Brief description of the physiological processes of speech formation. Physiological foundations of speech: its functions and mechanisms. General characteristics of speech

Many people have only negative associations with the word “stress”. In fact, there are two types of stress:

Beneficial stress, or eustress. To live a full life, everyone needs a small dose of beneficial stress - without it, our body would have a hard time. For example, in order to get out of bed in the morning and go to work, you need to fully wake up. And in order to work productively and with pleasure, a person needs an awakening reaction, or eustress (a small portion of adrenaline). Let's call this state the “awakening reaction.”

Harmful stress, or distress, occurs when tension reaches a critical point when there is no more strength to fight it. For example, if lack of sleep is already chronic. This is the emotional state we mean when we say we are “stressed.”

The main types of harmful stress (distress):

• psychological or emotional stress

Psychological stress, as a rule, appears in situations associated with the experience of strong emotions. Any situation that does not outwardly pose a threat to a person, but causes strong emotions, becomes a cause of psychological stress. Moreover, it doesn’t matter positive emotions or negative ones are the cause - the body reacts to a deviation from the norm of “plus” or “minus” in the same way.

This also includes stress that has no real cause, i.e. fantasized by the man himself. Moreover, no matter how illusory the reasons may be, the stress itself in such cases is absolutely real and from the point of view of the body and all the consequences is no different from stress caused real reasons. Moreover, the vast majority of stress is caused by fictitious reasons to one degree or another.

• physiological stress

Physiological stress occurs as a result of exposure to external factors such as cold, heat, pain, thirst, hunger, etc. A very telling example is the body’s reaction to diets. When a person goes on a diet, he thereby consciously limits himself to one or another food or quantity that is familiar to him. The body reacts to dietary restrictions in the only way possible – with stress, since it tries to adapt to new conditions. The same thing happens when a person decides that he has been on a diet enough and returns to his previous regime and diet, since the body is forced to adapt again, and this is only possible through stress.

• short-term stress

Short-term stress is the most natural stress - it is closely related to instincts, for example, a reaction to a sharp sound, sudden movement. This type of stress is characterized by suddenness and rapid passage of all stages of stress. As a rule, the effect of such stress is very short and does not pose any danger.

• chronic stress

Chronic stress is the most dangerous look stress. Many people confuse it with post-traumatic stress disorder or syndrome. Chronic stress is the kind of stress to which you are constantly exposed, which goes with you in the background throughout life and you are so accustomed to it that you don’t seem to notice it. For example, something permanently irritates you, some situation in life that you are in and which you think you cannot escape. Chronic stress is dangerous because it often leads to nervous breakdowns, depression and suicide. Chronic stress is also closely related to fears and phobias.

• nervous stress

Basically, this name is a kind of compilation of everyday ideas of the level “all diseases are from nerves” and “stress is harmful.” The dangers of stress are described in detail in this article. And all diseases are really from nerves, if only because in the occurrence, course and cure of any disease (it doesn’t matter - somatic or mental) important role the nervous system plays. You can read more about how diseases are related to the human psyche.

Symptoms of stress (distress):

• Frequent illnesses, weakening of the body's immune system
• Sexual function disorder
• Headaches, stomach pains, peptic ulcers
• Deterioration of sleep
• Loss of appetite or, conversely, excessive gluttony
• Changes in food preferences: if before, for example, you didn’t want a lot of spicy or sweet foods, then in a state of stress, on the contrary, you want a lot.
• Increased excitability: more often you want to be irritated, angry, angry, laugh for no reason.

Psychology of stress

Stress primarily affects human psychology and behavior. Most often the behavior changes as follows:

• the person becomes very irritable
• reacts inadequately to the slightest difficulties
• become less active, as a result of which you do not have time to do what you planned
• the number of successfully completed tasks decreases
• a person has a frequent desire to argue
• he becomes overly critical of things that previously suited him well
• a person feels the need for alcohol, or other substitutes, to increase self-confidence
• he is in a constant state of despondency and self-pity
• a person loses control over the situation: he cannot cope with many problems that require simultaneous and immediate solutions
• a person often experiences such undesirable body reactions as: rapid heartbeat, upset stomach, sweating, fever and skin rashes
• a person is inclined to explain these manifestations simply by the complication of life, considers it impossible to control a changing situation and does not even try to do this.

The idea of ​​coping with stress on your own is as “successful” as cutting your own hair in front of the mirror. To remove not only the symptoms of stress, but also to strengthen the nervous system and increase the stress resistance of the body as a whole, it is better to work with a professional. A psychologist is as necessary a specialist now as a hairdresser or a fitness trainer, and taking care of your state of mind even more important - new hairstyle will bring back the sparkle in your eyes before the first wash. I invite everyone who wants to improve the quality of their life to a free consultation. Record by link.

Ksenia Golitsyna,
Practicing psychologist
2012

IN modern world a person often faces situations that make him worry, nervous, angry or feel powerless. Against the backdrop of prolonged action of such emotions, stress often appears, which can not only have Negative influence on emotional background, but also cause serious harm to health. The heart and nervous system suffer the most. To understand how to protect your health, you need to understand the types, causes of stress and how to deal with it.

What is stress?

Translated from English, “stress” means “tension, pressure, pressure.” The first hypothesis about its existence was expressed by the scientist-physiologist G. Selye. Through his research, he was able to prove that the cause of the symptoms of many diseases does not lie in the diseases themselves.

Any external influence on the human body causes its reaction. Stress works on the same principle. It makes itself felt during nervous exhaustion, against the background of fatigue, or during strong emotional experiences. Everyone is subject to it. However, it cannot be said that such a state is completely negative. Stress “in small doses” can spur a person to make decisions and take action. Constant stress, on the contrary, exhausts him and makes him unable to take control of the situation, in addition, the strength nervous system are running out, and this entails a lot unpleasant consequences. People exposed to stress become apathetic, lethargic, sometimes rude, and their ability to absorb new information is dulled.

Stages of stress

We will dwell on the types of this reaction of the body a little later, but for now let’s talk about the mechanism of its development.

The state of stress in a person develops gradually. The process can take from several days to several years.

1. Anxiety immediately after the appearance of external stimuli. Excitement leads to the activation of the body's defenses. Feelings work in full force, but it doesn't last long.
2. The manifestation of a resistance reaction that divides people into two types. The former come to grips with the situation and try to solve the problem, while the latter try to adapt and do everything possible so that new external factors become commonplace.
3. The reaction to winning or losing occurs individually. If a person is not able to withstand difficulties and was unable to adapt to them, his health deteriorates.

Types of stress

With the development of psychology, G. Selye somewhat expanded the concept of stress. It is difficult to list the types of stress and their characteristics - there are so many of them - but they can be classified according to certain parameters.

According to the consequences of the influence on the human body, they are distinguished:

1. Distress

This type appears spontaneously and has a fatal effect on the nervous system. Its cause is constant overexertion, which subsequently results in serious emotional problems and leads to deterioration of physical health. The nature of the occurrence depends on the circumstances.

2. Eustress

This type is characterized by a slight effect on the nervous system. It promotes the activation of logical thinking and is therefore more positive. A person under its influence clearly sees the surrounding picture of the world and is able to make clear, informed decisions. His body and brain go into a state of combat readiness due to the release of adrenaline, which is completely normal and happens to people every day.

When considering the types of stress in psychology, one should also turn to other classifications.

Positive and negative

Good and bad events happen in everyone's life. Positive stress (for example, a big win in the lottery or an elderly rich relative suddenly showing up) leads to a positive attitude and has a beneficial effect on the body, immunity and even appearance.

At the same time, negative stress (for example, experiencing death close relative or a break in relationship) can unsettle you for a long time and undermine your health.

It is important to note that in both cases there is strong influence on the cardiovascular system, be it a million-dollar lottery win or the death of a loved one. The body experiences serious stress from both bad and good news.

By exposure time

According to this classification, there are two types of stress: long-term or short-term.

People experience the acute, or short-term, form every day. Any events in the external world affect the mental state. Such stress goes through all stages of development in a short period of time. Its most severe manifestation is shock.

The big problem with this type of stress is that it creates memories.

Long-term stress can occur without an acute stage. If a person is constantly exposed to emotional stress and has even become accustomed to it, sooner or later this will lead to neurosis and nervous breakdown. To some extent it depends on the level of psychological resistance.

