"French borrowings in Russian". Borrowed words in Russian from English, French or German: examples, meaning

Kuzik Anna

The material for the study was French words that entered the Russian language, identified by analyzing works of literature of the 19th century, as well as data from dictionaries of modern French.

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Scientific society of students "POISK"

MOU "Alekseevskaya secondary school"

Done by: 10th grade student

Kuzik Anna

leader: teacher

French

Kutsobina Galina Ivanovna

2009

Introduction …………………………………………………………………………….3

Chapter I. History of the French language on the example of Russian-French relations. …………………………………………………………………………. 4

Chapter II. Formation of Russian vocabulary. ……………………………………...6

Chapter III. French borrowed words in the vocabulary of the Russian language. …………………………………………………………………………………… nine

Chapter IV. French language in the works of A. S. Pushkin. …………… 13

Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………… 18

Literature …………………………………………………………………………20

You don't need to disown foreign words, you don't need to abuse them either.

L. N. Tolstoy

Introduction

No culture, no language develops in isolation, and any national culture and language is the fruit of both internal development and complex interaction with the cultures of other peoples, and the interaction between cultures, economic, political and everyday contacts are the common basis for all borrowing processes. .

The object of our research is the ways of reflecting French realities in the Russian language.

Realities are words and phrases that name objects characteristic of life (everyday life, culture, social and historical development) of one people and alien to another, which are carriers of national and historical color, and, as a rule, do not have exact matches (equivalents) in other languages.

The relevance of the chosen topic is due to the fact that the study of realia words is one of the problems of modern linguistic science. The term "realia" appeared in linguistics only at the end of the 50s, and until now, researchers have not come to a consensus about which words refer to realities.

In the course of the study, the purpose of which is to collect and analyze French words in works of fiction, the following tasks are solved:

1.Trace the history of the appearance of words denoting French realities in Russian.

2. Determine ways of borrowing French words.

To solve the tasks in the work, the following methods are used:

Method of observation, i.e. extracting certain facts of interest from the text and including them in the desired category.

Encyclopedic method, i.e. the study of the meaning of a word in close connection with the objects and phenomena that they designate.

Comparative typological method, i.e. the study of the similarities and differences of languages, the vocabulary of these languages.

The material for the study was French words that entered the Russian language, identified by analyzing works of literature of the 19th century, as well as data from dictionaries of modern French.

Chapter I. History of the French language on the example of Russian-French relations.

French is a beautiful melody played with words. Previously, France was called the "capital of the world", and the French language throughout the planet was imbued with respect and treated with special trepidation, and in the 18th century it was considered practically international. Today, France does not occupy such a strong position, but still remains a place where foreigners dream of relaxing, working and studying. French as a classic is always relevant and will be fashionable out of time.

According to community center"VKS-Globus" today, 36% of Russian citizens study French for communication and travel. Work is the main stimulus for learning French for 24%, study - for 23% of students. International certificate and self-education received 7% and 6% respectively. Students planning to move to a French-speaking country account for 4%.

Students account for the largest percentage of French learners at 27%, followed by schoolchildren at 13%. To move up the career ladder, knowledge of French is more often required for middle managers (6%) and senior managers (4%). Lawyers, bankers, journalists, accountants, teachers, scientists make up half of all professions that require knowledge of the French language.

Russia and France have been bound by close mutually beneficial ties of cooperation for more than one century. The beginning of Russian-French relations was laid by the daughter of Yaroslav the Wise Anna, who, at a middle-aged age (25 years old) in 1051, married King Henry I of France. She became the first and only Russian woman to become a French queen.

The first correspondence between the French and Russian thrones dates back to 1518, when the confrontation with Poland forced Vasily Ioannovich to seek help from the French monarch Francis I. However, at that time, the linguistic carrier of the correspondence was by no means French, but Russian and German.

The reign of Boris Godunov opened up European countries for Russian students, among whom was France (where they received their education), and for the French - the possibilities of the Russian State. Jacques Margeret was one of the first French subjects who managed to get a job in Russia. Stay in the country was reflected in the book "The State of the Russian Empire and the Grand Duchy of Moscow."

French fashion trends storm the wardrobes of the then fashionistas in 1605. What is the French dress of Maria Mnishek, tied in a belt, with which she shocked not a single Muscovite!

The first exchange of embassies between the Russian Empire and France took place in 1615.

The reign of Alexei Mikhailovich is a new milestone in the history of Russian-French relations. In 1668, the first visit of the Russian embassy headed by Prince P.I. Potemkin. Russian ambassadors were impressed by local tapestry factories, galleries and parks, and especially theaters. Already in 1672, the first court theater appeared in Russia, which began its activity with the plays of Molière.

A new round of enthusiasm for France and its culture takes place under Peter I. An observer from Russia appears in the capital of France, who helped the Russians to get a job or study in France.

During this period, France becomes the standard of education, culture, morals. The Russian nobility admires the ability of the French to hold masquerades, balls, and receptions.

During the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna, outstanding artists, architects, and sculptors began to be invited from France. It was believed that among foreigners in Russia, the French were the vast majority. The time of the cult of everything that could be connected with France begins. Russians from young to old were fluent in French, dressed in French clothes, lived surrounded by French interiors, read books in French, and used the services of tutors from France. It was not uncommon for people to speak French better than their native Russian.

Catherine II, who replaced Elizabeth Petrovna, tried unsuccessfully to fight the dominance of fashion for French words, for which she even introduced a system of fines. However, by XIX century French became almost native for most of the nobles who spoke, wrote and even thought in it. This is confirmed by the imperishable works of Russian classics, in which one can often find paragraphs in French. Higher Russian society greedily absorbed everything new that appeared in France. Ballet, fashion, cooking, art, theater - in each of these areas, the French style dominated, which instantly began to be considered distinctively Russian.

In our time, it is difficult to imagine Russia of that era without touching flies, powdered hairpieces and wigs, umbrellas and fans, as well as business cards, without which not a single business, and even romantic date could do. And each of these features was introduced by French culture. At the same time, France becomes the European legislator in the production of cosmetics and perfumes. The recipe for French perfume was kept in the strictest confidence, which contributed to the cultivation of fashionable passions among Europeans. France also received the palm of leadership thanks to the production of cosmetics, including decorative ones - powder, blush, etc. And the famous Madame Pompadour, who introduced the fashion for the so-called "talking bouquets", conquered the whole of Europe with a new trend. These were golden times for France.

Chapter II. Formation of Russian vocabulary.

The lexical composition of the Russian language was influenced by borrowed words from other languages.

