, armpits and, especially in men, the arms and legs. Hair growth on the neck, face (beard and mustache), chest and sometimes on the back is characteristic of men.

Like other hominids, the hair does not have undercoat, that is, it is not fur. As a person ages, his hair turns grey.

Skin pigmentation

Human skin can change pigmentation: under the influence sunlight it darkens, a tan appears. This feature is most noticeable in Caucasoid and Mongoloid races. In addition, vitamin D is synthesized in human skin under the influence of sunlight.

Sexual dimorphism

Sexual dimorphism is expressed by the rudimentary development of mammary glands in men compared to women and a wider pelvis in women, wider shoulders and greater physical strength in men. In addition, adult men tend to have more facial and body hair.

Human physiology

• Normal body temperature dies.
• The maximum temperature of solid objects with which people can come into contact for a long time is about 50 degrees Celsius (with more high temperature a burn occurs).
• The highest recorded indoor air temperature at which a person can spend two minutes without harm to the body is 160 degrees Celsius (experiments by British physicists Blagden and Chantry).
• Jacques Mayol. The sports record in free diving without restrictions was set by Herbert Nietzsch, diving to 214 meters.
• July 27, 1993 Javier Sotomayor
• August 30, 1991 Mike Powell
• August 16, 2009 Usain Bolt
• November 14, 1995 Patrick de Gaillardon

Life cycle

Lifespan

Human life expectancy depends on a number of factors and developed countries averages 79 years.

The maximum officially recorded life expectancy is 122 years and 164 days, the age at which Frenchwoman Jeanne Calment died in 1997. The age of older centenarians is disputed.

Reproduction

Compared to other animals, human reproductive function and sex life have a number of features. Puberty occurs at 11-16 years of age.

Unlike most mammals, whose reproductive capacity is limited to periods of estrus, women are characterized by menstrual cycle, lasting about 28 days, thanks to which they are capable of pregnancy throughout the year. Pregnancy can occur at a certain period of the monthly cycle (ovulation), but no external signs The woman is not ready for it. Women, even during pregnancy, can lead sex life, which is not typical for mammals, but occurs among primates. However, reproductive function is limited by age: women lose the ability to reproduce on average at 40-50 years of age (with the onset of menopause).

A normal pregnancy lasts 40 weeks (9 months).

A woman, as a rule, gives birth to only one child at a time (two or more children - twins - occur approximately once in 80 births). A newborn baby weighs 3-4 kg, his vision is unfocused, and he is not able to move independently. As a rule, both parents are involved in caring for the offspring in the first years of the child: the cubs of no animal require as much attention and care as a human child requires.

Aging

Human aging, like the aging of other organisms, is a biological process of gradual degradation of parts and systems of the human body and the consequences of this process. While the physiology of the aging process is similar to that of other mammals, some aspects of the process, such as loss mental abilities, are of greater importance to humans. In addition, the psychological, social and economic aspects of aging are of great importance.

Lifestyle

Upright walking

Humans are not the only modern mammals to walk on two limbs. Kangaroos, which are primitive mammals, use only their hind legs to move. The anatomy of humans and kangaroos has systematically changed to maintain upright walking - the posterior muscles of the neck have been somewhat weakened, the spine has been rebuilt, the hips have been enlarged, and the heel has been significantly shaped. Some primates and semi-primates are also capable of walking upright, but only for a short time, since their anatomy does not help this much. This is how some lemurs and sifakas jump on two limbs half-sideways. Bears, meerkats, and some rodents periodically use “upright standing” in social actions, but they practically do not walk in this position.

Nutrition

To maintain normal flow physiological processes For life, a person needs to eat, that is, absorb food. Humans are omnivores - they eat fruits and roots, the meat of vertebrates and many marine animals, eggs of birds and reptiles, and dairy products. The variety of food of animal origin is limited mainly to a specific crop. A significant part of food is subjected to heat treatment. Drinks also have a wide variety.

Newborn babies, like the cubs of other mammals, feed on their mother's milk.