Physiological and psychological stress

The most understandable and simplest are physiological stress:

• mechanical - bodily injuries and damage to internal organs, operations, painful shock;
• physical - heat, cold, abrupt change position in space, weightlessness;
• biological - diseases, toxins, the presence of fungi and bacteria in the body;
• chemical - chemical poisoning, excess carbon dioxide, lack of oxygen, and so on.

Psychological stress is a peculiar reaction of the body to the peculiarities of the individual’s interaction with the outside world. This is a more complex condition that requires analysis of the significance of a particular situation.

The following types of psychological stress are distinguished:

• Emotional - appears due to the feelings inherent in each person. The strongest emotion is fear, followed by anger, resentment, and powerlessness.
• Informational - appears as a result of an excess of news or because of worries about one’s responsibilities and promises. Often its cause is the fear that some personal secret of a person will be revealed.

There are other types of stress

Financial

Money plays a huge role in the lives of each of us. They are used to purchase food, necessary things and household items, pay bills, entertainment and much more. When people find themselves in a situation where expenses exceed income, people begin to experience stress. It can also be caused by unexpected expenses, a decrease in wages, or the inability to take out a loan.

Intrapersonal

Such stress appears due to a person’s disharmony with himself. Unfulfilled dreams and hopes, unfulfilled needs lead to it. Internal dissatisfaction and worries begin to manifest themselves as irritability, which is why stress develops.

Public

This type of stress is almost impossible to avoid, since every individual lives in a society, and therefore faces the problems of this society. Among the main reasons for its appearance are economic, political and others.

Ecological

Health directly depends on the environment. Noise, environmental pollution, and exposure to chemicals negatively affect the body. All these reasons, as well as the expectation of adverse effects, lead to environmental stress.

Worker

The desire to build a career in conjunction with long absence a positive result or simply a high load causes chronic fatigue and negative emotions. This stress often results from unfair job evaluations, poor job security, or role ambiguity.

Based on the previous classification, the following types of professional stress can be distinguished:

• informational - appears as a result of information overload, when a person cannot make an important decision within a strictly established time limit;
• emotional - occurs due to conflicts with colleagues and management;
• communicative - expressed in the problem of communicating with the team, the inability to refuse where necessary, and the inability to protect oneself from attacks.

Main causes of stress

Common causes of various types of stress include:

• emergency circumstances, man-made, natural and social situations;
• economic and political situation in the country;
• diseases;
• living conditions;
• the cognitive dissonance and mechanisms psychological protection;
• interaction with people;
• a person's position in society;
• human character traits:
• life's adversity (divorce, loss, debt, change of circumstances that cannot be influenced);
• difficulties at work (level of pay, disagreements with colleagues, and so on), the occurrence of which interferes with normal labor productivity.

Instead of an afterword

Despite the fact that most major types of stress accompanies us throughout our lives, we need to learn how to resist them. Depression and psychological disorders depress physical and mental health. If you know the effects of stress and its principles, you can independently develop combat tactics. But we should not forget that stress can be useful by promoting mental activity and training stress resistance.

Psychological stress

Maria Barnikova

Most ordinary people regard stress as negative, painful experiences caused by insoluble difficulties, insurmountable obstacles, unfulfilled hopes...

The concept of stress is firmly rooted in the vocabulary modern man, and most ordinary people regard this phenomenon as negative, painful experiences or frustrations caused by insoluble difficulties, insurmountable obstacles, unfulfilled hopes. More than 80 years ago Hans Selye, the creators of the theory of stress, in his works emphasized that stress does not mean pain, torment, humiliation, or catastrophic changes in life.

Complete relief from stress means the end of life

What is psychological stress? We present its classical definition given by the author of the theory. Stress (stress - a state of increased stress, emotional tension) - a complex of nonspecific adaptive reactions of the body to any demands placed on it due to the influence of stress factors that lead to a violation of its homeostasis. Nonspecific reactions are adaptive actions aimed at restoring the original state of the body, producing specific effects on specific stimuli. Any surprise that makes a change in an individual’s usual life can be a stress factor. It does not matter what the nature of the situation is - positive or negative. Emotional shock can be provoked not only by external circumstances, but also by subconscious attitudes towards specific events. For the human psyche, only volume matters necessary efforts on the restructuring of habitual life rhythms, the intensity of energy expended on adaptation to new requirements.

Types of stress

In medical practice, it is customary to divide stressful situations into two types: Eustress – positive form And distress - negative. Eustress mobilizes the body's vital resources and stimulates further activity. Distress brings, causes a “wound” that, even when completely healed, leaves scars.

Distress has a negative impact on a person’s physical and mental health and can give impetus to development serious illnesses. In a state of stress, the activity of the immune system is significantly reduced, and a person becomes defenseless against viruses and infections. With negative emotional stress, the autonomic nervous system is activated, and the endocrine glands work more intensively. With prolonged or frequent influence of stress factors, the psycho-emotional sphere deteriorates, which often leads to severe depression or.

Based on the nature of the impact of stressors, the following are distinguished:

• neuropsychic;
• temperature (heat or cold);
• light;
• food (as a result of food deficiency);
• other types.

Outstanding psychologist Leontyev argued that in the case when the body demonstrates reactions to external phenomena that are not related to the satisfaction of vital needs (eating, the need for sleep, the instinct of self-preservation, procreation), such reactions are purely psychological. The concept of an intractable, extraordinary situation for a person in the concept of stress theory is also a psychological phenomenon.

Stressful situations are also divided into two groups: extreme social conditions(military actions, hooligan attacks, natural disasters) and critical psychological events(death of a relative, change in social status, divorce, exam). For some, the events that occurred were a shock, for others, natural phenomenon, and the intensity of the reaction is purely individual. An indisputable fact: in order for a response to a stimulus to occur, this stimulus must have a certain strength. And each individual has an unstable, changeable threshold of sensitivity. An individual with a low sensitivity threshold demonstrates a strong reaction to a stimulus of low intensity, while an individual with a high sensitivity threshold does not perceive this factor as an irritant.

Biological and psychobiological stress

Stress is also usually divided according to parameters into two groups:

• Biological;
• Psychological.

Different authors have different definitions of psychological stress, but most scientists classify this type as stress caused by the influence of external (social) factors or formed under the influence of internal sensations. It is not always possible to apply the laws of the stages of its course to psycho-emotional stress, since each individual has purely individual mental properties and personal characteristics of the autonomic nervous system.

A control question allows you to differentiate the type of stressful situation: “Do stressors cause obvious harm to the body?”. In the case of a positive answer, a biological species is diagnosed; in the case of a negative answer, psychological stress is diagnosed.

Psycho-emotional stress differs from biological stress in a number of specific features, including:

• It is formed under the influence of both real and probable situations that are the object of the individual’s anxiety;
• Of great importance is a person’s assessment of the degree of his participation in influencing a problem situation, his perception of the quality of the chosen methods of neutralizing stressors.

The methodology for measuring stressful sensations (PSM-25 scale) is aimed at analyzing a person’s emotional state, and not at studying indirect indicators (stressor, indicators of depressive, anxious-phobic states).

Key differences between biological and psychological stress situations:

Stress: main stages of development

The range of reactions to a stressful event includes a variety of states of excitation and inhibition, including states called affective. The process of a stressful state consists of three stages.

Stage 1. Emotional reaction of anxiety.

At this stage, the body’s first response to stress factors appears. The duration of this phase is strictly individual: for some people, the increase in tension goes away in a matter of minutes, for others, the increase in anxiety occurs over several weeks. The body's resistance to external stimuli decreases, and self-control weakens. A person gradually loses the ability to fully control his actions and loses self-control. His behavior changes to completely opposite actions (for example: a calm, self-controlled person becomes impulsive, aggressive). The person avoids social contacts, alienation appears in relationships with loved ones, and the distance in communication with friends and colleagues increases. The impact of distress has a devastating effect on the psyche. Excessive emotional stress can cause disorganization, disorientation and depersonalization.

Stage 2. Resistance and adaptation.

In this phase, maximum activation and strengthening of the body’s resistance to the stimulus occurs. Prolonged exposure to a stress factor ensures gradual adaptation to its effects. The body's resistance significantly exceeds the norm. It is at this stage that the individual is able to analyze, choose the most effective way and cope with the stressor.

Stage 3. Exhaustion.

Having exhausted available energy resources due to exposure to a stressor for a long period of time, a person feels severe fatigue, devastation, and weariness. A feeling of guilt sets in, and signs of the anxiety stage appear again. However, in this phase, the body’s ability to readapt is lost, and the person becomes powerless to take any action. Disorders of an organic nature appear, and severe pathological psychosomatic conditions arise.