BORROWING - a process as a result of which a certain foreign language element appears and is fixed in the language (first of all, a word or a full-fledged morpheme); also such a foreign language element itself. Borrowing is an integral part of the process of functioning and historical change of the language, one of the main sources of vocabulary replenishment. Borrowing can be direct or indirect.

When borrowing, the meaning of a word often shifts. So, the French word chance means "good luck" (Tu a de la chance! - "You're lucky!"), While the Russian word "chance" means only "the possibility of luck." The Russian word "excitement" comes from the French hazard "case"; the semantic transition occurred due to the phrase jeu d "hazard -" gambling ", literally -" a game of chance ". It also happens that a borrowed word returns in its new meaning back to the language from which it came. Such, apparently , the history of the word "bistro", which came into the Russian language from French, where it arose after the war of 1812, when parts of the Russian troops ended up on French territory - probably as a transmission of the replica "Quickly!"

Generally speaking, a language that finds itself in the face of a foreign word denoting some necessary concept that is missing in it (this can be either a new “object” or a new “idea”) has three possibilities: 1) to borrow this word itself: in this way borrowings in a narrow sense appear in the language, for example, the Russian “fair” is a borrowing from German. Jahrmarkt, "choir" - other Greek. , "quorum" from lat. quorum, "idyll" from it. Idylle, "poetry" from the French. poésie, "high" from Arabic. kejf, "design" from English. design, etc.; 2) to create a new word from their morphemes following the pattern of a foreign one: thus, word-building tracing papers appear in the language: for example, the Russian word “linguistics” is modeled after the German Sprachwissenschaft, “oxygen” is modeled after the Latin oxygenium, “subject” is modeled after objectum, etc.; 3) use to express desired value an already existing word, giving it a new meaning on the model of a foreign word that has the same polysemy or the same internal form (this is called semantic tracing); for example, the Russian verb “to touch” acquired the figurative meaning “to excite feelings” under the influence of the French “toucher”, which has both meanings (direct and figurative); The Russian words influence and inspiration acquired their modern "abstract" meaning under the influence of the French language "influence" and "inspiration". Words and meanings created according to the second and third models are called borrowings in a broad sense.

In scientific terminology, tending to unambiguity, the first and second mechanisms are more often used. The second and third mechanisms constitute the most important sources of enrichment of the literary language. Thus, the vocabulary of a generally significant nature includes borrowings of all three types. The main stream of borrowings in the narrow sense (i.e., foreign words) comes through the colloquial speech of professional spheres and jargons of various social groups.

Often words coexist in a language that are identical in their internal form, but one of them is a direct borrowing, and the other is a tracing paper; at the same time, they usually do not completely coincide, and sometimes differ very significantly in meaning, for example: subject and subject, opposition and opposition, composition and addition, position and position, positive and positive, president and chairman, biography and biography, etc. Such doubletness is very typical for Russian, to a lesser extent for German language and is not typical for French and English.

In order to become a borrowing, a word that came from a foreign language must gain a foothold in a new language for itself, firmly enter its vocabulary - as many foreign words entered the Russian language, such as bread, a mug, an umbrella, a store, a cat, a horse, dog, monkey, tie, compote, tractor, tank, harbor, sail, icon, church, choir, sports, market, bazaar, music, station, car, goal, hut, glass, herring, soup, cucumber, tomato, cutlet, potatoes, a saucepan, a plate, tea, sugar, etc., many of which turned out to be so mastered by the Russian language that only linguists know about their foreign language origin.

When borrowing, the word is adapted to the phonological system of the borrowing language, i.e. the missing sounds in it are replaced by the closest ones. This adaptation can occur gradually: sometimes foreign words for some time retain sounds in their pronunciation that are absent in this language, as, for example, in the German words “chance”, “restorant” borrowed from the “prestigious” French language (both words are pronounced "in the French manner" with a nasal vowel). In the borrowed from the same French Russian word “jury”, a sound absent in Russian is also pronounced - soft j. In the word resume, before the final spelling "e", a consonant sound is pronounced, intermediate between hard and soft. More recently, a similar sound was pronounced, for example, in the word "cafe"; now in this word, as in many others that came from French earlier (pince-nez, scarf, etc.), a hard consonant is pronounced. Thus, adaptation to the phonological system of the borrowing language takes place. The next stage of this process of mastering a foreign word is to replace hard consonants before the spelling "e" with soft ones. With a hard consonant, for example, the words decollete, phoneme, timbre, tempo, etc. are pronounced; with soft - more "mastered" Russian words theme, decree, flight, theater, telephone, safe, etc. Many words allow fluctuations in pronunciation (i.e. are "halfway"): computer, dean, mayonnaise, tent, etc.

In addition to phonetic, the borrowed word also undergoes grammatical (morphological) adaptation. The nature of this adaptation depends on how the external appearance of the borrowed word corresponds to the morphological models of the borrowing language. Words such as sport or station easily entered the Russian language, immediately falling into the morphological class of words male 2nd declension (which includes the words table, house, etc.). But, for example, the word “shampoo”, having entered the Russian language, did not immediately acquire a stable gender category, having as a model both masculine words like horse or fire, and feminine words like “rubbish” or “wormwood”; accordingly, the instrumental form was both “shampoo” and “shampoo” (subsequently, the masculine gender was assigned to this word). It is precisely because of the existence of a powerful mechanism of assimilation to existing models that such resistance from the Russian language meets the notorious masculine gender of the word coffee prescribed by the norm, which is automatically likened to words of the middle gender - such as “field” or “woe”.

Of the stream of foreign words that floods the language in eras of social upheaval and scientific and technological revolutions, only a certain part is retained. The process of adaptation of foreign words, controlled, like all linguistic processes, primarily by intralinguistic factors, can be regulated to some extent by extralinguistic forces - at least, the possibility of human and society intervention in this process is greater than in the case when speech is about phonetic and especially grammatical changes. There are always conservative forces in the language community that prevent the penetration of foreign words that "clog" it into the language - as well as all innovations in general (changes in pronunciation, including stress, shifts in meaning, penetration of jargon, professionalism, etc. into the literary language). ). The defense of a language from foreign words usually also has a pronounced ideological connotation. However, regardless of the ideological aspirations that gave rise to them, such conservative forces objectively perform a very important social function of maintaining the natural balance between the old and the new, which is necessary for the normal functioning of the language. For example, the authority of A.I. Solzhenitsyn, who is an opponent of the use of foreign words and proposes to replace them with words of Russian origin, may turn out to be great enough to have some influence on the fate of certain foreign words. Sometimes the language community even takes administrative measures. Thus, in France, in order to combat, first of all, anglicisms, a list of approximately 3,000 words was recently introduced, limiting the possibility of using foreign words in texts created in French, intended for mass media(television, advertising, etc.).