Sometimes it just begins to irritate when official science is silent or does not provide rational explanations for obvious facts. For example, how old is the species Homo Sapiens? Wikipedia officially provides data that “Comparison of mitochondrial DNA polymorphisms and dating of fossils allows us to conclude that Homo sapiens in the female line (from “Mitochondrial Eve” - a group of women who had the same Mitochondrial DNA in a species population of about 10-20 thousand individuals) appeared about 200,000 years ago,” and: “In 2003, remains were described that were approximately 160,000 years old (Pleistocene). The anatomical differences between the specimens prompted researchers to identify a new subspecies, Homo sapiens idaltu (“Elder”).”. That is, official science, if you believe the links provided in Wikipedia, now believes that the species Homo Sapiens is at least 160 - 200 thousand years old. But, at the same time, in the same Wikipedia, in the section “Cro-Magnon Man” (the closest ancestor of man), absolutely crazy data is given: "Cro-Magnons (French Homme de Cro-Magnon) are the early representatives of modern humans in Europe and partly beyond its borders, who lived 40-10 thousand years ago (Upper Paleolithic period)". Moreover, these figures are given not only in Wikipedia links, but also in many other sources, including foreign languages. I checked it myself. So they were completely stunned there or what? This even contradicts Darwin’s theory, so beloved by official science! Homo Sapiens has been around for about 200,000 years, but its closest ancestor, Homme de Cro-Magnon, is only 40,000 years old?! This has given rise to serious controversy today. on the forum thread on LJ MGER with user ryslav66 .
Moreover, such incidents happen all the time in our science. The reason is that many facts are either simply hushed up by official science or not fully systematized. Well, just a couple of days ago the material came out "Ancient pyramids discovered at the bottom of a lake in China." So the approximate age of those once above-ground structures is from 5,000 to 12,000 BC. Official science still cannot (or does not want) to explain how it happened that there are temple buildings of the same type in almost all corners Globe: from South America to Japan.
The same is true with the origin of man. Now there are many reliably studied artifacts that directly indicate that the species Homo Sapiens is not even 200,000 years old, as scientists have already begun to admit, but at least more than one million. Moreover, no one really knows how much. There are some absolutely sensational finds. Here is a link to a fully scientifically verified list of such artifacts: "The main human sites in the Paleolithic". Here, there is also interesting scientific material on the same topic: “Is man really three million years old?”. Also in the material "Who are the Cro-Magnons" Interesting data is also provided: "In Eastern and Southern Africa, the roots of the Cro-Magnons can be traced back to earlier eras: they may have lived as early as 1.6 million years ago (an archanthropic boy from Kenya). It is assumed that the ancestors of the Cro-Magnons - the "proto-Cro-Magnons" - penetrated the Middle East and Southern Europe during the last glaciation, about 100 thousand years ago."
There is also a whole list of recorded and, accordingly, genuine artifacts, which official science also stubbornly continues to hush up. There are materials on this topic: "10 Most Mysterious Ancient Artifacts" And "ARTIFACTS OF ANCIENTITY".
All the above materials can again testify to only one thing - we simply do not know our history. Answers to the questions of how old our species, our civilization really are, and whether there were other civilizations on Earth millions of years ago cannot now be given. The only thing that can be asserted so far is that official science, often on many of these issues, gets off with simply nonsense in conclusions, dates and conclusions... It would seem, why???!