Each person has been “programmed” from childhood with their own personal scenario of behavior in a stressful situation, reproduced in frequency and form of manifestation of the stress reaction. Some experience stressors daily in small doses, others experience distress rarely, but in full, painful manifestations. Also, each person has an individual orientation of aggression under stress. One blames himself exclusively, triggering the development of depressive states. Another person finds the causes of her troubles in the people around her and puts forward unfounded claims, often in an extremely aggressive form, becoming a socially dangerous person.

Psychological mechanisms of stress

The emergence of emotional tension during stress is an adaptive reaction of the body, emerging and growing as a result of interaction physiological systems and mechanisms in combination with psychological methods response.

The physiological group of stress mechanisms involves:

• Subcortical system, which activates the work of the cerebral cortex;
• Sympathetic Autonomic System, preparing the body for unexpected stressors, intensifying cardiac activity, stimulating the supply of glucose;
• Subcortical motor centers, controlling innate instinctive, motor, facial, pantomimic mechanisms;
• Endocrine organs;
• Mechanisms of reverse afferentation, transmitting nerve impulses through interoreceptors and proprioceptors from internal organs and muscles back to areas of the brain.

Psychological mechanisms– attitudes formed and recorded at the subconscious level, arising as a response to the influence of stress factors. Psychological schemes are designed to protect the human psyche from negative consequences exposure to stressors. Not all of these mechanisms are harmless; they often do not allow an event to be assessed correctly, and often harm the social activity of the individual.

Psychological defense schemes include seven mechanisms:

• Suppression. The main mechanism, the purpose of which is to remove existing desires from consciousness if it is impossible to satisfy them. Repression of sensations and memories can be partial or complete, as a result of which the person gradually forgets past events. Often it is a source of new problems (for example: a person forgets previously made promises). It often causes somatic diseases (headaches, heart pathologies, cancer).
• Negation. The individual denies the fact of the occurrence of any event and “goes” into fantasy. Often a person does not notice the contradictions in his judgments and actions, and therefore is often perceived by others as a frivolous, irresponsible, inadequate person.
• Rationalization. A method of self-justification, the creation of supposedly logical moral arguments to explain and justify socially unacceptable behavior that arises own desires and thoughts.
• Inversion. Conscious replacement of true thoughts and feelings, actually carried out actions with completely opposite ones.
• Projection. The individual projects onto others, ascribes to other people his own negative qualities, negative thoughts, and unhealthy feelings. It is a mechanism of self-justification.
• Insulation. The most dangerous response scheme. The individual separates the threatening component, the dangerous situation, from his personality as a whole. It can lead to a split personality and cause the development of schizophrenia.
• Regression. The subject returns to primitive ways of responding to stressors.

There is another classification of types of protective mechanisms, divided into two groups.

Group 1. Patterns of disruption of information reception

• Perceptual defense;
• Crowding out;
• Suppression;
• Negation.

Group 2. Patterns of impaired information processing

• Projection;
• Intellectualization;
• Separation;
• Overestimation (rationalization, defensive reaction, exploitation, illusion).

Stress factors

Stress levels are influenced by many different factors, including:

• The significance of stressors for an individual,
• Congenital features of the nervous system,
• Hereditary pattern of response to stressful events
• Features of growing up
• The presence of chronic somatic or mental pathologies, a recent illness,
• Unsuccessful experience in past similar situations,
• Having moral principles,
• Stress tolerance threshold
• Self-esteem, the quality of perception of oneself as a person,
• Existing hopes and expectations – their certainty or uncertainty.

Causes of stress

The most common cause of stress is a contradiction between reality and an individual’s ideas about reality. Stress reactions can be triggered both by real factors and by events that exist only in the imagination. Not only negative events, but also positive changes in an individual’s life lead to the development of a stressful state.

Research by American scientists Thomas Holmes And Richard Ray allowed us to create a table of stress factors that in most cases have the strongest impact on a person and trigger stress mechanisms (stress intensity scale). Among the events significant for people:

• Death of a close relative
• Divorce
• Parting with a loved one
• Imprisonment
• Serious illness
• Job loss
• Change in social status
• Deterioration of financial situation
• Big debts
• Inability to repay loan obligations
• Illness of close relatives
• Problems with law
• Retirement
• Marriage
• Pregnancy
• Sexual problems
• The arrival of a new family member
• Change of place of work
• Deterioration of family relationships
• Outstanding Personal Achievement
• Start or end of training
• Change of residence
• Problems with management
• Unfavorable atmosphere in the team
• Changing your work and leisure schedule
• Changing Personal Habits
• Changing eating behavior
• Changing working conditions
• Vacation
• Holidays

Stress factors tend to accumulate. Without taking effective steps, pushing his experiences inside, being left alone with his problems, a person risks losing contact with his own “I”, and subsequently losing contact with others.

Psychological symptoms of stress

Manifestations of stress– are purely individual, but all the signs are united by their negative connotation, their painful and painful perception by the individual. Symptoms vary depending on what stage of stress the person is in and what defense mechanisms involved. Some of the main symptoms of stress include:

• Causeless;
• Feeling of internal tension;
• Hot temper, nervousness, irritability, aggressiveness;
• Excessive inadequate reaction to the slightest stimulus;
• Inability to control your thoughts and emotions, manage your actions;
• Decreased concentration, difficulty remembering and reproducing information;
• Periods of sadness;
• Depressed, depressed state;
• Decreased interest in usual activities, apathetic state;
• Inability to enjoy pleasant events;
• Constant feeling of dissatisfaction;
• Capriciousness, excessive demands on others;
• Subjective feeling of overload, persistent fatigue;
• Decreased performance, inability to perform usual duties;
• – detachment from one’s own “I”;
• – feeling of the illusory nature of the surrounding world;
• Changes in eating behavior: lack of appetite or excessive eating;
• Sleep disorders: insomnia, waking up early, interrupted sleep;
• Changes in behavior, reduction in social contacts.

As a result of exposure to stressors, an individual often tries to artificially replace the negative feelings experienced with “pleasant” external factors: he begins to take alcohol or drugs, becomes a gambler, changes sexual behavior, begins to overeat, and takes risky, impulsive actions.

Treatment of stress

Being in situations that cause a state of stress, each person should strive to emerge victorious from the current situation, overcome obstacles courageously, with feeling self-esteem and without negative health consequences. After all, every new battle with stressors is another step on the thorny path of self-development and self-improvement.

Drug treatment of stress conditions

Choice comprehensive program Pharmacological treatment is carried out on an individual basis, taking into account various factors, including:

• predominant symptoms, strength and frequency of their manifestation;
• stage and severity of the stressful condition;
• patient's age;
• somatic and mental health status of the patient;
• personal characteristics, way of responding to stressors, individual sensitivity threshold;
• a history of mental pathologies and borderline states;
• individual preferences and financial capabilities of the patient;
• the received therapeutic response to drugs used previously;
• tolerability of pharmacological agents, their side effects;
• medications taken.

The main criterion for prescribing treatment is the symptoms shown. To eliminate stressful conditions use:

• Tranquilizers;
• Beta blockers;
• Amino acids;
• Herbal sedatives, bromides;
• Neuroleptics;
• Antidepressants;
• Sleeping pills;
• Vitamin and mineral complexes.

If the patient has predominant signs of an anxious state (irrational fear, excessive worry, anxiety for no reason), a short-term course of treatment with psychotropic drugs is administered to relieve symptoms. Use tranquilizers benzodiazepine series (for example: diazepam) or more gentle anxiolytics other groups (for example: adoptol).

Can quickly take control and minimize the painful physical manifestations of fear beta blockers, the action of which is aimed at blocking the release of adrenaline into the blood and reducing blood pressure (for example: anaprilin).

In overcoming emotional stress, reducing nervousness and irritability, a good therapeutic response is provided by relatively harmless drugs containing aminoacetic acid(eg: glycine).

For mild manifestations of anxiety, a long course (at least one month) is prescribed sedatives from the “green” pharmacy, made from valerian, mint, lemon balm, motherwort (for example: persen). In some cases, drugs are used - bromides, which have significant sedative potential (for example: adonis-bromine).

If there are “defensive” obsessive actions in the picture of the disease, it is recommended to take antipsychotics– drugs that can eliminate severe mental conditions (for example: haloperidol).