Chapter III. Frenchborrowed words in the vocabulary of the Russian language.

There is not a single language on our planet that does not have borrowings. The share of borrowed vocabulary can range from 10% to 80-90%.

In different historical periods (common Slavic, East Slavic, Russian proper), words from other languages ​​penetrated into the original Russian language. The main reason was that the Russian people constantly entered into cultural, economic, political ties with other peoples.

A significant part of borrowings in the Russian language are gallicisms.

Gallicisms (from lat. gallicus - Gallic) - words and expressions borrowed from French or formed according to the model of French words and expressions.

In the 18th century, borrowings from the French language began to settle densely in Russian speech. In order to promote the development of literature and the literary language, as well as to direct development in the direction necessary for the government, a special higher scientific institution is being created - the Russian Academy (in imitation of the French Academy in Paris). French - the language of the great enlighteners: Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau - at that time was the most lexically rich and stylistically developed language in Europe.

Gallicisms reflected the characteristic features of the French language: pronons (prononcer), grass (grasseyer).

An interesting feature is the following assimilation of Gallicisms:

He was not comme il faut (comme il faut).

Let me engage you (engager) to dance.

Courtesy (courtois) behavior must not be violated.

In the 18th - early 19th centuries, words truly saturated with the French spirit entered the Russian vocabulary: charm (charme), adultery (aduletère), visitor (visiteur), tutor (gouverneur), cavalier (cavalier), cocotte (cocotte), compliment (compliment ), curtsy (révérence), favorite (favorite).

Gallicisms penetrate into all spheres of life and activity of people. Vocabulary related to clothing has been replenished with especially French borrowings: accessory (accessoire), bijouterie (bijouterie), veil (voile), jabot (jabot), manto (manteau), negligee (peignoir) and food: meringue (baiser), puree (purée ), mayonnaise (mayonnaise). An interesting detail is French origin have words such as gourmand (gourmand) and delicacy (délicatesse). For example, this could be a gourmet menu:

Asparagus

Lobster with garnish (homard), (garnir)

Grilled meat under bechamel (griller), (bèchamel)

And for dessert - biscuit (biscuit) and jelly (gelèe), meringue (meringue) and souffle (soufflè), as well as liqueur (liqueur) and cruchon (cruchon).

I would like to pay special attention to gallicisms that are associated with art - theater, music, painting. For example, the following words are associated with music: accordion (accordéon), ensemble (ensemble), vocal (vocal), clarinet (clarinette), nocturne (nocturne), overture (ouverture). There are a lot of gallicisms associated with the theater: actor (acteur), intermission (entracte), applause (applaudissments), poster (affiche), vaudeville (vaudeville), make-up (grimer), debut (dèbut), pirouette (pirouette); as well as with painting: gallery (galerie), vernissa, w (vernissage), gouache (gouache), palette (palette), impressionism (impressionnisme).

In the 19th - early 20th centuries, more and more new Gallicisms appeared in the Russian language. Many of them were connected with public life, with the economy, with politics. Examples of such words: capitalism (capitalisme), bourgeoisie (bourgeoisie), budget (budget), press (presse), diplomat (diplomate), attaché (attachè), democrat (dèmocrate), shareholder (actionnaire), bureaucracy (bureaucratisme). These words are known to everyone and are often used in everyday life. Gallicisms are such words as indexation (indexation), alliance (alliance), assets (avoir), clique (cligue). Quite often, the following borrowings from French are found in speech: authoritarian (autorgtaire), shareholder (actionnaire), run (balloter), debate (dèbattre), importer (importeur), exaggerate (mousser).

There are times in the history of a society when a foreign culture is chosen as a role model. Its language becomes prestigious, and words are borrowed from it especially actively. The influence of the French language on Russian vocabulary was observed both in the 18th and 19th centuries. The attitude towards borrowed words as more “beautiful” and prestigious is typical of the late 20th and early 21st centuries. For example, the word boutique. In French, boutique simply means “small shop,” but in Russian soil, the word boutique has come to mean “expensive fashion store.” Interestingly, in the French language itself, it was replaced by the noun magasin (shop) from Arabic, which became especially widespread in the first half of the 19th century, when French trade was being restructured on new industrial grounds and the old shops (boutiques) now ceased to suit sellers who more spacious and capacious stores were needed. In Russian, this word "increased in rank" began to mean a fashion store, that is, a word that in the source language called an ordinary, ordinary object, in the borrowing language is attached to a more significant and prestigious object.

There are quite a lot of similar borrowings in modern Russian. Here are some of them: perfume (parfum), nouveau riche (nouveau riche), purse (porte-monnaie), wardrobe trunk (coffre), travel bag (nécessaire), voyage (voyage), concierge (concièrge), volunteer (volontaire), camouflage ( camouflage), grand iris (Grand Prix), carte blanche (carte blanche).

Interestingly, it is from the French language that the words characterizing elite: elite (élite), bohemia (bohème), beau monde (beaumonde).

As in XVIII-XIX centuries, today there is an interesting assimilation of gallicisms in Russian speech:

Rest in plein air

In the evening they made a promenade (promenade)

Have you decided to go to a rendezvous? (rendez-vous)

At the resort we jouir

Speaking of borrowings from the French language, one cannot fail to mention the "winged" words and phraseological units. They can be conditionally divided into three groups: historical, literary and secular. The historical group includes "winged" words once uttered by a famous political or historical figure: a king, commander, politician and others. Historical and political events left their mark on the French vocabulary. Some of them switched to Russian:

Accuracy (accuracy) is the courtesy of kings. (L "exactitude est la politesse des rois) This expression is attributed to the French king Louis XVIII.

All is lost except honor. The expression belongs to the French king Francis I. Defeated by the troops of Charles V and captured at Pavia, he

sent a letter to his mother containing only this phrase.

The expression "state within a state" arose in the era religious wars in France.

"Golden youth". So they call the rich bourgeois-noble youth, winding money, burning through life. Initially, it was the nickname of the Parisian counter-revolutionary youth, grouped after IX Thermidor.

"Art for Art's sake". The slogan proclaimed in France by the supporters of the so-called "pure", "free" art. The idea of ​​this direction was first expressed by the French idealist philosopher Victor Cousin.

"Old Guard". This expression goes back to the name of the elite units of Napoleon's troops. The French Guard was in 1807 divided into "old" and "young"; The "old guard", which included the best soldiers and officers, hardened in battles, who played a large role in the Napoleonic wars, was surrounded by an aura of "invincibility".

The literary group includes phraseological units that were once mentioned in a particular work of art:

"Balzac Age". The expression arose after the release of Honore Balzac's novel The Thirty-Year-Old Woman.