In light of already published and future videos, for the general development and systematization of knowledge, I offer a general overview of the genera of the hominid family from the later Sahelanthropus, who lived about 7 million years ago, to Homo sapiens, which appeared from 315 to 200 thousand years ago. This review will help you avoid falling into the trap of those who like to mislead and systematize their knowledge. Since the video is quite long, for convenience, in the comments there will be a table of contents with a time code, thanks to which you can start or continue watching the video from the selected type or type by clicking on the numbers of blue color on the list. 1. Sahelanthropus (Sahelanthropus) this genus is represented by only one species: 1.1. The Chadian sahelanthropus (Sahelanthropus tchadensis) is an extinct species of hominid, approximately 7 million years old. His skull, named Toumaina, meaning "hope of life", was found in the north-west of the Republic of Chad in 2001 by Michel Brunet. Their brain volume, supposedly 380 cm cubic, is approximately the same as that of modern chimpanzees. Based on the characteristic location of the occipital foramen, scientists believe that this is the most ancient skull of an upright creature. Sahelanthropus may represent the common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees, but there are still a number of questions about its facial features that may call into question the status of australopithecus. By the way, the belonging of Sahelanthropus to the human ancestry is disputed by the discoverers of the next genus with the only species Ororin tugensis. 2. The genus Orrorin includes one species: Orrorin tugenensis, or the man of the millennium, this species was first found in 2000 in the Tugen mountains of Kenya. Its age is about 6 million years. Currently, 20 fossils have been recovered from 4 sites: these include two parts of the lower jaw; symphyses and several teeth; three thigh fragments; partial humerus; proximal phalanx; and distal phalanx of the thumb. By the way, Orrorins have femurs with obvious signs of upright posture, in contrast to indirect ones in Sahelanthropus. But the rest of the skeleton, except for the skull, indicates that he climbed trees. Orrorins were about 1 m tall. 20 centimeters. In addition, accompanying findings indicated that Orrorin did not live in a savanna, but in an evergreen forest environment. By the way, it is precisely this type that is demonstrated by lovers of sensations in anthropology or supporters of ideas about the extraterrestrial origin of people, saying that 6 million years ago aliens visited us. As evidence, they note that this species has a femur closer to the human than that of a later species of Australopithecus afarensis, named Lucy, aged 3 million years, this is true, but understandable, which is what scientists did 5 years ago, describing the level of primitiveness of the similarity and that it is similar to primates that lived 20 million years ago. But to add to this argument, “TV experts” report that the reconstructed shape of Orrorin’s face is flat and similar to a human’s. And then look carefully at the images of the finds and find the parts from which you can assemble a face. Don't you see? Me too, but they are there, according to the authors of the programs! At the same time, they show video fragments about completely different finds. This is designed to ensure that hundreds of thousands, or even millions of viewers trust them and they will not check. This is how you mix truth and fiction and you get a sensation, but only in the minds of their adherents, and unfortunately there are quite a few of them. And this is just one example. 3. Ardipithecus, an ancient genus of hominids that lived 5.6-4.4 million years ago. At the moment, only two types are described: 3.1. Ardipithecus kadabba was found in Ethiopia in the Middle Awash River valley in 1997. And in 2000, further north, a few more finds were found. The finds consist mainly of teeth and skeletal bone fragments from several individuals dating back 5.6 million years. The following species from the genus Ardipithecus is described more qualitatively. 3.2. Ardipithecus ramidus or Ardi, which means earth or root. Ardi's remains were first discovered near the Ethiopian village of Aramis in 1992 in the Afar Depression in the Awash River valley. And in 1994, more fragments were obtained, amounting to 45% of the total skeleton. This is a very significant find, which combines characteristics of both monkeys and humans. The age of the finds was determined based on their stratigraphic position between two volcanic layers and was 4.4 million years. And between 1999 and 2003, scientists discovered the bones and teeth of nine more individuals of the species Ardipithecus ramidus, on the north bank of the Awash River in Ethiopia west of Hadar. Ardipithecus ramidus is similar to most primitive, previously recognized hominins, but unlike them, Ardipithecus ramidus had a great toe that retained grasping ability, adapted for climbing trees. However, scientists argue that other features of its skeleton reflect adaptations to upright walking. Like later hominins, Ardi had smaller fangs. Its brain was small, about the size of a modern chimpanzee, and about 20% the size of a modern human's brain. Their teeth indicate that they ate both fruits and leaves without preference, and this is already the path to omnivory. In terms of social behavior, weak sexual dimorphism may indicate reduced aggression and competition between males in a group. Ramidus legs are well suited for walking both in the forest and in meadows, swamps and lakes. 4. Australopithecus (Australopithecus), here it should immediately be noted that there is also the concept of australopithecus, which includes 5 more genera and is divided into 3 groups: a) early australopithecus (7.0 - 3.9 million). years ago); b) gracile australopithecus (3.9 - 1.8 million years ago); c) massive australopithecus (2.6 - 0.9 million years ago). But Australopithecines as a genus are fossilized higher primates, possessing signs of upright walking and anthropoid features in the structure of the skull. Who lived in the period from 4.2 to 1.8 million years ago. Let's look at 6 species of Australopithecus: 4.1. Australopithecus anamensis is believed to be the ancestor of humans who lived about four million years ago. Fossils have been found in Kenya and Ethiopia. The first record of the species was discovered in 1965 near Lake Turkana in Kenya, previously the lake was called Rudolf. Then in 1989, teeth of this species were found on the northern bank of the Turkana, but in the territory of modern Ethiopia. And already in 1994, about a hundred additional fragments from two dozen hominids were discovered, including one complete lower jaw, with teeth resembling human ones. And only in 1995, on the basis of the described findings, the species was identified as Australopithecus Anamensis, which is considered a descendant of the species Ardipithecus ramidus. And in 2006, a new find of Australopithecus anamas was announced, in northeastern Ethiopia, about 10 km. from the location where Ardipithecus ramidus was found. The age of the Anamanian Australopithecus is about 4-4.5 million years. Australopithecus Anamensis is considered the ancestor of the next species of Australopithecus. 