If depressive symptoms predominate (apathy, depressed state, sad mood), use antidepressants various groups. For mild forms of depressive mood, a long-term course (more than one month) of herbal remedies is prescribed. Thus, drugs based on St. John's wort (for example: Deprim) will provide an antidepressant effect. In more severe and dangerous cases, psychopharmacological antidepressants of various groups are used. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors - SSRIs (for example: fluoxetine) are easy to use, do not lead to overdose and show high results. The latest generation of drugs, melatonergic antidepressants (the only representative of this class: agomelatine), can eliminate depressive symptoms and reduce anxiety.

If the patient notices a change in sleep pattern and quality (insomnia, early awakening, interrupted sleep, nightmares), an appointment is made sleeping pills, both of plant origin and synthesized benzodiazepine drugs (for example: nitrazepam) or the latest chemical groups(eg: zopiclone). The use of barbiturates as sleeping pills has lost its relevance today.

An important role in overcoming stressful conditions is the replenishment of deficiency in the body. vitamins and minerals. In situations of emotional stress, it is recommended to take B vitamins (for example: Neurovitan), products with magnesium (for example: Magne B6) or multiactive complexes (for example: Vitrum).

Psychotherapeutic techniques for overcoming stress

Psychotherapy for stress conditions– techniques developed to provide a beneficial therapeutic effect on the psycho-emotional sphere of activity, directly related to and affecting the functioning of the human body as a whole. Psychotherapeutic assistance is often the only unique chance that allows a person in a stressful state to overcome existing problems, correct erroneous ideas and get rid of anxious and depressive states without negative consequences.

Modern psychotherapy uses over 300 different techniques, including the most common, popular and effective techniques:

• Psychodynamic;
• Cognitive-behavioral;
• Existential;
• Humanistic.

Direction 1. Psychodynamic approach

Based on the method of psychoanalysis, the founder of which was the famous talented scientist Sigmund Freud. Feature of the therapy: transferring into the area of ​​consciousness (awareness) by the patient of memories, experienced emotions and sensations repressed into the subconscious sphere. The following techniques are used: study and evaluation of dreams, free associative series, study of the characteristics of forgetting information.

Direction 2. Cognitive behavioral therapy

The essence of this method is to inform and teach the individual the adaptive skills necessary in emotionally difficult situations. A person develops and maintains new model thinking, allowing you to correctly assess and act adequately when faced with stress factors. In artificially created stressful situations, the patient, having experienced a state close to panic fear, the threshold of sensitivity to negative factors disturbing him is noticeably reduced.

Direction 3. Existential approach

The essence of therapy using this method is to concentrate on existing difficulties, reconsider the patient’s value system, realize personal significance, develop self-esteem and correct self-esteem. During the sessions, a person learns ways to harmoniously interact with the world around him, develops independence and awareness of thinking, and acquires new behavioral skills.

Direction 4. Humanistic approach

This method is based on the postulate: a person has unlimited abilities and opportunities to overcome problems in the presence of a significant incentive and adequate self-esteem. The doctor’s work with the patient is aimed at liberating the person’s consciousness, liberating him from indecision and uncertainty, and getting rid of the fear of defeat. The client learns to really understand and analyze the causes of existing difficulties, to develop correct and safe options for overcoming problems.

How to overcome the effects of stress on your own?

It is human nature to want to get rid of pain, tension, and anxiety. However, this ability to experience unpleasant sensations, oddly enough, is one of nature’s valuable gifts. A state of stress is a phenomenon designed to warn an individual about a threat to the integrity and vital functions of the body. This is an ideal mechanism that activates natural reflexes of resistance, evasion, retreat or flight, indispensable in the battle with a negative hostile environment. Unpleasant sensations accompanying a state of stress mobilize hidden resources, encourage efforts, changes and difficult decisions.

Every person needs to learn how to manage stress effectively and efficiently. If the event that caused the stress is dependent on individual activity (for example: emotional stress due to excessive work pressure), efforts should be concentrated on developing and analyzing options to change the existing situation. If an emotionally difficult situation is caused by external factors beyond the control and management of the individual (for example: the death of a spouse), it is necessary to accept this negative fact, come to terms with its existence, and change the perception and attitude towards this event.

Effective methods for relieving emotional tension and psychological stress

Method 1. Letting out emotions

Special breathing techniques are designed to relieve accumulated tension and get rid of negative emotions. We perform energetic movements (swings) with our hands, then close our eyes. Take a slow, deep breath in through your nose, hold your breath for 5 seconds, and slowly exhale through your mouth. We perform 10-15 approaches. We try to relax the muscles as much as possible. We concentrate our attention on the sensations that arise.

Method 2. Revealing the soul

In the prevention and overcoming of stressful conditions, an invaluable role is played by external emotional support and friendly communication. Problematic moments, frankly and freely told to a loved one, lose global significance and are no longer perceived as catastrophic. Friendly communication with optimistic people allows a person to formulate and express disturbing factors out loud, throw out negative emotions, receive a charge of vital energy, and develop a strategy for overcoming problems.

Method 3. We trust our worries to paper

An equally effective method of dealing with emotional stress is keeping a personal diary. Thoughts and desires expressed on paper become more consistent and logical. Recording your negative feelings in writing transfers them from the area of ​​the subconscious to the area controlled by consciousness and governed by the will of the individual. After such a recording, stressful events are perceived as less large-scale, the fact of the presence of problems is realized and recognized. When you subsequently read your revelations, the opportunity arises to analyze a difficult situation as if from the outside, new ways to overcome it appear, and an incentive to resolve it is formed. The person takes control of his condition and, accepting the past and living in the present, begins to make efforts for well-being in the future.

Method 4. Draw a map of your own stress factors

As they say, in order to defeat the enemy, you need to know him by sight. In order to cope with the negative emotions that arise under the influence of stressors, it is necessary to identify and study what specific events can “knock you off track.”

Being alone in silence, we concentrate and try to concentrate our attention as much as possible. We select for analysis at least 12 aspects related to various areas of life (for example: health, family relationships, successes and failures in professional activity, financial position, relationships with friends). Then, in each of the identified aspects, we highlight situations that present significant difficulties and deprive us of self-control and restraint. We write them down in order of importance (intensity of response, temporary duration of experiences, depth of emotional perception, emerging negative symptoms) from the least negative category to the most traumatic factor. After the Achilles heel has been identified, for each item we make a list of “arguments”: we develop options for possible resolution of the problems.

Method 5. Transforming emotional experiences into vital energy

A great way to get rid of the unpleasant manifestations of stress is to perform any physical activity intensely. This could be: classes in gym, long walks, swimming in the pool, morning jogging or working at personal plot. Vigorous physical exercise distracts from negative events, directs thoughts in a positive direction, gives positive emotions and charges with vital energy. Running is perfect natural method“escape” from stress: feeling pleasant physical fatigue, there is no room or strength left to cry about your own grief.

Method 6. Letting out emotions in creativity

A faithful assistant in the fight against psychological stress is creative activity, vocal, music, and dance classes. By creating beauty, a person not only gets rid of negative feelings, but also taps into hidden potential, develops his abilities, and significantly increases self-esteem. Music directly affects emotional status, transporting you into a world of vivid, original sensations: it makes you cry and laugh, grieve and rejoice. Through music, the perception of one’s own “I” and those around him changes, the real world appears in its diversity, the significance of one’s own “minor” worries is lost. Through dance you can express your emotions, experience your negativity, and appear before the light in all your inner beauty.

Method 7. Increasing the level of psychological knowledge

An important factor for successfully overcoming stress is the existing knowledge base: complete, structured, varied. In the formation of immunity to stress, a significant role is played by the cognitive processes occurring in a person, which determine the skills of orientation in the environment, the logic of actions, the objectivity of judgments, and the level of observation. No matter how generously or sparingly nature endows a person with talents, the individual is responsible only for the use of his mental abilities, and should not stop on the path of its development.

Method 8. Changing your belief system

Occupies a special niche in the perception of stress factors individual system beliefs. A person who regards the world around him as a source of dangers, threats, and problems reacts to stressors with strong negative emotions, often disorganizing his behavior. Quite often, the severe consequences of experienced stress provoke the results of a discrepancy between the real complexity of the situation and its subjective assessment by the individual. An adequate, realistic perception of the world, where prosperity and adversity coexist, the recognition that the world is imperfect and not always fair, the desire for harmony, optimism and gratitude for every positive moment help not to take problems to heart.

Method 9. Increasing our own importance

A person who reacts to any stress with violent emotions is characterized by a lack of confidence in their capabilities and a feeling of their own inferiority. Due to low or negative self-esteem, a person has a minimal level of aspirations and takes a “reinsurer’s position” in life. Helps to increase and form adequate self-esteem simple exercises– affirmations ( positive statements about your personality, spoken out loud).