"Pulling chestnuts out of the fire." This expression came into Russian speech from the fable of the French fabulist Jean La Fontaine "The Monkey and the Cat".

The last group - secular, includes expressions that were used by the people or were said by a person who was close to ordinary people:

He is at ease (N "est pas dans son assiette). If we translate this phraseological unit literally, then it should sound something like this: "to be in an unenviable position." What does the plate have to do with it? The French word assiette is translated as "position" and how "plate".

I would like to note one curious detail - the similarity and difference between the idioms of the Russian and French languages. These idioms have the same meaning, for example:

A ram on five legs. Un mouton a cinq pattes.

White crow. Corneille Blanche.

To be made of gold. Etre cousu d "or.

Get out of bed on the wrong side. Se lever du pied gauche.

Chickens do not peck money. Les poules ne picorent pas l "argent.

Chapter IV. French language in the works of A. S. Pushkin.

Studying in the ninth grade the novel by A.S. Pushkin "Eugene Onegin", we noticed that the poet uses a lot of words and expressions from the French language. This interested and aroused the desire to study the reasons and motives for the author's use of foreign words in his work. We started with the history of that time and the influence of Europe on Russia.

The influence of the French language on Pushkin's language is considered primarily as the influence of French vocabulary and phraseology. Several chapters of V.V. Vinogradov's book "The Language of Pushkin" are devoted to this, where the poet's attitude to Europeanism, the role of French in the formation of his language are clarified, in connection with which the researcher characterizes Pushkin's position in relation to the Karamzin reform and such a phenomenon as "secular language ladies".

When studying the evolution of Pushkin's views on the phraseological means of the poetic language of the 17th - early 19th centuries. Much attention is paid to the influence of traditional French poetic phraseology on the language of Pushkin's poetry. Thus, the problems put forward by Academician Vinogradov are relevant today.

At the beginning of the XIX century. the question of borrowing - not borrowing foreign language elements, using - not using them was a topical, topical issue that needed to be addressed daily - in private and official correspondence, oral communication, in all areas of verbal creativity. Therefore, the study of foreign inclusions by its various aspects is connected with the study of both the language and Pushkin's style.

Pushkin's poetic gift was determined very early.

From memoirs about Pushkin's poetic exercises before his lyceum years, we learn that Alexander Sergeevich was brought up in a literary environment. The poet's sister, Olga Sergeevna, says: "In such a circle, Alexander Sergeevich's childhood impressions developed, and it is not surprising that a 9-year-old boy wanted to try himself in the art of imitation and become an author. His first attempts were, of course, in French, although they also taught him Russian literacy ."

Confirmation is also found in the memoirs of the poet’s brother Lev Sergeevich Pushkin, written around the same time: “In general, his upbringing did not contain much Russian: he heard only French; his tutor was a Frenchman, however, a man not stupid and educated; his father’s library consisted from some French writings. The child spent sleepless nights and secretly devoured books one after another in his father's study. Pushkin was gifted with an extraordinary memory and at the age of eleven he already knew all French literature by heart. "

The first teacher of Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin was the French emigrant Count Montfort, an educated man, musician and painter; then Ruslo, who wrote well French poetry, then Shendel and others: they, as was customary then, were given complete freedom over the children. Of course, the children spoke and studied only in French.

Education by French tutors, constant mainly in French, as well as reading Western literature, played a role in the fact that Pushkin is almost the only case in the history of literature when the greatest poet of his country,

French literature was only a part of European literature and could not replace the whole, and he aspired to this whole, it alone could satisfy him.

The question naturally arises as to how French education affected the poetic work of young Pushkin, especially since the cultural hegemony of France throughout Europe, established in the 18th century, was still strong in the years of Pushkin's youth. The dominance of classicism coincided with the time of the special authority of French literature of two centuries, since it was in the works of French writers that they saw the highest examples of classical literature.

Upon entering the Lyceum, Pushkin impressed even his comrades, who, like him, grew up in a French secular environment, with a wide knowledge of French literature and a perfect knowledge of the French language. It is not for nothing that Pushkin appears in the "national songs" under the name "Frenchman".

During his apprenticeship, French literature could not but be reflected in Pushkin's early work.

It is well known that Pushkin considered it natural and logical to use foreign words in the event that these words denoted objects or abstract concepts for which there were no equivalents in the Russian language. In a playful form, his position is expressed on the pages of "Eugene Onegin":

But pantaloons, tailcoat, vest,

All these words are not in Russian,

And I see, I blame you,

What is it my poor syllable

I could dazzle much less

In foreign words,

Even though I looked in the old days

In the Academic Dictionary.

It is natural that in Pushkin's language there are no bookish or poetic French phraseological units. Book phraseological units are expressions that are characteristic of literary writing. Meanwhile, in his works, prose fiction, journalistic and epistolary Pushkin, in his own words, develops designations "for the most ordinary concepts." Poetic French phraseology also could not find its place in Pushkin's work on prose literary language, from which he demanded laconism, simplicity and clarity.

The nominative functions of a foreign word are diverse. Pushkin introduces French words into the Russian context for different purposes. Let us dwell in more detail on specific cases of the use of French inclusions.

1. Pushkin introduces a French word or expression that has no equivalent in Russian to denote a phenomenon or object.

Affectation "No one cried, tears would be - une Affectation.

Pushkin uses the French word in its second meaning, recorded in the dictionary: "Imitation? faux-semblant. Affectation de douleur? affectation de vertu".

Forgery, trick, trick. Image of grief, virtue

Such a laconic designation of pretense, cunning in behavior and manifestation of feelings was absent in the Russian language. Pushkin uses a widely used word to clarify his thought.

Gracieuse "Ah! if I could lure you to Mikhailovskoye! ... You will see that if you compare Onegin with Don Juan, then only in one respect: who is nicer and prettier / Gracieuse /, Tatyana or Yulia?" .

2. The introduction of a new meaning that is missing from the Russian word: mystère - the first meaning coincides with the Russian word "sacrament", but in the context it means the phenomenon of European history - medieval religious play. The Russian word "sacrament" does not have a similar meaning.

3. Rethinking the Russian word, using it in a new meaning, close to the French synonym; with the help of the word individualité, a new concept for the Russian language is introduced. The Russian equivalent is created by rethinking the word "originality".

Reflecting on the fate of the word "coquette", which has long been learned by the Russian language, comparing it with the French word prude, Pushkin writes the word "coquette" in French: "Coquette, prude. The word coquette has become Russified, but prude has not been translated and has not yet come into use" .