4.2. Australopithecus afarensis, or "Lucy" after the first discovery, is an extinct hominid that lived between 3.9 and 2.9 million years ago. Australopithecus afarensis was closely related to the genus Homo, as a direct ancestor or close relative unknown common ancestor. Lucy herself, 3.2 million years old, was discovered in 1974 in the Afar Basin near the village of Hadar in Ethiopia on November 24. "Lucy" was represented by an almost complete skeleton. And the name "Lucy" was inspired by the Beatles song "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds." Australopithecus afarensis has also been found in other localities such as Omo, Maka, Feij and Belohdeli in Ethiopia and Koobi Fore and Lotagam in Kenya. Representatives of the species had fangs and molars that were relatively larger than those of modern people, and the brain was still small - from 380 to 430 cubic cm - and the face had protruding lips. The anatomy of the arms, legs, and shoulder joints suggests that the creatures were partly arboreal as well as terrestrial, although the overall anatomy of the pelvis is much more humanoid. However, thanks to their anatomical structure, they could walk with a straight gait. The upright posture of Australopithecus afarensis may just be due to climate changes in Africa from the jungle to the savannah. In Tanzania, 20 km from the Sadiman volcano, in 1978, footprints of a family of upright hominids were discovered preserved in volcanic ash south of the Olduvai Gorge. Based on sexual dimorphism - the difference in body size between males and females - these creatures most likely lived in small family groups containing one dominant and larger male and several small breeding females. "Lucy" would live in a group culture that involves socializing. In 2000, the remains of a skeleton believed to be a 3-year-old child of Australopithecus afarensis, who lived 3.3 million years ago, were discovered in the Dikika area. These australopithecines, according to archaeological finds, used stone tools to cut meat from animal carcasses and crush them. But this is only the use, not the manufacture of them. 4.3. Australopithecus bahrelghazali or Abel is a fossil hominin first discovered in 1993 in the Bahr el Ghazal valley at the Koro Toro archaeological site in Chad. Abel is approximately 3.6-3 million years old. The find consists of a mandibular fragment, a lower second incisor, both lower canines and all four of its premolars. This Australopithecus became a separate species thanks to its lower three root premolars. This is also the first Australopithecus discovered to the north of the previous ones, which indicates their wide distribution. 4.4 Australopithecus africanus was an early hominid that lived 3.3 - 2.1 million years ago - in the late Pliocene and early Pleistocene. Unlike the previous species, it had a larger brain and more human-like features. Many scientists believe that he is the ancestor of modern humans. Australopithecus africanus has only been discovered at four sites in southern Africa - Taung in 1924, Sterkfontein in 1935, Makapansgat in 1948 and Gladysvale in 1992. The first discovery was a baby skull known as the "Baby of Taung" and described by Raymond Dart, who assigned the name Australopithecus africanus, meaning "southern ape of Africa". He argued that this species was intermediate between apes and humans. Further discoveries confirmed their identification as a new species. This australopithecus was a bipedal hominid with arms slightly longer than the legs. Despite its somewhat more humanoid cranial features, other more primitive features are present, including ape-like, curved climbing fingers. But the pelvis was more adapted to bipedalism than in the previous species. 4.5. Australopithecus garhi, 2.5 million years old, was discovered in the Bowri sediments of Ethiopia. "Garhi" means "surprise" in the local Afar language. For the first time, tools similar to the Oldowan stone working culture were discovered along with the remains. 4.6. Australopithecus sediba is a species of early Pleistocene australopithecus with fossils dating back approximately 2 million years. This species is known from four incomplete skeletons discovered in South Africa in a place called the “cradle of humanity,” 50 km northwest of Johannesburg, within the Malapa Cave. The discovery was made thanks to the Google Earth service. "Sediba" means "spring" in the Sotho language. The remains of Australopithecus sediba, two adults and one infant aged 18 months, were found together. In total, more than 220 fragments have been excavated so far. Australopithecus sediba may have lived in the savannah, but the diet included fruits and other forest products. The height of the sediba was about 1.3 meters. The first specimen of Australopithecus sediba was discovered by 9-year-old Matthew, son of paleoanthropologist Lee Berger, on August 15, 2008. The mandible found was part of a juvenile male whose skull was later discovered in March 2009 by Berger and his team. Fossils of various animals were also found in the cave area, including saber-toothed cats, mongooses and antelopes. Sediba's brain volume was about 420-450 cubic cm, which is about three times less than that of modern people. Australopithecus sediba had a remarkably modern hand, whose precision grip suggests tool use and manufacture. Sediba may have belonged to the late South African branch of Australopithecus, which coexisted with representatives of the genus Homo already living at that time. Currently, some scientists are trying to clarify the dating and look for a connection between Australopithecus sediba and the genus Homo. 5. Paranthropus (Paranthropus) - a genus of fossil higher primates. They were found in East and Southern Africa. They are also called massive australopithecines. Finds of Paranthropus are dated from 2.7 to 1 million years. 