Method 10. Carrying out a difficult task

Great technique emotional control– strong concentration of attention on the task at hand, allowing distraction and overcoming situational stress factors.

From the areas that bring satisfaction and joy, we choose one complex category. We set a clear goal for ourselves, determine specific deadlines for bringing the idea to life (for example: study in six months French, construct a helicopter model, conquer a mountain peak).

In conclusion: Every person can overcome stress and control difficult situation, if he begins to concentrate attention on the existing problem, and not on the emotionally protective actions shown. Active control of one’s own consciousness brings extremely positive results, gives the individual a sense of mastery over stressors, strengthens the sense of self-worth, increases the assessment of one’s abilities, and increases the chance of discovering opportunities.

The life of a modern person is full of situations that make him nervous, worried, angry or feel powerless. Against the background of constant emotional tension, stress may manifest itself. Stress can not only affect a person’s emotional background, but also harm his health. Because of it, almost all systems and organs suffer, but especially the nervous system and heart. To combat the consequences of this phenomenon, it is necessary to know the cause of its occurrence. It is also important to have an understanding of its signs. Psychology includes types psychological impact several types.

Psycho-emotional stress can lead to serious complications

Definition of the concept

Any action of external stimuli causes a reaction human body. Stress works on the same principle. It appears against a background of fatigue, nervous exhaustion or strong emotions. All categories of people are susceptible to it.

This state cannot be characterized as completely negative. A small dose of it spurs a person to take action and make decisions. The reverse reaction is caused by constant stress that haunts a person day after day for a long period. At one point, the strength of the nervous system is depleted, which entails a lot of consequences.

The person becomes lethargic, apathetic, and sometimes aggressive. The ability to perceive information is greatly dulled, especially for children and students.

The concept of stress was first introduced by G. Selye, a scientist physiologist. Through a series of studies, he was able to prove that the cause of the common symptoms of most diseases does not lie in themselves. In 1936, G. Selye was first published on the pages of the magazine, where he first outlined his theory.

Scientist G. Selye

Phases of stress

This mental state develops gradually. This can take several days or several years. The pattern of its development is the same for all people, with the exception of some subjective factors.

The division of the stress state into phases (stages) was also introduced by G. Selye. There are three stages of stress:

1. The anxiety reaction occurs immediately after exposure to external stimuli. Excitement about one thing or another causes the body to activate its defenses. All senses work at maximum, although not for long.
2. Resistance reactions divide people into two categories. The subject's resistance influences the course of stress. Some are struggling with the current situation, looking for ways to solve it. Others adapt and try to do everything so that external factors become the norm in their lives.
3. The reaction to victory or loss is individual. The inability to overcome difficulties or adapt to them leads to the fact that the stages of development of stress end in deterioration of health.

Types of stress

It is difficult to list all the causes of stress, but classification of stress according to different parameters is possible, which G. Selye was able to do with the development of psychology. Based on the effects on the human body, the following types of stress are distinguished:

1. Eustress has a low impact on the nervous system. It is positive and activates logical thinking. A person in such a state clearly sees full picture what is happening and can make informed decisions. Thanks to the production of adrenaline, the body and brain enter a phase of combat activity. This reaction is normal and happens to people every day.
2. Distress has a fatal effect on the human nervous system. It appears spontaneously and unexpectedly. The reason is accumulation DC voltage. This all results in serious emotional problems and harms physical health. It has a different nature of occurrence depending on the prevailing circumstances.

Emotionally positive and negative

Since both good and bad events happen in a person’s life, stress is divided into emotionally positive and negative. Regardless of the degree of psychological impact and emotions experienced at this time, the subject experiences tension.

In order to understand the process of a stressful state, it is necessary to consider the situation using an example. If a person experiences the death of a loved one, a breakup in a relationship, or being fired from a job, they may suffer a heart attack or heart attack as a result.

This effect on the cardiovascular system occurs due to stress experienced. But the same thing can happen from a sudden win in the lottery. The news is good, but the body experiences stress to the same extent as its negative manifestations.

Such manifestations of a stressful state most often occur in emotionally unstable people.

Shock can also arise from positive events.

Short and long term

Characteristics of stress by the duration of its impact: called short-term or long-term reaction.

People experience short-term and acute forms of stress every day. Everything that happens in the outside world has a response in psychological state personality. Short-term stress goes through all stages in short period. In the most severe cases, it occurs as shock.

The main problem is that short-term stress passes, but memories of it remain.

Sometimes long-term stress occurs without an acute form. It all depends on the level of stressors. If the body is subjected to constant emotional stress, to which a person is already accustomed, then sooner or later this will lead to nervous breakdowns and neuroses. To some extent, the reaction depends on the level of psychological resistance.

Physiological and psycho-emotional

Stress can arise against the background of external tangible factors. G. Sel classified them as physiological and psycho-emotional manifestations.

Psycho-emotional stress is divided into emotional and informational. The methods of their psychological impact on a person vary greatly, but the only thing they have in common is that all stressors appear in the imagination.

Emotional stress occurs due to feelings that are common to all people. The first and strongest emotion is fear, followed by anger, resentment and powerlessness.

The concept of “information stress” is distinguished. In this case, a person receives an excess of news or worries about his responsibilities and promises. Stress is often encountered due to the fear that a person’s secret will be revealed.

Pain is a physiological shock

Causes of distress

There is a classification of types of distress based on the reasons for its occurrence. If you do not get rid of them, then over time this condition will become chronic.

The main causes of stress:

1. Physiological causes are the impact of external factors on the body: cold, heat, thirst, hunger, discomfort, muscle pain after sports. Adaptation occurs only by enduring stress.
2. Emotional reasons cause a real reaction to internal experiences.
3. Short-term reasons are a manifestation of the basic instinct - self-preservation. Even in the short time that this variety is active, a person goes through all the stages. This could be an accidental fall or loss of balance, a car rushing very close, a sharp sound nearby, etc.
4. Chronic causes are the most dangerous. When a subject is exposed to factors that cause stress for a long time, then in the second stage of stress he simply gets used to it. The person does not notice the consequences and does not understand the seriousness of the problem. An irreversible process and the development of depression are likely.
5. Nervous causes are more common in people with anxiety syndrome or a weak psyche. Due to problems in the functioning of the nervous system, the body overreacts to any external stimulus. In this case, the main goal is to get rid of the causes, and not to treat the consequences.

To understand what caused distress, a person needs an objective assessment of what is happening. It is better to seek help from specialists before the condition becomes chronic.

Conclusion

Despite the fact that stress accompanies us throughout our lives, we need to fight it. Problems can lead to depression and mental disorders.

Knowing the principle of stress and how it affects the body, you can independently think through tactics on how to avoid it. Don't forget that stress can be beneficial. It not only promotes mental activity, but also trains the functioning of the nervous system, developing stress resistance in it.

Modern views on stress

Stress is tension and a reaction to the lack of tension, purpose. Lack of motivation is also stress.

The concept of “stress” was introduced into science by the Canadian physiologist G. Selye when describing the general adaptation syndrome. The word “stress” itself (translated from English) means tension; in psychology it is used to denote a special mental state.

In modern times According to science, stress is an emotional state that occurs in various extreme situations. Stress is a state of mental (emotional) tension that occurs in the most complex and difficult conditions for a person.

In this case, a person’s emotions can be different:

* anxiety

* irritation

* depression

There is no unanimity of views on the content of the concept of “stress”. Some psychologists believe that stress is a negative emotion, while others believe that it is not only negative, but also positive emotions (they cause a person to experience a state of ecstasy, inspiration, etc.).

Hence the emotional interpretation of stress is ambiguous

There is still no clear distinction between stress and conflict, crisis and frustration. But frustration and crisis are not always experienced as stress.

Emotional stress is a more general concept. The problem of stress is most developed in applied disciplines.

There are also ambiguous ideas about the causes of stressful conditions.

Causes of stress conditions (Lewy classification)

The causes of occurrence are stressors (or stressful situations).

Stressors

1. Short term:

● dangerous situations that pose a threat to a person, his life, self-esteem

● situations with an uncertain outcome; the person does not know what this situation threatens him with ==> anxiety, excitement

● lack of time

● physical discomfort (cold, heat, etc.)