Interestingly, despite the statement of the fact that the word prude did not enter the Russian language, Pushkin himself forms from this adjectival verb "prudnichat" and the noun "prude", the meaning of which is defined as

Be overly strict in matters of decency, decency. "The government is not a lady, not a Princesse Moustache: it does not behoove to show off."

The attitude to French culture and language reveals a lot in the guise of one of the central heroines of Pushkin's work, Tatyana Larina. Let us consider in more detail the role of the French language and, more specifically, the role of French elements in creating the psychological and speech characteristics of the heroine of Pushkin's programmatic work.

Tatyana Larina does not utter a single French phrase in the text of the novel. But the element of the French language permeates her life. Moreover, it exists for Tatyana in a dual guise. On the one hand, this the best samples European literature, serving her as a textbook of life:

She liked novels early,

They replaced everything for her;

She fell in love with deceptions

Both Richardson and Rousseau.

(VI.44).

Then Onegin's library will join here, complicating her worldview, expanding its boundaries, and - in a certain sense - completing her education. On the other hand, is it everyday colloquial speech, samples of which we meet on the pages of the album of a provincial young lady?

On the first page you will find:

Qu "ecrivez - vous sur ces tablettes?

and signature: t.a.v. Annette.

This inclusion does not have a specific author. It is given as a common cliche, as a socio-historical characteristic of the environment in which the heroine grew up. Triquet's couplet adjoins a similar example of county creativity. Its text is not given, but correlates with the melody and words of the children's song:

Triquet brought a couplet to Tatiana

Reveillez - vous, belle endormie.

(VI, 109)

This quote is familiar to the Pushkin reader from childhood. The characterization of Triquet's work, "boldly" substituting the ingenuous belle Tatiana instead of the conventionally literary belle Nina, demonstrates the widespread and vulgarization of the conventional poetic French phraseology.

The description of the turning points in Tatyana's life - the duel and death of Lensky, the departure of Yevgeny, the acquaintance with the Onegin library and the departure of the Larins to Moscow - is devoid of foreign language elements.

Russian educated society in the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. was bilingual. The development of interlingual relations in that era went in different ways. In extralinguistic terms, it manifested itself in the intensification of the training of noble youth in foreign languages, ancient and living, the development of translated literature, the spread printed matter in many foreign languages. One of the intra-linguistic results of these contacts has been an increase in borrowings from different languages.2

French with early XVIII in. belonged to the most common, and by the end of the century, successfully competed with German, he came out on top in terms of prevalence in Russian society, influence on the formation of the Russian literary language. Considering the consequences of the Europeanization of Russian life in the XVIII century.

V.V. Vinogradov distinguishes two phenomena: 1. the widespread use of the French language in society; 2. formation of colloquial and everyday and literary styles of the Russian language with a bright imprint of the French language culture. The objective reason for such a linguistic situation, according to Vinogradov, is the need to adapt Russian literary speech to the expression of Western European concepts.

Russia entered the European political arena. This led to the rapid development of science and culture. “It is not so much about private borrowing of words and concepts,” wrote V.V. Vinogradov, assessing the state of the Russian literary language in the second half of the 17th century, “but about the general convergence of the semantic system of the Russian literary language with the semantic structure of Western European languages”4.

In mixing Russian with French, the researcher distinguishes the following phenomena:

1. When assimilating Western European concepts, when translating them into Russian, the semantic adaptation of Russian words to the corresponding French took place. This led to the merging of the meanings of the Russian word with the sphere of French meanings.

2. Correspondences and similarities to foreign words were compiled by tracing "Europeanism". Russian morphemes were a literal translation of the morphological elements of a foreign word. There was, as it were, an exact survey of morpheme after morpheme.

3. Together with lexical tracing papers, phraseological tracing papers arose.

The processes that took place in the 17th century were completed in the first quarter XIX century: "French becomes the official language of the court and aristocratic circles, the language of secular noble salons. The struggle for the national foundations of the Russian literary language inevitably put forward the task of creating "secular" styles of the Russian literary language."

Conclusion

Analyzing the state of the Russian literary language in the Pushkin era, most researchers inevitably touch upon the question of the situation in the literary language of the first half of the 19th century. foreign elements and attitude towards them. And here the French elements are in first place in terms of frequency of use.

So, L.A. Bulakhovsky, in his fundamental work on the literary language of this period, notes the important role of the French language in an educated Russian society: the opportunity to get acquainted with foreign literature, etiquette communication in a secular society, etc.

L.A. Bulakhovsky emphasizes the use of such "ready-made material" as easy-to-communicate formulas and phrases that the French language is rich in, especially in the epistolary genre: mother tongue into French, to use some concepts only in its shell are reflected especially in the epistolary and memoir syllable of this time, in the constant interspersing into the Russian text of individual French words and expressions. "7 The researcher draws a clear boundary between such "insertions", on the one hand, and dictionary borrowings from the French language of calques, on the other. The habit of using individual words and expressions in French is noted by V. V. Vinogradov.

Of course, it is impossible to cover all the richness of borrowings from French in Russian vocabulary in such a small work. I would like to emphasize that borrowings enrich the Russian language, but we must strive to use them wisely.

No culture, no language develops in isolation, and any national culture and language is the fruit of both internal development and complex interaction with the cultures of other peoples, and the interaction between cultures, economic, political and everyday contacts are the common basis for all borrowing processes. . Until recently, the Russian language played the role of an intermediary and distributor of Sovietisms and international words and contributed to the enrichment of the vocabulary of the language of the peoples of many countries of the world. But at the same time, in many languages ​​​​of the world (and, in particular, in French), a lot of words appeared, denoting the features of Russian culture, life, and history.

In different periods of the development of the Russian literary language, the assessment

the penetration of foreign language elements into it was ambiguous. In addition, with

activation of the process of lexical borrowing is usually enhanced and

opposition to him. So Peter I demanded that his contemporaries write

"as intelligibly as possible", without abusing non-Russian words.

M. V. Lomonosov in his "theory of three calms", highlighting the words in the Russian vocabulary various groups, left no room for borrowings from non-Slavic languages.

To what extent this will change the face of the Russian language, enrich it or

"spoiled", time will tell. It will determine the fate of one or another

borrowings that will eventually be approved or rejected

linguistic taste of the era. The Russian language is not the first time faced with

the need to perceive useful information in the form of foreign words from international experience.