5.1. Ethiopian paranthropus (Paranthropus aethiopicus or Australopithecus aethiopicus) The species was described from a 1985 find in the Lake Turkana area, Kenya, known as the "black skull" due to its dark coloration, due to the manganese content. The skull dates back 2.5 million years. But later, part of the lower jaw, discovered in 1967 in the Omo Valley, Ethiopia, was also attributed to this species. Anthropologists believe that Ethiopian Paranthropus lived between 2.7 and 2.5 million years ago. They were quite primitive and have a lot common features with Australopithecus afarensis, perhaps they were their direct descendants. Their special feature was their jaws that protruded strongly forward. This species is believed by scientists to diverge from the Homo lineage on the hominid evolutionary tree. 5.2. Paranthropus boisei, aka Australopithecus boisei, aka "Nutcracker" was an early hominin described as the largest of the genus Paranthropus. They lived in East Africa during the Pleistocene era from approximately 2.4 to 1.4 million years ago. The largest skull was discovered in Konso in Ethiopia and dates back 1.4 million years. They were 1.2-1.5 m tall and weighed from 40 to 90 kg. The well-preserved skull of Paranthropus boice was first discovered in Tanzania's Olduvai Gorge in 1959 and was given the name "Nutcracker" due to its large teeth and thick enamel. It was dated at 1.75 million. And 10 years later, in 1969, the son of the discoverer of the “nutcracker” Mary Leakey, Richard, discovered another Paranthropus boyes skull in Koobi Fora near Lake Turkana in Kenya. Judging by the structure of their jaws, they ate massive plant foods and lived in forests and shrouds. Based on the structure of the skull, scientists believe that the brain of these paranthropes was quite primitive, with a volume of up to 550 cubic cm. 5.3. Massive paranthropus (Paranthropus robustus). The first skull of the species was discovered in Kromdraai in South Africa in 1938 by a schoolboy who later traded it for chocolate to anthropologist Robert Broome. Paranthropus or the massive Australopithecus were bipedal hominids that likely descended from the gracial Australopithecus. They are characterized by robust braincases, and gorilla-like cranial ridges, which suggest strong chewing muscles. They lived between 2 and 1.2 million years ago. The remains of massive Paranthropus have only been found within South Africa at Kromdraai, Swartkrans, Drimolen, Gondolin and Kupers. The remains of 130 individuals were discovered in a cave at Swartkrans. Dental studies have shown that massive Paranthropus rarely lived past 17 years of age. The approximate height of the males was about 1.2 m, and their weight was approximately 54 kg. But the females were just under 1 meter tall and weighed about 40 kg, which indicates fairly large sexual dimorphism. Their brain size ranged from 410 to 530 cubic meters. cm. They ate more massive food, such as tubers and nuts, possibly from open forests and savannas. 6. Kenyanthropus (Kenyanthropus) genus of hominids who lived from 3.5 to 3.2 million. years ago in the Pliocene. This genus is represented by one species, Kenyanthropus flatface, but some scientists consider it a separate species of australopithecus, like Australopithecus flatface, while others classify it as Australopithecus afarensis. 6.1. The Kenyanthropus platyops was found on the Kenyan side of Lake Turkana in 1999. These Kenyanthropes lived from 3.5 to 3.2 million ago. This species remains a mystery, and suggests that 3.5 - 2 million years ago there were several humanoid species, each of which was well adapted to life in a certain environment. 7. The genus Humans or Homo includes both extinct species and Homo sapiens. Extinct species are classified as ancestral, especially Homo erectus, or as closely related to modern humans. The earliest representatives of the genus, on this moment , date back 2.5 million years. 7.1. Homo gautengensis is a species of hominin that was identified in 2010, following a fresh look at a skull found back in 1977 in Sterkfontein Cave in Johannesburg, South Africa, Gothenburg Province. This species is represented by South African fossil hominins previously classified as Homo habilis, Homo ergaster, or in some cases Australopithecus. But Australopithecus sediba, which lived at the same time as Homo Gautengensis, turned out to be much more primitive. The identification of Homo gautengensis was made from fragments of skulls, teeth and other parts found at various times in caves at a site called the Cradle of Humankind in South Africa. The oldest specimens are dated at 1.9-1.8 million years. The youngest specimens from Swartkrans date from approximately 1.0 million to 600 thousand years ago. According to the description, Homo hautengensis had large teeth suitable for chewing plants and a small brain, most likely he consumed a predominantly plant diet, unlike Homo erectus, Homo sapiens and, probably, Homo habilis. Scientists believe it made and used stone tools, and judging by the burnt animal bones found with the remains of Homo hautengensis, these hominins used fire. They were slightly taller than 90 cm, and their weight was about 50 kg. Homo hautengensis walked on two legs, but also spent significant time in trees, possibly feeding, sleeping and hiding from predators. 7.2. Homo rudolfensis, a species of the genus Homo that lived 1.7-2.5 million years ago, was first discovered in 1972 at Lake Turkana in Kenya. However, the remains were first described in 1978 by Soviet anthropologist Valery Alekseev. Remains were also found in Malawi in 1991 and in Koobi Fora, Kenya in 2012. Homo Rudolph coexisted in parallel with Homo habilis or Homo habilis and they could interact. Possibly the ancestor of later Homo species. 7.3. Homo habilis is a species of fossil hominid that is considered a representative of our ancestors. Lived from approximately 2.4 to 1.4 million years ago, during the Gelasian Pleistocene. The first finds were made in Tanzania in 1962-1964. Homo habilis was considered the earliest known species of the genus Homo, until the discovery of Homo hautengensis in 2010. Homo habilis was short and had disproportionately long arms compared to modern humans, but with a flatter face than australopithecines. The volume of his skull was less than half that of modern humans. His finds are often accompanied by primitive stone tools from the Olduvai culture, hence the name "Handy Man". And to describe it more simply, the body of the Habilis resembles Australopithecus, with a more human-like face and smaller teeth. Whether Homo habilis was the first hominid to master stone tool technology remains controversial, since Australopithecus garhi, dated 2.6 million years ago, was found along with similar stone tools, and is at least 100-200 thousand years older than Homo habilis. Homo habilis lived in parallel with other bipedal primates, such as Paranthropus boisei. But Homo habilis, perhaps through tool use and a more varied diet, judging by dental analysis, became the ancestor of a whole line of new species, while the remains of Paranthropus boisei were no longer found. Also, Homo habilis may have coexisted with Homo erectus about 500 thousand years ago. 7.4. Homo ergaster is an extinct but one of the earliest Homo species that lived in eastern and southern Africa during the Early Pleistocene, 1.8 - 1.3 million years ago. The working man, named for his advanced technology of hand tools, is sometimes referred to as the African Homo erectus. Some researchers consider the working man to be the ancestor of the Acheulean culture, while other scientists award the palm to early erectus. There is also evidence of their use of fire. The remains were first discovered in 1949 in southern Africa. And the most complete skeleton was discovered in Kenya on the western shore of Lake Turkana, it belonged to a teenager and was called the “Boy from Turkana” or also “Nariokotome Boy”, his age was 1.6 million years. This finding is often classified as Homo erectus. Homo ergaster is thought to have diverged from the Homo habilis lineage between 1.9 and 1.8 million years ago and existed for about half a million years in Africa. Scientists also believe that they quickly became sexually mature, even in their youth. Its distinctive feature was also its rather tall height, about 180 cm. Working humans are also less sexually dimorphic than Austropithecus, and this may mean more prosocial behavior. His brain was already larger, up to 900 cubic centimeters. Some scientists believe that they could use a proto-language based on the structure of the cervical vertebrae, but this is just speculation at the moment. 