● some features of the activity performed by a person (complexity, responsibility, significance of the result)

2. Long-term:

● having a lasting impact: wars, imprisonment and any other situations associated with disruptions in contact between people

● military service

● economic or political crisis in the country

● severe chronic or traumatic diseases

● professional activity of a person associated with excessive mental or physical stress

All these situations can lead to emotional stress ==> The influence of stress on human behavior and activity is ambiguous.

Stress and activity

Psychology has established 3 types of influence of stress on work productivity.

1. Mobilization of activity - a person is able to show top scores under stressful conditions than in a normal situation.

Example: athlete, student (better mind, focused on the problem, improved memory, attention) ==> high productivity.

2. Demobilization (when the level of performance of activities decreases). Stress has a negative impact on the course of mental processes:

* memory capacity is reduced and impaired

* poor attention span

* thinking disorder ==> chaotic thoughts

● inability to make decisions

● thoughtlessness, irrationality

● actions become impulsive

3. Destruction of activity – refusal of activity. The person makes no effort to perform the activity. State of stupor.

Example: a student takes a ticket during an exam and refuses to answer it.

What determines the effect of stress on activity?

What influences the nature of this dependence?

Different human reactions to stress:

1) “lion” stress

2) “rabbit” stress

or from Selye:

austress (mobilizing)

distress (disruptive)

I. Based on the type of nervous system:

Nervous System Strength

Balance of the nervous system

Nervous system mobility

If nervous system strength and balance are present, mobilization occurs.

With an unbalanced and weak nervous system? demobilization, destruction.

Inert nervous system ==> a rigid person (phlegmatic) can work under stress (strength + balance) if the work does not involve the need to switch quickly.

II. Temperament type

Sanguine people work better (if the activity does not require switching from one type to another) and phlegmatic people.

Cholerics – negative influence (imbalance + strength)

Melancholic people – weakness + imbalance ==> distress

III. The degree of emotional instability of the individual

Non-anxious people work better and more productively in stressful situations than anxious people. Emotionally unstable and anxious people reduce the level of performance and productivity.

IV. Level of personal aspirations (LP)

If the level of aspirations is high, then the stress will be more severe.

If the level of aspirations is low (i.e. it doesn’t matter how to do it), then there will be no stress.

V. Human intelligence (inverse proportionality)

There is a relationship between emotions and intelligence: the higher the intelligence, the lower the emotionality.

Intelligence allows a person to cope with a difficult situation ==> stress resistance increases. Where a person with high intelligence begins to think and act, a person with low intelligence begins to worry.

Stress is also a physiological reaction ==> has an impact on health.

Stress and human health

Any strong emotion is accompanied by various physiological changes in the body (in digestive system, in the excretory system, in the respiratory system, etc.), but when the emotion fades, the person returns to his previous state.

If we experience stress frequently and daily (stress is long-term), then physiological changes in the body become irreversible. Long-term stress is a source of somatic diseases and mental disorders.

It is the suppression of emotions, their blocking at the behavioral level that leads to increased reactions at the physiological level.

Recently, a special direction has emerged in medicine - psychosomatics (nervous diseases) serious organic changes

What diseases are associated with stress and what is the mechanism of their acquisition?

* somatic diseases (see below);

* diseases of the gastrointestinal tract (see below);

* skin (neurodermatitis);

* rheumatic (4 causes of arthritis):

Collapse of married life;

Loneliness and anxiety;

Long lasting resentment;

* cardiovascular diseases: stress causes: hypertension, heart attacks, strokes, atherosclerosis.

Any negative emotions are accompanied by: narrowing of blood vessels, increased blood pressure, increased heart rate, increased blood clotting ==> blockage of blood vessels ==> heart attack or stroke.

High blood pressure is a sign of hypertension.

Cardiovascular diseases occur more often in people whose activities are associated with emotional stress (administrator, doctor, teacher, etc.).

People busy in agriculture, develop cardiovascular diseases less often.

Diseases of the gastrointestinal tract: ulcers, colitis, because Under stress, the secretion of gastric juice increases and its acidity increases. Calcium imbalance ==> arthritis, caries.

Endocrine diseases also occur due to stress.

Why is there one factor – stress, but different diseases?

There are different hypotheses:

1) weak organs in the body suffer;

2) the nature of the emotions experienced by a person - depending on what emotions are experienced, different diseases arise.

Example: anger? cardiovascular diseases;

depression? diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, mental illness.

3) the nature of the diseases is associated with the psychological characteristics of the individual.

Cardiovascular diseases occur more often in ambitious people with high level claims.

Diseases of the gastrointestinal tract - in people with hyperresponsibility ==> anxiety, worry, fear, fears ==> ulcers.

Conclusion: stressful conditions can become a source of somatic diseases. Complaints about illness are partly complaints about character.

Why does stress not always lead to illness?

General mechanisms of somatic diseases

(2 theoretical models)

The 1st belongs to Alexander - psychologist, founder of psychosomatics.

His concept: the main cause of somatic diseases is the suppression of negative emotions arising in stressful situations:

* fear (in 1st place)

* anxiety

Three basic emotions that give rise to illness.

These are negative emotions that lead to certain physiological changes in the body. They have biological significance. Physiological changes lead to the mobilization of the body's energy, which is realized in behavior.

Example: in animals, flight or fight ==> adaptive behavior.

In humans, he lives according to different laws of society; one cannot avoid or show aggression. A person must suppress aggressive behavior, block it,

Suppress (restrain) emerging fear or anger, hide feelings of anxiety from others.

If at the behavioral level these negative emotions are blocked and suppressed, then they “result” in illness. Liberation from negative emotions, their manifestation (reaction) in behavior - absence of illnesses.

The second theory belongs to Rotenberg and Arshavsky.

Their concept: negative emotions do not always lead to illness, but on the contrary, stressful situations sometimes drown out illness.

Example: in concentration camps people forgot about hypertension and other somatic diseases.

Example: a person sometimes gets sick on the “crest of success”, when he worked hard - he did not get sick, but when the goal is achieved - the person gets sick or commits suicide - this is the “Martin Eden phenomenon”.

It is not emotions or their suppression that cause illness, but how a person behaves in a stressful situation.

Type of human behavior in stressful situations

1) active defensive behavior (reaction, fight);

2) passive-defensive reaction to stress (i.e. a person resigns himself to the situation and does nothing to overcome it).

Diseases arise from passive-defensive behavior. This is the main cause of somatic diseases. Those who behave actively do not develop diseases.

The concept of “search activity” by Rotenberg and Arshav

Search activity is an activity aimed at changing a difficult situation or changing attitudes towards this situation.

Various forms of search activity can be carried out at the psychological and behavioral levels. Search activity is associated with an active-defensive type of human behavior and reduces a person’s susceptibility to psychosomatic diseases.

Conclusion: stress is a source of not only somatic, but also mental illness(chronic anxiety is a neurosis). But if we learn to manage our emotions, illnesses will not be scary for us.

2 ways to manage emotions (stress).

1. Prevention of emotions.

2. Managing emerging emotions:

* ease anxiety;

* eliminate.

1. Prevention of emotions. Main methods:

1) satisfaction of all one’s needs, or their limitation, which is either unrealistic or undesirable;

2) avoiding difficult situations;

(example: transition from difficult work to easier)

3) turn on the intellect, i.e. Prepare for a difficult situation:

* increase awareness (intelligence)

(example: find out the teacher's favorite questions before the exam)

* practice behavioral strategies (example: I will behave this way in some cases and differently in others)

Example: come up with reasons for being late.

* reduce the significance (value) of this situation.

2 Managing emerging emotions.

Main methods:

1. Repression (ordinary forgetting).

Example: when offended, mentally forget and forgive.

2. Activation of intelligence (rational techniques for managing emotions):

a) self-justification;

b) reduce the value of a difficult-to-reach object;

c) increase the value of what I have;

d) compare with the achievements of other people (with those who have it even worse).

3. Emotional release (carried out through the mechanism of psychological defense):

* sublimation (find a channel for aggression or anger)

* offset (to another person)

* physical activity (cleaning, aerobics), to discharge emotions at the motor level

4. Emotional weakening (listening to music, reading a book, etc.):

* speak out (orally or in writing)

* cry

* "fall asleep" situation

* autogenic training (muscle relaxation), switching consciousness to some activity, occupational therapy.

TOPIC: VOLITIONAL PROCESSES

Psychology of will

Course program:

1. The concept of Will in modern psychology:

a) the history of the doctrine of will in modern science, i.e. theories of Will;

b) the concept of will in modern psychology (will as a psychological reality, the specifics of will and its functions);

c) the importance of will in human life.