List of used literature

1. Vinogradov V.V. "Language of Pushkin" M. 1979
2. Gak K.A. Ganshina K.A. New French-Russian Dictionary. M. "Russian language" 1997
3. Ilyina O.V. "Semantic assimilation of foreign language lexical innovations by the Russian language". Novosibirsk, 1998
4. Linnik T.G. "Problems of language borrowing". Kyiv, 1989
5. Lotman Yu.M. "A.S. Pushkin's novel "Eugene Onegin" M. 1983.
6. Pushkin A.S. Essay in three volumes. Volume II "Eugene Onegin" M. Fiction, 1986
7. Pushkin A.S. Essay in three volumes. Volume I. M. Fiction, 1985.
8. Raevskaya O.V. New French-Russian and Russian-French Dictionary. M. "Russian language" 1997

Have you just started learning French? I assure you, you know much more words than you have already managed to learn in a couple of lessons from the textbook. How so? Why?

Because in Russian there are French words all the time.

When I compiled this list, I was not interested in words that name French realities, such as “baguette”, “champagne”, “petanque”, “pastis” and so on. I was interested in those words that have become so firmly established in our language that they have even ceased to seem like borrowings. For example, makeup, cream, mode. But there are other words on this list that are clearly foreign in appearance. At some point, I suddenly clearly saw French roots in them, and this surprised me so much that I thought maybe others would be interested. This, for example, entrecote, couturier, vernissage.

Where the meaning of the French word coincides with the Russian, I will not write a translation. Otherwise, I will indicate in brackets what the given word means in French.

Et voilà, 100 French words in Russian, in the order they came to my mind:

1. Crew- fr. équipage is the crew of the ship. There is also the verb équiper - to provide with the necessary. Hence - to equip, equipment.
2. outrageous- in French there is no word épatage, but there is a verb épater - to surprise, to amaze.
3. Makeup- comes from the verb maquiller - to apply makeup; change the appearance of someone; also fake numbers
4. Cream– une crème (the first meaning is “cream”)
5. Pomade- une pommade (Interestingly, “lipstick” in French is called le rouge à levres (lit. red for lips), and une pommade is an ointment.
6. papilotka– une papillote
7. Kare- le carré (from the adjective carré - square)
8. Shower– une douche
9. Trumeau- le trumeau - pier
10. Sideboard- une servante - servant
11. planter- le cache-pot - letters. hide-pot
12. Shade- un abat-jour - letters. dims-light
13. Deckchair- une chaise longue - a long chair
14. Stool– un tabouret
15. chaise longue- une causette - chatter
16. pince-nez- le pince-nez, from pincer - to pinch and le nez - nose
17. Floor– unétage
18. Mezzanine- un entresol - an apartment between the rez-de-chaussée (the first floor on which no one lives in France) and the actual le premier étage.
19. Whatnot– une etagere
20. Voyage- un voyage (travel), voyager - to travel
21. Luggage– les bagsages (usually plural)
22. Sacvoyage– from sas de voyage (lit. travel bag)
23. Travel bag– le nécessaire (lit. necessary)
24. Mode– le regime
25. Duel– le duel
26. Fiction– les belles lettes (as fiction is called in French)
27. Grimace– un grimace
28. Vernissage– un vernissage (unofficial opening of the artist's exhibition on the eve of the official opening)
29. Inauguration– inauguration (opening, for example, of an exhibition)
30. Turn- un virage (lit. turn)
31. Collage- un collage (derived from the word coller - to glue; the collage technique was invented by Picasso)
32. Decoupage- le découpage - from découper - cut out
33. Impressionism- l'impressionisme (from une impression - impression)
34. Dude- un pigeon (1. pigeon, 2. dude)
35. Couturier- un couturier (tailor), haute couture– la couture (sewing)
36. Defile- le défilé - the first meaning of "march, parade" (from the verb défiler - to march)
37. Parade– une parade
38. Coat– un paletot
39. Studio– un atelier
40. Chiffon- le chiffon - rag, flap, towel
41. Muffler- le cache-nez - lit. stick-nose
42. Chauffeur comes from the French chauffeur - letters. stoker, stoker. Because the first vehicles were steam or coal fired. The suffix -eur is a suffix indicating the performer of a certain action. So, the one who chauffe (chauffer - heat, glow) - chauffeur.
43. Kuaffer- from coiffeur - coiffer - to comb.
44. Entrepreneur- entrepreneur (someone who undertakes, organizes something), from entreprendre. From the same word and entreprise (enterprise) - enterprise.
45. Another "theatrical" word - intermission- comes from entractre.
46. Role- emploi - work, employment, position
47. Conductor- le dirigeur (from diriger - to manage)
48. Ballet– le ballet
49. Proscenium– avant-scene
50. Understudy– le doubleur
51. Aport! - apporte - letters. bring. I wonder what the French themselves say va churcher(go look)
52. face! - face - letters. face. French dogs hear at a moment like this attaque! (attack!)
53. Redoubt– la redoute
54. Hussar– un houssard
55. Duel- le duel - duel, fight
56. Musket, musketeer– un mousquet, un mousqueutaire
57. Vanguard- l'avant-garde - forward detachment
58. Motto– la devise
59. Revenge(take revenge - prendre sa revanche)
60. Stagecoach– une diligence
61. Brothel– un bordel
62. landing stage- from debarquer - to land on the shore
63. buffet- la fourchette - fork
64. Menu- menu - small (since we are talking about a limited number of dishes)
65. Entrecote- une entrecôte - a piece of beef cut between the ribs and the backbone
66. Cutlet– une côtelette – lamb rib
67. Omelette– une omelette
68. Aperitif– l'apéritif
69. Digestif- le digestif (from digerer - digest)
70. Souffle- un souffle - exhale
71. Prompter- un souffleur - from souffler - breathe, exhale, prompt
72. Eclair- un eclair - lightning
73. Caramel– le caramel
74. Chance- une chance - good luck
75. rendezvous- un rendez-vous - meeting, comes from the verb se rendre - to come somewhere
76. Dispatch- une dépêche, de dépêcher - hurry, se dépêcher - hurry
77. Courier- via fr. un courrier from ital. "messenger"
78. Pavilion– un pavilion
79. enfilade– une enfilade
80. firecrackers– des petards
81. Solitaire– la patience – the first meaning is “patience”
82. Piqué– piquer
83. Aerobatics- le pilotage - aircraft control
84. ace- un as - ace, the first in his business
85. Obstetrician- un accoucheur (accoucher - to give birth)
86. Promenade- une promenade - a walk (from se promener - to walk, walk)
87. Summary- un resumé - summary
88. Cour d'honneur- la cour d'honneur - court of honor
89. Melange- un mélange - mixture, hodgepodge
90. Bush(cafe name) - une bouchée - a piece that can be bitten off at one time. From la bouche - mouth.
91. Letual(cosmetics stores) - l'étoile - star
92. There is a French expression - amis comme cochons - literally friends are like pigs. And they say this about very close relationships between friends. But who would have thought that a whole expression could be borrowed into Russian and become ... " amicochism“!
93. alley– une allee
94. Boulevard– un boulevard
95. Entourage- entourage - environment
96. Director- le directeur
97. Illusion– une illusion
98. Imitation– une imitation
99. Calorie– une calorie
100. Shop– un store

Taken vocabulary in the Russian language

Words of non-original origin are called taken. Borrowings arise both as a result of specific territorial contacts and as a result of the exchange of cultural information, when, together with new objects, concepts, native speakers receive words that designate them. Borrowings are used not only to name new realities, but also to rename old ones.