7.5. The Dmanisian hominid (Homo georgicus) or (Homo erectus georgicus) is the first representative of the genus Homo to leave Africa. Finds dating back to 1.8 million years were discovered in Georgia in August 1991 and were described in different years also as Georgian Man (Homo georgicus), Homo erectus georgicus, Dmanisi hominid (Dmanisi) and as Working Man (Homo ergaster). But it was isolated as a separate species and they, together with erectus and ergasters, are also often called archanthropes, or if we add Heidelberg man of Europe and Sinanthropus from China, then we get Pithecanthropus. In 1991 by David Lordkipanidze. Along with ancient human remains, tools and animal bones were found. The brain volume of Dmanisian hominids is approximately 600-700 cubic centimeters - half that of modern humans. This is the most small brain a hominid that was found outside of Africa other than Flores man (Homo floresiensis). The Dmanisian hominid was bipedal and shorter in stature compared to the abnormally tall ergasters, average height males were about 1.2m. Dental conditions indicate omnivory. But no evidence of the use of fire was found among archaeological finds. Possibly a descendant of Rudolph Man. 7.6. Homo erectus, or simply Erectus, is an extinct species of hominid that lived from the late Pliocene to the late Pleistocene, approximately 1.9 million to 300,000 years ago. About 2 million years ago, the climate in Africa changed to drier. A long period of existence and migration could not but create many different views of scientists on this species. According to available data and their interpretation, the species originated in Africa, then migrated to India, China and to the island of Java. Overall, Homo erectus spread throughout the warmer parts of Eurasia. But some scientists suggest that Erectus appeared in Asia and only then migrated to Africa. Erectus have existed for over a million years, longer than other human species. The classification and ancestry of Homo erectus is quite controversial. But there are some subspecies of erectus. 7.6.1 Pithecanthropus or "Javanese man" - Homo erectus erectus 7.6.2 Yuanmou man - Homo erectus yuanmouensis 7.6.3 Lantian man - Homo erectus lantianensis 7.6.4 Nanjing man - Homo erectus nankinensis 7.6.5 Sinanthropus or "Beijing man" - Homo erectus pekinensis 7.6.6 Meganthropus - Homo erectus palaeojavanicus 7.6.7 Javanthrope or Soloi man - Homo erectus soloensis 7.6.8 Man from Totavel - Homo erectus tautavelensis 7.6.9 Dmanisian hominid - Homo erectus georgicus 7.6.10 Man from Bilzingsleben - Homo erectus bilzingslebenensis 7.6.11 Atlantrop or Moorish man - Homo erectus mauritanicus 7.6.12 Man from Cerpano - Homo cepranensis, some scientists distinguish it, like many other subspecies, into a separate species, but the 1994 find in the vicinity of Rome is represented only by the skull, therefore there is little data for a more thorough analysis. Homo erectus got its name for a reason; his legs were adapted for both walking and running. Temperature exchange was increased due to rarer and short hair on the body. It is quite possible that erectus have already become hunters. Smaller teeth may indicate changes in diet, most likely due to the processing of food by fire. And this is already a path to enlargement of the brain, the volume of which in erecti varied from 850 to 1200 cubic cm. They were up to 178 cm tall. The sexual dimorphism of erectuses was less than that of their predecessors. They lived in groups of hunter-gatherers and hunted together. Fire was used both for warmth and cooking, and to scare away predators. They made tools, hand axes, flakes, and in general were carriers of the Acheulean culture. In 1998 there were suggestions that they were building rafts. 7.7. Homo antecessor is an extinct human species, ranging in age from 1.2 million to 800,000 years. Was found in the Sierra de Atapuerca in 1994. A 900,000-year-old fossil of an upper jaw and part of a skull discovered in Spain belonged to a boy at most 15 years old. Numerous bones, both animal and human, were found nearby with markings that may indicate cannibalism. Almost all of those eaten were teenagers or children. However, no evidence was found indicating a lack of food in the surrounding area at that time. They were approximately 160-180 cm tall and weighed about 90 kg. The brain volume of the previous person (Homo antecessor) was about 1000-1150 cubic centimeters. Scientists suggest rudimentary speech abilities. 7.8. Heidelberg man (Homo heidelbergensis) or protanthropus (Protanthropus heidelbergensis) is an extinct species of the genus Homo, which may be the direct ancestor of both Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis), if we consider its development in Europe, and Homo sapiens, but only in Africa. The discovered remains were dated from 800 to 150 thousand years. The first records of this species were made in 1907 by Daniel Hartmann in the village of Mauer in southwestern Germany. After which representatives of the species were discovered in France, Italy, Spain, Greece and China. Also in 1994, a discovery was made in England near the village of Boxgrove, hence the name “Boxgrove Man”. However, the name of the area is also found - “horse slaughterhouse”, which involves cutting up horse carcasses using stone tools. Heidelberg Man used tools from the Acheulean culture, sometimes with transitions into the Mousterian culture. They were on average 170 cm tall, and in South Africa there were finds of individuals 213 cm tall. and which dated from 500 to 300 thousand years. Heidelberg Man may have been first view , who buried his dead, these findings are based on 28 remains found in Atapuerca, Spain. Perhaps he used tongue and red ocher as decoration, which is confirmed by finds at Terra Amata near Nice on the slopes of Mount Boron. Dental analysis suggests they were right-handed. Heidelberg Man (Homo heidelbergensis) was an advanced hunter, as evidenced by hunting tools such as spears from Schöningen in Germany. 