2. Volitional regulation of behavior. Structure volitional action.

a) the concept of volitional action in modern psychology;

b) structure of volitional action (main stages);

c) analysis of individual stages of volitional action;

d) volitional effort as the main specific element of volitional behavior (the nature of volitional efforts, psychological mechanisms of volitional efforts, characteristics and types of volitional efforts);

e) volitional efforts and the main stages of volitional actions;

f) volitional states and their analysis;

g) the relationship between volitional and emotional regulation of behavior.

3. Strong-willed personality traits:

a) the essence and specificity of volitional qualities (how they differ from other personality traits);

b) structure of volitional qualities;

c) classification of volitional qualities;

d) characteristics of individual volitional qualities.

4. Individual characteristics of the volitional sphere of personality.

a) individual characteristics of the volitional sphere;

b) pathology of the volitional sphere;

c) age and gender characteristics of the volitional sphere;

d) development (education and self-education) of the volitional sphere.

Literature

1. Ilyin E.I. Psychology of will. – St. Petersburg, 2001.

2. Emotional-volitional regulation of behavior and activity. Sat. articles. 1986.

3. Ivannikov V.A. Psychol. mechanisms of volitional regulation. – M., 1992.

4. Selivanov V.I. Will and its education. 1976.

5. Shulga F.I. Psychological foundations of the formation of will. 1993.

The concept of will in modern psychology

The psychology of will is the least developed problem in psychology, because There are still no serious practical developments on this issue, there is no unity of views. No unified methodology==> different points of view.

In everyday consciousness, will is also interpreted differently. On the one hand, will is understood as “freedom” (“Free will”), on the other hand, as “desire” (an expression of the desire of the people), on the third hand, as a personal property (a strong-willed person).

The same range exists in psychology. Some scientists abandon the concept of will altogether. In foreign psychology, these are features of the motivational process (this is how will is understood). Since the 70s The concept of “Will” among Western psychologists is replaced by the concept of “self-control”, which is identified with self-government.

Some domestic scientists adhere to the same point of view.

Theories of will

They reflect the lack of unity of views on the will. At the end of the 19th century. the first psychologists actively studied the will - it was central problem. But gradually this concept is replaced by another, or abandoned. Trying to generalize and systematize the material accumulated in the study of this problem, Ilyin in his monograph identifies several scientific directions that interpret will differently:

Main theoretical positions:

1) will as voluntarism;

2) will as free choice;

3) will as voluntary motivation;

4) will as special shape mental regulation of behavior;

5) will as a mechanism for overcoming obstacles and difficulties on the way to achieving a goal;

6) will as an obligation.

Characteristics of theories.

1. Will as voluntarism

* Voluntarism- This is a special direction of idealistic philosophy. The word itself was introduced into science in 1873 by Tönnies, a German sociologist, to denote this direction. The ideas of voluntarism are also reflected in psychology.

The essence of this direction: will is considered as the essence, the fundamental principle of all other mental processes. This is a kind of cosmic force that is indeterministic in nature, but it determines all other mental processes. Will is the basis of the foundations. Volitional acts are not determined by anything, but they themselves determine other mental processes.

This direction is most fully reflected in the works of Schopenhauer, Wundt, Munstenberg: consciousness and intellect are a secondary manifestation of the will.

There were immediately critics of voluntarism: Kant believed that the will must have reasons for its emergence. According to Kant, free will is submission to the moral law, the origins of which are rooted in the individual.

There was also criticism from physiologists: volitional acts are also based on reflex processes.

Based on this criticism, other theories arise.

2 Will was understood as the freedom to choose action. The choice of action is the essence of a volitional act. Based on this, the first diagram of the main stages of volitional action was constructed:

Stage 1 * emergence of various attractions

Stage 2 * delay of drives and choice of one of them (decision making)

Stage 3 * transition of desire into action (volitional impulse) ==> transition into action

An objection to this theory.

Within the framework of this theory, will was understood as a struggle of motives, a. the essence lies in making a decision.

But 1) not every struggle of motives is resolved by the participation of the will;

2) the conflict of motives is not determined by the will, the main thing is the participation of a person’s thinking, his intellect.

3. Will as voluntary motivation.

Will here is understood broadly and is associated with motivation in general. The background is the works of Aristotle. An explanation of the nature of rational human actions. From his point of view, knowledge itself does not have a decisive, motivating value for action. Knowledge is devoid of motivating power, but the will has this motivating character. Will is a force that causes action according to reason.

It is with the help of will that a person controls his behavior.

The will gives birth to rational desires.

From here comes the identification of will with the motives and desires of a person.

Russian psychologist Lange: “Desire is an active will.” Thus, will = motive.

Such equality led in Western psychology to the abandonment of the concept of will, but in Russian psychology this theory is modified. Not the identification of will and motive, but the acceptance of the connection between will and motive:

1) will is considered as an important element of motivational processes. With the help of will, some motives and needs are strengthened and others are inhibited.

2) the emphasis is on the role of motive in a volitional act; motive is an inevitable component of volitional behavior, that is, all volitional behavior is always motivated, in contrast to involuntary (reactive) behavior.

Different views on the relationship between will and motive

4. Will as a special form of mental regulation.

Will is the highest form of mental regulation of behavior. The essence of this theory was fully reflected in the works of L.M. Wecker.

Basic provisions: will is the highest function of voluntary regulation of behavior, carried out on the basis of criteria of intellectual, moral, emotional social value of a particular action.

Mental regulation rises to the level of the individual: will is the individual’s ability to control his behavior. Will carries the features of personal maturity and requires developed self-awareness.

5. Will as a mechanism for overcoming obstacles.

This is exactly how many modern scientists understand the essence of volitional processes. Willpower is a mechanism for overcoming difficulties that arise. This position is presented in the works of Simonov. From his point of view, such an understanding of will allows us to determine its biological prerequisites, which animals also have: the freedom reflex (the presence of an obstacle gives rise to activity in animals, from Pavlov’s point of view). The freedom reflex is an independent form of behavior for which an obstacle is an adequate stimulus.

From Simonov’s point of view, an obstacle gives rise to a person’s need to overcome obstacles; this emerging need is will. Will is the need to overcome obstacles.

Criticism: The role of the mind is no less important in overcoming obstacles than willpower.

6. Will as an obligation.

This theory was most developed by Georgian psychologists. The basic principle is I must ==> the emergence of volitional behavior. But this “should” has to do with a person’s morality, not with personal desires. Through will, a person frees himself from the captivity of actual needs. Will is a moral property of a person.

Criticism: one cannot equate will and morality, since a moral act can be without will, and vice versa, an immoral act.

Conclusion: there is no unity of views on the essence of will ==> rejection of will as a mental concept or integration of domestic and Western theories.

The concept of will in modern psychology. Will and volitional processes:

Some psychologists generally deny the independence of will as a mental phenomenon. Others think the opposite. This comes from Aristotle, who divided: Reason, Feelings, Will. Those scientists who consider will to be an independent, independent psychological process identify will with the voluntary control of behavior and activity.

In psychology, there are 2 ideas about will:

1. In a broad sense, volitional action means voluntary (that is, purposeful, conscious, intentional).

A volitional act is a conscious action. Will (arbitrariness) as self-government.

2. Will in the narrow sense – overcoming obstacles and difficulties. Thus, volitional behavior is a particular type of voluntary behavior.

Basic functions of the will:

1. Incentive function (to the beginning of an act of will) – conscious determination (choice) of a goal.

2. Inhibitory function (suppression of unnecessary desires and behavioral acts using the will).

The regulatory function is the main function of the will.

Volitional regulation of behavior

All volitional behavior is voluntary.

Volitional action- This is a special type of voluntary action. They differ from voluntary action in the presence of obstacles on the way to achieving the goal. Volitional actions are a type of voluntary actions, the specificity of which is the use of volitional effort in achieving a goal, associated with the continuation of obstacles (difficulties) and requiring large amounts of energy, accompanied by the experience of internal tension.

The main stages of volitional actions(identified differently by different scientists).

Selivanov and many others distinguish 3 stages:

1) setting the goal of the action,

2) planning,

3) execution of volitional actions associated with the realization of the goal.

Rubinshtein S.L. distinguishes 4 stages:

1) the emergence of motives (needs and motives) and awareness of the goal,

2) discussion of goals and struggle of motives,

3) making a decision on action,

4) execution of an action.

Ilyin believes that the stages outlined by Rubinstein are missing:

5) control,

6) the result of the action.

But Rubinstein includes them in stage 4, in the execution of the action.