The following borrowings in the Russian language are distinguished:

Note. This answer is dedicated to borrowings from non-Slavic languages. There is detailed information about borrowings from Slavic languages ​​in the answer "What is the composition of the vocabulary of the Russian language?".

The words taken can really be distinguished from the eternally Russian words by a number of features.

A. Phonetic signs:

1. The presence of the original letter "a": lampshade, april, red, army, pharmacy. Russian words with the original "a", in that case, do not count the words formed on the basis of borrowings, are rare. In the main, these are interjections, onomatopoeia and words formed on their basis: aha, ah, ah, ah, gasp, ay, go around etc.

2. The presence of the letter "e" in the root of the word: mayor, aloe, emotions, chaise. In the eternal Russian words, the letter "e" is found in the words of interjection and pronominal nature - hey, eh, this one, because, also in words formed in Russian on the basis of borrowings ( some, ensky, socialist-revolutionary).

3. The presence of the letter "f" in the word: decanter, spacesuit, February. The exception is interjections, onomatopoeia - phew, phew, phew, also the word owl.

4. The presence of combinations of 2 or more vowels in the roots of words: diet, duel, halo, poem, guard.

5. The presence of combinations of consonants "kd", "kz", "gb", "kg" in the roots of words: joke, station, barrier, warehouse.

6. The presence of combinations "ge", "ke", "heh" in the root: legend, sneakers, trachea. In Russian words, such combinations usually occur at the junction of the base and the ending: on the way, to the daughter-in-law, in the sand.

7. Having a combination "byu", "vu", "kyu", "mu" in word roots: bureau, engraving, ditch, communiqué.

8. The presence of double consonants in the roots of words: villa, progress, profession, session, bath. In eternally Russian words, double consonants are found only at the junction of morphemes.

9. Pronunciation of a solid consonant sound before the vowel [e] (letter "e"): model[de], test [te].

10. The original "e" distinguishes mainly Greekisms and Latinisms: era, epoch, ethics, examination, violence, effect, floor.

B. Morphological features:

1. Inflexibility of nouns: coffee, jury, depot, hummingbird, kangaroo.

2. Morphological inexpressibility of the number and gender of nouns: coat, taxi.

B. Word-forming features:

1. Foreign prefixes: inter shaft, de induction, in dividualism, re gress, archi mandrite, counter admiral, anti christ.

2. Foreign suffixes: dean at, stud ent, technician intelligence, editor torus, literary ur ah, proletarians at, popul ism, social ist, controversy irate etc.

3. The presence of some class roots aqua-, marine-, geo-, grapho- etc.: aquarium, marine painter, surveyor.

Apart from "interethnic" signs, there are also signs that help to find from which particular language the word was taken.

1. TO Greek borrowings ( Greekisms) include, for example:

Features of borrowings of this group:

2. Borrowing from Latin(Latinisms):

3. in the middle Turkic borrowings ( Turkisms) most of all words from the Mongolian language, which is explained by historical criteria (long-term Tatar-Mongolian yoke):

A sign of words of Turkic origin is the harmony of vowels ( synharmonism) - the regular use in one word of vowels of only the 1st row: back [a], [y] or frontal [e], [i]: chieftain, caravan, pencil, shoe, lasso, chest, sundress, drum, heel, sash, ulus, mosque, beads.

4. Scandinavian borrowings (Swedish, Norwegian) in the Russian language are comparatively slightly. Words of trade vocabulary, maritime definitions, household words penetrated, also:

5. TO Germanic borrowings ( Germanisms) relate:

Features of Germanisms:

6. Dutch are some nautical definitions taken in the era of Peter I: boat, shipyard, pennant, harbour, drift, pilot, sailor, raid, flag, fleet,cruiser and etc.

7. From British language ( anglicisms) included, for example:

technical ( computer, screen, file, byte),
sports ( bobsleigh, overtime, fighter),
monetary and commercial barter, broker, dealer, distributor, leasing),
art ( remake, talk show, underground, thriller),

Phonetic features of anglicisms:

8. TO French borrowings ( Gallicisms) relate:

Phonetic features of gallicisms:

9. From Italian borrowings stand out:

10. A small number of words came from Spanish language (vocabulary related to art): serenade, castanets, guitar, mantilla, caravel, caramel, cigar, tomato and etc.

11. Few borrowings are from Finnish language: walrus, dumplings, snowstorm; from Hungarian: bekesha, farm and other languages.

Information about the origin of words can be obtained in etymological dictionaries and in dictionaries of foreign words.

Additionally:

Sources:

Additional to the site:

Since the time of Peter I, who opened a window to Europe, a fashion for everything French has arisen in the Russian nobility. Every self-respecting person was obliged to speak it fluently. Russian and French interspersed in speech, complementing and replacing each other. Sympathy towards France was shown by many generations of monarchs. The French language was loved by famous poets. So, French words gradually penetrated into the Russian language, and linguists claim that many borrowings of Greek and Latin etymology also got into our speech through French.

The close relationship between Russia and France also contributed to the establishment of trade ties. Objects were brought to us, which had no analogues in Russia. The same applies to many concepts characteristic of the French mentality. Naturally, without having the appropriate words in, the people adopted words from French to denote things unknown until then. So, for example, in the middle of the 19th century, blinds were brought to us from France, which were used there by analogy with Russian shutters in order to hide houses from prying eyes. From French, jalousie is translated as “jealousy”, because the owner of the house hides personal happiness behind them.
Many borrowings arose during the Patriotic War of 1812. Wars have always contributed to the interweaving of world cultures, leaving their mark on the languages ​​of the opposing countries. After the war, it became fashionable to employ Frenchmen as tutors. It was believed that trained noble children acquire sophistication and proper manners.

French words in Russian

Words such as defile or openwork give away their origin, but many French words have become so used to their native speech that they are considered native Russian. For example, the word "tomato" comes from the French pomme d'or and translates as "golden". Although most European countries have long adopted the Italian version of "tomatoes", the Russian ear is still familiar with the French name. Many words have already gone out of use in French and are archaic, for example, “coat”, “hair curlers”, etc., but in Russia they are widely used.