7.8.1. Rhodesian man (Homo rhodesiensis) is an extinct subspecies of hominin that lived from 400 to 125 thousand years ago. The Kabwe fossil skull is the type specimen of the species, found in the Broken Hill Caves in Northern Rhodesia, now Zambia, by Swiss miner Tom Zwiglaar in 1921. Previously it was classified as a separate species. The Rhodesian man was massive, with very large eyebrows and a broad face. It is sometimes called the "African Neanderthal", although it has features intermediate between sapiens and Neanderthals. 7.9. Florisbad (Homo helmei) is described as an "archaic" Homo sapiens who lived 260,000 years ago. Represented by a partially preserved skull that was discovered in 1932 by Professor Dreyer within the archaeological and paleontological site of Florisbad near Bloemfontein in South Africa. It may be an intermediate form between Heidelberg man (Homo heidelbergensis) and homo sapiens (Homo sapiens). Florisbad was the same size as modern humans, but with a larger brain capacity of about 1400 cm3. 7.10 Neanderthal (Homo neanderthalensis) is an extinct species or subspecies within the genus Homo, closely related to modern humans, and has interbred with them on numerous occasions. The term "Neanderthal" comes from the modern spelling of the Neander Valley in Germany, where the species was first discovered in the Feldhofer Cave. Neanderthals existed, according to genetic data, from 600 thousand years ago, and according to archaeological finds from 250 to 28 thousand years ago, with their last refuge in Gibraltar. The finds are currently being intensively studied and there is no point in describing them in more detail, since I will return to this species, perhaps more than once. 7.11. Homo Naledi Fossils were discovered in 2013 in the Dinaledi Chamber, Rising Star Cave system, Gauteng province in South Africa and were quickly recognized as the remains of a new species in 2015, and different from remains found previously. In 2017, the finds were dated from 335 to 236 thousand years. The remains of fifteen individuals, both male and female, were recovered from the cave, including children. The new kind named Homo naledi, it has an unexpected combination of modern and primitive features, including a rather small brain. "Naledi" was about one and a half meters tall, with a brain volume from 450 to 610 cubic meters. See The word "naledi" means "star" in the Sotho-Tswana languages. 7.12. Homo floresiensis or hobbit is an extinct dwarf species of the genus Homo. Flores man lived from 100 to 60 thousand years ago. The archaeological remains were discovered by Mike Morewood in 2003 on the island of Flores in Indonesia. Incomplete skeletons of nine individuals have been recovered, including one complete skull, from Liang Bua Cave. A distinctive feature of hobbits, as the name suggests, is their height, about 1 meter, and their small brain, about 400 cm3. Stone tools were found along with skeletal remains. There is still debate about Homo Flores, whether he could have made tools with such a brain. The theory was put forward that the found skull was a microcephalus. But most likely this species evolved from erectus or other species in conditions of isolation on the island. 7.13. Denisovans ("Denisovan") (Denisova hominin) are Paleolithic members of the genus Homo that may belong to a previously unknown human species. It is believed to be the third person from the Pleistocene to demonstrate a level of adaptation previously thought to be unique to modern humans and Neanderthals. The Denisovans occupied large territories, stretching from cold Siberia to the tropical rainforests of Indonesia. In 2008, Russian scientists, in Denisova Cave or Ayu-Tash, in Altai mountains, the distal phalanx of the girl’s finger was discovered, from which mitochondrial DNA was later isolated. The owner of the phalanx lived in a cave about 41 thousand years ago. This cave was also inhabited by Neanderthals and modern humans in different time . In general, there are not many finds, including teeth and part of a toe phalanx, as well as various tools and jewelry, including a bracelet made of non-local material. Analysis of mitochondrial DNA from the finger bone showed that Denisovans are genetically different from Neanderthals and modern humans. They may have separated from the Neanderthal lineage after splitting with the Homo sapiens lineage. Recent analyzes have also shown that they overlapped with our species and even interbred several times, at different times. Up to 5-6% of the DNA of Melanesians and Australian aborigines contains Denisovan admixtures. And modern non-Africans have about 2-3% admixture. In 2017, in China, fragments of skulls were found with a large brain volume, up to 1800 cubic cm, and 105-125 thousand years old. Some scientists, based on their description, have suggested that they could belong to the Denisovans, but these versions are currently controversial. 7.14. Idaltu (Homo sapiens idaltu) is an extinct subspecies of Homo sapiens that lived approximately 160 thousand years ago in Africa. "Idaltu" means "firstborn". Fossil remains of Homo sapiens idaltu were discovered in 1997 by Tim White at Herto Buri in Ethiopia. Although the morphology of the skulls indicates archaic features that are not found in later Homo sapiens, they are still considered by scientists as the direct ancestors of modern Homo sapiens sapiens. 7.15. Homo sapiens is a species of the hominid family from the large order of primates. And it is the only living species of this genus, that is, us. If anyone is reading or listening to this not from our species, write in the comments...). Representatives of the species first appeared in Africa about 200 or 315 thousand years ago, if we take into account the latest data from Jebel Irhoud, but there are still many questions there. After which they spread almost throughout the entire planet. Although in a more modern form as Homo sapiens sapiens, well, a very intelligent person, appeared a little over 100 thousand years ago, according to some anthropologists. Also in early times, in parallel with humans, other species and populations developed, such as Neanderthals and Denisovans, as well as Soloi man or Javanthrope, Ngandong man and Callao Man, as well as others that do not fit into the species Homo sapiens, but according to dating, who lived at the same time. As for example: 7.15.1. The Red Deer Cave people are an extinct population of people, the latest known to science, that do not fit within the variability of Homo sapiens. And perhaps belongs to another species of the genus Homo. They were discovered in the south of China in the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region in the Longling Cave in 1979. The age of the remains is from 11.5 to 14.3 thousand years. Although they may well be the results of crossbreeding between different populations living during that period. These issues will still be discussed on the channel, so a brief description will suffice for now. And now, whoever watched the video from beginning to end, put the letter “P” in the comments, and if in parts, then “C”, only to be honest!