The proportion of each stage is different in different volitional actions.

According to their structure, volitional actions are divided into 2 types: simple (include the first and last link) and complex (these actions include all stages, in expanded form).

Characteristics of the stages.

1. Goal setting, this phase, from Rubinstein’s point of view, begins with the emergence of a need, its awareness, which leads to the emergence of a desire motive. It

leads to goal setting. But the emergence of desire is only the initial stage of volitional action - discussion of a goal, assessment of the likelihood of achieving it.

2. Discussion of the goal. If there is only one goal, then this stage comes down to discussing the goal: all the pros and cons are weighed, then the action is carried out. Therefore, volitional action turns into intellectual action - “a person thinks.”

But if there are several goals, a conflict of motives arises - “what to choose?” This conflict is experienced intrapersonally by a person and causes serious emotional experiences. The conflict of motives is resolved by choosing one of the goals.

3. Decision making. It manifests itself in 2 forms.

If there is one goal, then this result is considered.

If there are several goals, then making a decision is choosing one thing.

From Rubinstein's point of view, decision making is made in different ways:

· without hesitation (no willpower), purely intellectual decision-making,

· painful hesitations (intellectual + volitional effort). The conflict of motives is completely resolved,

· the conflict is not completely resolved, doubts remain.

But in all 3 cases, the person feels relief, a new positive emotional state. This also depends on a person’s intellectual capabilities, and not just strong-willed ones. But sometimes the last word belongs to the Will.

Decision making – the final goal is selected.

4. Planning of volitional action - the means of achieving the goal are chosen; the conflict between them (simple, but not moral and complex, consistent with morality - what to choose?) Þ the volitional efforts of a person. Sometimes during the planning stage, for some people, everything is finalized. Therefore, the stage of using the action is very important.

5. Difficulties also arise at this stage:

a) external obstacles (competition, moral laws),

b) internal (laziness, incompetence).

A person must overcome these obstacles through the efforts of will. Thus, all stages of volitional actions are associated with volitional effort.

What is volitional effort?(there are different definitions of volitional effort)

Ilyin: Volitional effort is a conscious and deliberate tension of physical and intellectual forces, mobilization to overcome difficulties.

Platonov: Volitional effort is an obligatory subjective component of volitional action, manifested in the experience of effort (tension).

Volitional effort is a mystery for psychologists, especially its physiological nature. Several hypotheses regarding the nature of volitional effort:

1. Volitional effort is associated with ordinary muscle tension

Example: frowned, clenched his fists.

2. Volitional effort is associated with a person’s emotional state. Þ Volitional effort is a special emotional state, it is a form of mobilizing stress that is generated by “I want” and “I can”, their conflict. In this case, there is a mobilization of all forces and energy resources, which is experienced as a state of significant tension.

3. Volitional effort is determined by the nature or content of the obstacle that has arisen. The presence of an obstacle can lead to an increase in motive. The original motive becomes stronger. The obstacle itself generates volitional effort; volitional effort is one of the consequences of frustration.

4. Willpower comes down to rethinking the situation. What was significant loses its meaning.

Psychological mechanisms of volitional effort.

Self-stimulation as a mechanism for updating volitional effort is carried out in speech form:

· self-approval (“you’re great”);

· self-persuasion;

· self-order (“must”).

All these speech signals cause activation of the cerebral cortex.

Volitional efforts differ in intensity (strength) and duration. These two characteristics determine what is commonly called willpower.

Willpower depends on

● significance of the goal;

● attitude to activity;

● locus of control (degree of responsibility).

But the nature of volitional effort is still not fully understood.

Volitional states and their analysis.

A volitional state is a temporary mental state that accompanies a volitional action and expresses the specificity of these actions.

Volitional states are temporary.

This concept was first introduced by Levitov. But his list of volitional states is wide, we will narrow them down:

1. State of mobilization readiness (manifested in self-tuning to fully mobilize one’s capabilities to achieve a goal).

2. State of concentration. The basis of this state is voluntary attention. And attention is the basis for other mental processes; attention improves their functioning. The function of the will is inhibitory.

3. Determination, as a strong-willed state, is more clearly manifested at the stage of “Decision, its adoption.” The ability to quickly make decisions without hesitation. Determination is the speed of transition to real action.

4. Restraint is a special psychological state due to which a person’s behavior is subject to reasonable control Þ the ability to suppress unnecessary emotions and desires (“I want, but I have to refuse”). Reflects ratio volitional and emotional regulation of behavior. Often Will and Emotions act as antipodes in the regulation of behavior. Strong emotion often suppresses the will and reckless actions. But at the same time, the will can put pressure on emotion. In this case, behavior becomes positive.

Example: Anxiety most often interferes with activity: determination is blocked. Fear also interferes with persistence.

The intervention of the will improves our performance.

To characterize volitional efforts they speak of willpower, reflecting the duration and intensity of volitional efforts.

Willpower – weak or strong. This concept has different meanings. There are 3 approaches to its interpretation:

1 point of view: willpower = strength of motive(the person has a strong motivation for behavior).

But this is not so, since the will is not so much a manifestation of the motive; the motive is suppressed or strengthened by the will.

Point of view 2: willpower = the struggle of motives is connected by willpower, sometimes will is required in a situation where there is no struggle of motives, but serious obstacles arise on the way to achieving the goal. The influence of intelligence.

3rd point of view: willpower = personality trait, volitional quality.

But willpower for modern psychology is an empty word, since will can be manifested by various human qualities. We need to talk about specific volitional qualities of the individual. Þ We need to talk about individual volitional qualities. There is no willpower, but there are individual volitional qualities.

Volitional personality traits.

Volitional qualities are specific and stable manifestations of will, determined by the content of the obstacles overcome on the path to achieving a goal.

The main problem is the ability to separate volitional qualities from other personality traits. The criterion of volitional qualities is the success of the activity. But success depends not only on strong-willed qualities.

general characteristics all strong-willed qualities– this is the structure of volitional qualities.

Each volitional quality has a 3-component structure, which resembles a 3-layer cake:

bottom layer– these are neurodynamic characteristics of the properties of the nervous system: strength, mobility, balance. They influence the intensity and manifestation of volitional qualities.

Second layer- volitional effort.

Upper layer– social and personal qualities that stimulate and activate volitional effort: features of the motivational sphere of the individual, intellectual manifestations of a person, moral qualities of a person.

This multicomponent nature makes it difficult to isolate volitional qualities.

Example: family quarrel: one yells, the other is calm and has self-control

But they may have different emotional activity, and not different will. These different components in the structure of different volitional qualities have different conditionality and weight: perseverance (connected to a greater extent with motivation, to a lesser extent with the characteristics of the nervous system), perseverance (nervous system + motivation), patience (features of the nervous system).

Analysis of individual properties of volitional qualities. (from 10 to 30 or more volitional qualities are distinguished).

Their classification.

The classification is based on 3 main criteria

I Each volitional quality is distinguished on the basis of the correspondence of certain qualities to the basic functions of the will - the function of volitional processes.

II The structure of volitional action in accordance with the stages of volitional action.

III The complexity of the volitional quality itself.

I This criterion is used Gonobolin, Selivanov:

1.Function of the will– increased activity. This function of the will is performed by several volitional qualities: perseverance, perseverance.

2. Function of the will– inhibition: patience, endurance, self-control.

II Rubinstein (identifies 4 groups of volitional qualities) Þ 4 stages of action:

– Initiative (independence) – goal setting.

– Decisiveness – making a decision.

- Persistence, perseverance.

– Making decisions about action + execution of actions.

III Ilyin, Kalin divide strong-willed qualities into

· basic (primary);

· secondary (systems, derivatives)– they include several strong-willed qualities. This is a synthesis of primary volitional qualities.

Ilyin divides volitional qualities into simple (volitional qualities, which are a manifestation of determination, and volitional qualities, which are determined by self-control) and complex (moral-volitional) qualities. We will stick

this point of view.

I Determination and its main manifestations

It is important! The desire for a goal is manifested in the clarity and precision of the goal that a person sets for himself. The pursuit of a goal is associated with overcoming an obstacle.

Purposefulness as a volitional quality is distinguished in 3 types:

– Perseverance.

– Perseverance.

- Patience.

Many psychologists identify them as synonyms. Other psychologists find subtle differences between the two. Similarities: determination. Difference: persistence is associated with a distant, promising goal; persistence is associated with achieving a close goal, despite failures in achieving it.

Persistence.

Persistence is the strongest volitional quality (Western psychologists use this concept to replace the concept of will).