At all, French loanwords can be divided into several groups. The first of these are words that were borrowed, retaining their original meaning, for example: “lampshade”, “subscription”, “keychain”, “gauze” (in honor of the name of the French village of Marly-le-Roi), “furniture”, “ blackmail".

The second group is represented by words borrowed from the French language, but received a meaning directly opposite to the original one. For example, the word "hat" comes from the French chapeau, "cap". In France, this word never meant a headdress. The word "scam" in Russian has a negative meaning, synonymous with the word "deceit", while in France this word means "useful business".

The third group includes words whose sound was borrowed from the French language, but in Russian they were endowed with their own meaning, which has nothing common word into Russian. Often such words refer to everyday or slang speech. For example, there is a version of the origin of the word "sharomyzhnik". According to her, soldiers from the defeated Napoleonic army walked through the Russian lands, dirty and hungry, and asked for food and shelter from the Russian peasants. Calling for help, they turned to the Russians cher ami, "dear friend." The peasants heard “cher ami” so often that they began to call the French soldiers “sharomyzhniks”. Gradually, the word acquired the meaning of "a swindler, a lover of profit."

An interesting story is connected with the origin of the word "shantrapa", which means "worthless, worthless, trashy person." Apparently the word comes from the French chantera pas - "cannot sing." Such a verdict was passed by serfs who were selected for rural theaters. Since the selection of actors was carried out by French teachers, the word "chantrap" was often pronounced in relation to serfs who were deaf. Apparently they, not knowing the meaning, mistook it for a curse.

Russian borrowings in French

According to linguists, at least 70 words borrowed from Russian are used in French. They are used in a variety of areas, including spoken language. The Petit Robert dictionary, which is considered more thorough than the Petit Larousse dictionary, has 104 of them. The words intelligentsia, spoutnik, nomenclature, stakhanovets, goulag, samizdat, p? shawl or headscarf), steppe, toundra have been successfully and for many years in the French language. Of course, vodka, blinis, moujik, datcha, isba, which also came from Russia, are in use. Samovar and matrechka are familiar to all French. As well as belouga, balala?ka (as they call the orchestra of folk instruments) or bortch. Tsar and boyard are present not only in historical novels, but also in the language of the press. Kopeck (a penny, moreover, masculine) is actively used in colloquial expressions in the sense in which the word penny is used in Russia. Recently, the word malossol (lightly salted) has appeared. It is included in the Petit Larousse 2012 dictionary and can also be seen in French supermarkets on cucumber jars.

Linguists believe that even the words hourra and houligan (hooligan) came from Russian, but through English. The expression C’est la Berezina is widespread, which recalls the crossing of the Berezina, a river in Belarus, in the era of the Napoleonic wars, where the French suffered a crushing defeat. Now this expression denotes great difficulty, complexity, catastrophe, morally too.

The appearance of the first Russian words in French refers to the end of the 16th century. These were words reflecting phenomena associated exclusively with Russia, for example, chapka, samoede, kvas, moujik and others. In the 19th century, along with borrowings reflecting the revolutionary movement, for example, d?cembriste, pogrom, zemstvo, the borrowing of everyday words, for example, samovar, blinis, continued. After the October Revolution, words are borrowed that reflect the features of the organization of the political, administrative and public life Soviet Union: bolchevik, koulak, kolkhose. The launch of a satellite, space exploration give the French words such as spoutnik, as well as tracing combinations vaisseau cosmique, spoutnik habit?, cosmodrome, etc.

The penetration of Russian words into the French language, especially into the language of the press, has been activated since 1985 in connection with changes in the social and political life of the Soviet Union, with perestroika and glasnost. These words (p?restro?ka, glasnost) enter the French language, as well as nomenclature, apparatchik, etc. In the newspapers there are party names, both transcribed and tracing: Edinaia Rossia or Russie Unie, Parti lib?ral d?mocratique de Russie, LDPR

Borrowings are primarily necessary as a way of reflecting realities, to compensate for the gaps that appear when describing a foreign language reality. An example is the novel French testament Andrey Makin, in which he describes the life of his French grandmother in Russia and cannot do without borrowings such as t?l?gue, koulak, isba.

Russian borrowings: needed to describe:

1. features of Russian nature, that is, geographical realities are used (merzlota; ta?ga, steppe, tchernosem)
2. household items: food, drinks, household establishments (samovar, belouga, stolova?a, okrochka, kacha, pirojki, zakouski, koulibiac), clothes (chapka, varejki, touloupe,), that is, ethnographic realities are used;
3. arts and culture (icone, iconostase),
4. measures and money (poud, rouble, tchervonets, kopeck, verste)
5. features of the political and administrative structure, (kra?, oblast, soviet, sovkhose, douma, gosplan, goulag). Especially a lot of such borrowings in French appeared in Soviet times.

What are the methods of borrowing?

• transliteration (at the level of graphemes - volost),
• transcription (at the level of phonemes - soviet, koulak),
• tracing paper (conseil d'entreprise),
• semi-calques (d? cembriste)
• Descriptive translation, but this is no longer a borrowing (for example, a voucher -bon de voyage)

As with any borrowings, when borrowing from the Russian language, phonetic and spelling changes occur, which are explained by the discrepancy between the systems of phonemes and graphemes; morphological changes, for example, endings are added: unpronounceable - e (o)ukase, or -s for plural indicative, but this is optional. And of course, semantic changes, for example, polysemantic word most often borrowed with one of its meanings (for example, kalachnikov only to denote an automaton). The final stage of borrowing is fixing the word in the dictionary.

An approximate list of Russian words that can be found in French texts and spoken language.

Agit-prom, apparatchik, artel, balala?ka, babouchka, barzoi, belouga, bistro, blinis, bolchevik, bortch, boyard, chapka, combinat, cosaque, cosmos, datcha, douma, glasnost, gosplan, goulag, hooligan, hourra, icone, iconostase, intelligentsia, iourte, isba, kacha, knout, kolkhose, komsomol, kopeek, koulibiac, kvas, liman, mammouth, mazout, menchevik, merzlota, mir, moujik, nihiliste, oscetre, oukase, perestro?ka, perspective, pirojki, plenum, pogrom, pope, presidium, raspoutitsa, reflexe, rouble, sable, samizdat, samovar, samoede, sevruga, soviet, sovkhose, spoutnik, starets, steppe, sterlet, ta?ga, tatar, tchernosem, tchervonets, t? l?gue, touloupe, toundra, tro?ka, tsarevitch, verste, vodka, yourte, zakouski.

L.S. Rapoport, Associate Professor, Department of French, Linguistics Institute