The question of how old the human race is: seven thousand, two hundred thousand, two million or a billion is still open. There are several versions. Let's look at the main ones.

Young “homo sapiens” (200-340 thousand years)

If we talk about the species homo sapiens, that is, “reasonable man,” he is relatively young. Official science gives it about 200 thousand years. This conclusion was made based on a study of mitochondrial DNA and famous skulls from Ethiopia. The latter were found in 1997 during excavations near the Ethiopian village of Herto. These were the remains of a man and a child, whose age was at least 160 thousand years. Today, these are the most ancient representatives of Homo sapiens known to us. Scientists have dubbed them homo sapiens idaltu, or "oldest intelligent man."

Around the same time, maybe a little earlier (200 thousand years ago), the ancestor of all modern people, “mitrogondrial Eve,” lived in the same place in Africa. Every living person has its mitochondria (a set of genes transmitted only through the female line). However, this does not mean that she was the first woman on earth. It’s just that in the course of evolution, it was her descendants who were most fortunate. By the way, “Adam,” whose Y chromosome is present in every man today, is comparatively younger than “Eve.” It is believed that he lived about 140 thousand years ago.

However, all this data is inaccurate and inconclusive. Science is based only on what it has, and more ancient representatives of homo sapiens have not yet been found. But Adam's age has recently been revised, which could add another 140 thousand years to the age of humanity. A recent study of the genes of one African-American man, Albert Perry, and 11 other villagers in Cameroon showed that they had a more “ancient” Y chromosome, which was once passed on to his descendants by a man who lived approximately 340 thousand years ago.

"Homo" – 2.5 million years

“Homo sapiens” is a young species, but the genus “Homo” itself, from which it comes, is much older. Not to mention their predecessors - Australopithecus, who were the first to stand on both legs and begin to use fire. But if the latter still had too many features in common with monkeys, then the most ancient representatives the genus “Homo” - homo habilis (skillful man) were already similar to people.

Its representative, or rather its skull, was found in 1960 in the Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania along with bones saber tooth tiger. Perhaps he fell victim to a predator. It was later established that the remains belonged to a teenager who lived about 2.5 million years ago. Its brain was more massive than that of typical australopithecines, its pelvis allowed it to move calmly on two legs, and its legs themselves were only suitable for walking upright.

Subsequently, the sensational discovery was complemented by an equally sensational discovery - homo habilis himself made tools for labor and hunting, carefully selecting materials for them, going to great distances from sites for them. This was found out due to the fact that all his weapons were made of quartz, which was not found near the places of residence of the first person. It was homo habilis who created the first - Olduvai archaeological culture, with which the Paleolithic or Stone Age began.

Scientific creationism (from 7500 years ago)

As you know, the theory of evolution is not considered fully proven. Its main competitor was and remains creationism, according to which both all life on Earth and the world as a whole were created by a Supreme Intelligence, the Creator or God. There is also scientific creationism, whose followers point to scientific confirmation of what is said in the Book of Genesis. They reject the long chain of evolution, arguing that there were no transitional links, all living forms on earth were created complete. And they lived together for a long time: people, dinosaurs, mammals. Until the flood, traces of which, according to them, we still find today - this is the great canyon in America, dinosaur bones and other fossils.

Creationists do not have a consensus on the age of humanity and the world, although they all rely on the first three chapters of the first Book of Genesis on this issue. So-called “young earth creationism” takes them literally, insisting that the entire world was created by God in 6 days, about 7,500 years ago. Followers of “Old Earth Creationism” believe that God’s activity cannot be measured by human standards. One “day” of creation may not mean a day, millions or even billions of years. Thus, it is almost impossible to determine the real age of the earth and humanity in particular. Relatively speaking, this is the period from 4.6 billion years (when, according to the scientific version, planet earth was born) to 7500 years ago.

Homo sapiens, or Homo sapiens, has undergone many changes since its inception - both in the structure of the body and in social and spiritual development.

The emergence of people who had a modern physical appearance (type) and changed occurred in the Late Paleolithic. Their skeletons were first discovered in the Cro-Magnon Grotto in France, so people of this type were called Cro-Magnons. It was they who were characterized by a complex of all the main physiological characteristics, which are also typical for us. Compared to that of Neanderthals, they reached high level. Scientists consider the Cro-Magnons to be our direct ancestors.

For some time, this type of people existed simultaneously with the Neanderthals, who later died, since only the Cro-Magnons were sufficiently adapted to the conditions environment. It is with them stone tools labor goes out of use, and they are replaced by more skillfully crafted ones made from bone and horn. In addition, there is more types These tools - all kinds of drills, scrapers, harpoons and needles appear. This makes people more independent of climatic conditions and allows them to explore new territories. Homo sapiens also changes his behavior towards elders, a connection appears between generations - continuity of traditions, transfer of experience and knowledge.

To summarize the above, we can highlight the main aspects of the formation of the species Homo sapiens:

1. spiritual and psychological development that leads to self-knowledge and development abstract thinking. As a consequence, the emergence of art, as evidenced by cave drawings and paintings;
2. pronunciation of articulate sounds (the origin of speech);
3. thirst for knowledge to pass it on to their fellow tribesmen;
4. creation of new, more advanced tools;
5. which made it possible to tame (domesticate) wild animals and cultivate plants.

These events became important milestone in the development of man. It was they who allowed him not to depend on his environment and

even exercise control over some of its aspects. Homo sapiens continues to undergo changes, the most important of which becomes

Taking advantage of modern civilization, progress, man is still trying to establish power over the forces of nature: changing the flow of rivers, draining swamps, populating territories where life was previously impossible.

According to modern classification, the species “Homo sapiens” is divided into 2 subspecies - “Homo Idaltu” and “Human” This division into subspecies appeared after the discovery in 1997 of remains that had some similarities with the skeleton of modern humans anatomical features, in particular - the size of the skull.

According to scientific data, Homo sapiens appeared 70-60 thousand years ago, and during all this time of his existence as a species, he improved under the influence only of social forces, because no changes were found in the anatomical and physiological structure.